Negotiations ch. 9

scarcity

suggests that when things are less available, they become more desirable. Some organizations deliberately keep their products in short supply to give the appearance that they are very widely sought. This is difficult to combat when used effectively.

delivery

How the message should be presented.

structure

How the topics and facts should be arranged and organized.

The central and peripheral route

Traditionally, it was thought that effective influence occurs when a person acts in accordance with the message. An alternative suggests two paths of persuasion:

ingratiation

involves enhancing the other's self-image or reputation through statements or actions, which in turn enhances the communicator's own image

peripheral route

is characterized by subtle cues and context, with less active thought and cognitive processing of the message. occurs automatically leading to attitude change without argument scrutiny. Because the information is not integrated into existing cognitive structures, persuasion occurring via this route is likely to last a shorter time (example: a listener who is convinced by the impressive credentials of the speaker rather than by the arguments the speaker is presenting.)

central route

occurs consciously and integrates the message into the person's cognitive structures.

message order

-Familiar topics should come early to achieve the primacy effect. -Uninteresting topics at the end to achieve recency effect.

Inoculate yourself against the other party's arguments

1) Prepare supporting arguments for your position only. 2) Develop arguments against your position only and counterarguments. Find ways to refute. them in the points you make. 3) Develop arguments both for and against your position. Then develop counterarguments to refute both (a combination approach)

source credibility

1) Qualifications and expertise. 2) Reputation for trustworthiness and integrity. 3) Self-presentation. 4) Status differences. 5) Intention to persuade. 6) Associates. 7) Persistence and tenacity.

source attractiveness

1) friendliness 2) ingratiation 3) likability 4) helping the other party 5) perceived similarity 6) emotion

resisting the other's influence

1) have a BATNA and know how to use it 2) make a public commitment 3) inoculate yourself against the other party's arguments

gender differences

Compared with men, women in the study were less receptive to persuasive messages sent by email unless there was a prior relationship with the sender. Women also reported less liking for the communicator when email was the vehicle for the influence attempt.

friendliness

A critically important attribute that a negotiator can have is the ability to be friendly and outgoing and to establish personal relationships with others—particularly the other parties in the negotiation. Warmth, empathy, and personal interest in others all help to soften the harder edges of other influence tactics. Rather than immediately getting down to business, successful negotiators use friendliness to make the other party feel comfortable and at ease, to get to know the other negotiator and show an interest in their situation, and to discover things that both parties may have in common.

have a BATNA and know how to use it

A good BATNA is a source of leverage. To be used effectively, the other party must be aware of it.

Suggest an agreement in principle.

Although desirable when other options are blocked, it still takes work to turn such an agreement into one with details and action proposals. (ex: when there is bitter conflict between two parties who cannot seem to agree on anything, obtaining agreement on a general principle, such as a cease-fire, may be the first "yes" statement to which both parties can subscribe.)

shaping perceptions of interest

An influencer can use framing techniques and persuasive strategies to influence others' beliefs about what they want. Successful persuasion can change a person's incentives in the negotiation, therefore facilitating desired outcomes. Compensation plans, mission statements, strategic plans, annual budgets, and the like are powerful media for influencing incentives in an organization.

Violate the receiver's expectations

Arguments countering self-interest are persuasive, used moderately. (ex: Stark (who usually has an aggressive manner of speech and radical proposals) is conservatively dressed and greets them in a quiet, relaxed manner. In a conversational tone, he proceeds to describe some modest proposals for social change, along with some sensible ways of financing them. His audience is at first surprised, then impressed, and finally won over.) While the occasional expectation violation may get one's attention, communication behavior that frequently violates expectations may tend to erode trust rather than increase the likelihood that a person will be persuaded by the communicator. Accordingly, communication strategies that violate expectations should be used as a means of influence strategically and sparingly.

reciprocity, commitment, social proof, scarcity, reward and punishment

Aspects of context that foster peripheral influence

persuading at a distance

Because organizations are large and it is impossible to persuade one-on-one with all members, it is important to be able to persuade from a distance. Establishing reliable channels of communication, communicating important themes and messages through speeches and memos, and learning how to appropriately and creatively communicate an idea are important for mass persuasion in an organization.

Message components

Big ideas or large propositions are hard to grasp and accept, especially when they are significantly different from your own. Negotiators can help the other party understand and accept their arguments by breaking them into smaller, more understandable pieces—a process known as "fractionating"

format

Certain appeal's effectiveness may depend on the channel or format. For example, written rules carry more weight than verbal ones.

persistence and tenacity

Children are often considered great negotiators because they are so wonderfully persistent in pursuing what they want. displaying creativity in finding novel approaches to pursuing the goal. Persistent influencers who are effective aren't merely repetitive; they are also flexible, redefining strategy and approach as times and conditions change. Persistence can help enhance a source's credibility to the extent that the target of the message isn't annoyed by that persistence, but rather comes to see it as a sign that the communicator is dedicated and tenacious.

true

Effective influence is not just a way to claim more value. It can persuade the other to see joint benefit.

Frame the message so the other party will say yes.

Find something the other party can agree with, putting them in the mindset of saying yes. The task is to find something that the other party can agree with that puts them in the mindset of saying yes. (ex: A real estate salesperson who gets potential buyers to agree that the house they are visiting is in a nice neighborhood or has a nice yard for their children has made the first step toward getting them to say yes to buying the house)

message

For a long time, this was the traditional way that psychologists analyzed influence and persuasion: Effective influence occurs when a person is exposed to, pays attention to, comprehends, retains, and acts in accordance with the content of a ______________.

implied threats

In a series of experiments, they found that threats elicit more concessions from one's opponent than anger. They also found that anger as a tactic is often construed by the target of the anger as conveying an implied threat, so the moral of the story seems to be that actual threats are more effective at extracting concessions than ________________.

perceived similarity

In a two-party exchange such as a negotiation, the more similarities the parties find, the more bonds they establish, the better both feel, and the more receptive they will be to each other's messages and efforts at persuasion A useful negotiating tactic, therefore, is to identify and discuss experiences, characteristics, and opinions you hold in common with the other party.

shaping perceptions of alternatives

Influencing another's perceptions of alternatives to an agreement is also a powerful form of persuasion. This may involve focusing the target's attention on alternatives that highlight the value of your position, rather than those that detract from it.

reputation for trustworthiness and integrity

Integrity is character—the personal values and ethics that ground your behavior in high moral principles. Integrity is the quality that assures people that you can be trusted, you will be honest, and you will do as you say. If people trust you with confidential information, you will not disclose that information to others. A reputation for being dishonest is very difficult to change or overcome, so it is not surprising that professional negotiators work very hard to protect their reputations.

gaining acceptance for tough decisions

It is important to lay a framework within the organization for the acceptance of difficult decisions and their outcomes. When members of an organization feel involved in the decision-making process and perceive that process as fair, they are more likely to accept tough decisions.

mapping the influence landscape

It is important to pinpoint who needs to be persuaded and what methods to employ to effectively influence the other party. Within an organization or a social network, it is important to attend not just to the target of influence but also to subgroups or coalitions that support the target. This also involves neutralizing opposition to your position.

foot in the door technique

Many consumer-product companies have people write testimonials about their products in order to enter a drawing for a prize. Why? Apparently, writing testimonials increases the commitment to buy the product. Research has shown that even signing a petition can increase your compliance with a request to do something more intrusive several days later

large organizations

Michael Watkins (2001) discussed how influence operates when it occurs in the specific context of ____________________.He offered five key goals for effective persuasion in these settings: 1) mapping the influence landscape 2) shaping perceptions of interests 3) shaping perceptions of alternatives 4) gaining acceptance for tough decisions 5) persuading at a distance

Explore the other's point of view.

Negotiators frequently give very little attention to the other party's opinions and point of view. This is unfortunate because it is very much to your advantage to understand what the other party really wants, how things look to them, and how they developed their position. -It is to your advantage—explore with well-crafted questions. -Be careful of questions that attack rather than explore.

reciprocity

Negotiators make concessions and expect concessions in return.

Understanding the other's perspective

Negotiators on the receiving end of influence-seeking gambits will be much better equipped to make sound decisions about whether or not to be persuaded if they have a thorough and nuanced understanding of where the other party is coming from. 3 ways for achieving this: 1) explore the other's point of view 2) selectively paraphrase 3) reinforce points you like in the other party's proposals

commitment

Once people have decided something, they can be remarkably persistent in their beliefs. This is usually incremental and difficult to combat. One way to increase commitment is to write things down.

self presentation

People appear more or less credible because of their presence—the way they present themselves to others. Someone who seems hesitant, confused, or uncertain when giving information is not as convincing as a person who appears calm, confident, and comfortable.

encourage active participation

People are more likely to change their attitudes and beliefs for the long term when they are actively involved in the process of learning new material Active approaches require receiver effort, leading to involvement, which leads to attitude change. Engaging the other party in dialogue may lead that person to perceive the situation as an interaction with an acquaintance, rather than a confrontation with a stranger

reinforce points you like in the other party's proposals

People are more likely to repeat behavior that is rewarded than behavior that is not rewarded -Acknowledge and support point through nonverbal signals, compliments, or encouragement.

Make the message normative.

People are motivated to stay consistent with their values or self-image. A standard is normative when it involves actions that people think they should do as a form of right or appropriate behavior. Normative standards become part of people's self-image, a concept in their mind of what they are really like. People will go to considerable lengths to act or say things consistent with their self-image. (ex: a person acting politely who, in fact, feels quite hostile, or people acting generously when they are actually financially strained and tempted by greed)

likability

People you like have more influence over you . If you like the communicator, you are more likely to be persuaded and less likely to contest a weak or counterattitudinal argument. However, research has shown that likability is less important than other credibility factors, such as expertise. women practice more "rapport talk" to build connections and men practice more "report talk" to preserve status differences

distractions

Persuasion grows more challenging when people on a receiving end start to defend themselves against being influenced as soon as they suspect that someone is trying to persuade them. As they listen, part of their attention might be devoted to what is being said, but a large portion is also devoted to developing and rehearsing counterarguments Persuasion efforts are more effective if they can reduce the other party's efforts to develop defensive counterarguments. -Using a distraction while delivering the message may lessen this.

targets of influence

Receivers are not passive recipients—there are two prominent aspects to their role and options. 1) targets should avoid becoming defensive and direct their energy to understanding the goals behind the influence attempts. 2) there are ways to resist attempts at influence.

Repetition

Repetition encourages central-route processing, increasing the likelihood that the influence target will scrutinize (look closely at) the message, and thus enhances the likelihood that the message will be understood. Only repeat a point a few times, avoid being counterproductive and annoying.

Use threats; incite fears

Threats emphasize points and are not used as often as you expect. Because 1) the other person's reaction to a threat is hard to predict 2) it is hard to know how menacing the threat appears to the other party. It tends to appear more powerful to the one making them. 3) a threatened party has the option to "call the bluff" and force the negotiator to carry it out. How a threat is constructed and delivered determines effectiveness.

Conclusions

Sometimes writers or speakers will make an argument and then state the conclusion; other times, they will let listeners draw their own conclusions. Letting others draw their own conclusion (as long as it is the conclusion one wants drawn) can lead to a very effective presentation. In contrast, for people whose ideas are already well formulated and strongly held, leaving the conclusion unstated risks leaving the most important part of the influence attempt undone. Those with strong views may fall prey to "confirmation bias." Therefore, draw explicit conclusions for listeners. On balance, it is usually best not to assume that given a set of facts or arguments, the other party will reach the same conclusion you would reach; rather, draw explicit conclusions for listeners to ensure that they have understood the argument completely

make a public commitment

Sone of the most effective ways to get someone to stand firm on a position is to have them make a public commitment to that position. sometimes, negotiators want the other party to make public commitments, but not always. Even better than eliciting statements of commitment to a point of view is enticing the other party to make a behavioral commitment. (ex: retail merchants use down payments and layaway plans to secure a behavioral commitment from customers when it is not possible to complete the total sale at that time.)

source credibility and source attractiveness

Source characteristics that foster peripheral influence

associates

The choices you make about those you associate with also can influence how you are perceived, in terms of both status and expertise. Judicious name dropping (i.e., mentioning well-known people who are also credible and prestigious) and even arranging for introductions or endorsements by people who can add to your reputation can be useful steps. There is, of course, a downside to invoking associates if it isn't done skillfully: The line between being perceived as admirably well connected and as a shameless name-dropper can be a fine one indeed.

content

The facts and topics that should be covered.

Consider vividness and intensity of language

The intensity of language can also be increased through the use of colorful metaphors, swear words, or a change in tone. Research has shown that the effect of intense language depends in part on who uses it. Sources with high credibility can use more intense language than those who are not seen as credible. Bottom line: Although there is a strong temptation to use intense language to make a point, it is often wise to moderate this impulse. metaphors and analogies are a useful way to augment the vividness of a message.

helping the other party

There are many ways one party can help the other party in a negotiation: by doing a favor, allowing extra time, providing confidential information, complying with a request, or helping with a constituency. Negotiators can help the other party avoid being caught by surprise.

content, structure, delivery

There are three major issues to consider when constructing a message.

personal expertise or credibility, or legitimate position in a social hierarchy

There are two broad uses of authority in influence seeking. Authority based on.... (The first is a "soft" influence tactic; the second is a "harsh" tactic.)

true

There is evidence that differences in the power dynamics within a negotiation affect the tendency of negotiators to use pressure tactics. With relatively small power differences between the parties, the low- power party becomes more likely to use threats, creating an escalation between the parties that can destroy the negotiation

selectively paraphrase

This ensures that both parties understand each other accurately. If you haven't understood the other party, it gives them an opportunity to correct you. It is important to restate your understanding after being corrected, to make sure you have gotten it right. -helps move the discussion forward.

Authority

Those with authority have more influence than those without. A negotiator may use a title, such as doctor, to show authority.

Make the Offer Attractive to the Other Party

Use perspective-taking ability to understand the other party's needs. Negotiators should emphasize the advantage the other party gains from accepting the proposal. Although this may seem obvious, it is surprising how many negotiators spend more time explaining what aspects of their offer are attractive to themselves than identifying what aspects are likely to be attractive to the other party.

emotion

Used effectively, emotion may enhance a message source's attractiveness by instilling in listeners the belief that the speaker holds appealing deep-seated values An important aspect of the role of emotion in influence and negotiation is being aware that not everyone will respond to emotional appeals in the same way. Finally, be careful not to assume that your arguments will be better received if your target is in a good mood.

Are they truly an expert? How truthful do I expect this expert to be?

When dealing with authority figures, ask two questions.

one and two sided messages

When negotiators try to persuade the other party, it is because they believe that the other holds an opinion different from theirs. Many people deal with this problem by ignoring arguments and opinions that might support the other party's position—a one-sided approach. An alternate approach to ignoring the competition is to mention and describe the opposing point of view, and then show how and why it is less desirable than the presenter's point of view—a two-sided approach. In general, two-sided messages are more effective. But one-sided message may make the other party act, not just think.

qualifications and expertise

ask, "Is this person in a position to possess the information they claim to have? Are they competent and qualified?" The stronger the person's perceived qualifications and expertise, the higher the credibility

message order, format, distractions

aspects of messages that foster peripheral influence

intention to persuade

communicating with natural enthusiasm, sincerity, and spontaneity may take the edge off persuasive communication, reduce defensive reactions, and enhance the speaker' credibility. Many skillful negotiators and persuaders may therefore assume a mild-mannered or even slightly confused demeanor to minimize the negative impact of a hard, persuasive style while giving or getting the information they need.

central route

four aspects of message structure that help to explain when and how persuasion occurs through the ________________: (1) one- and two-sided messages (2) message components (3) repetition, and (4) conclusions.

constructing persuasive arguments

four questions negotiators need to consider when __________________________: 1) how to make offers attractive to the other party (2) how to frame messages so the other party will say yes (3) how to make messages normative, and (4) how to obtain agreements in principle.

primacy effect

giving more favorable attention to what comes first But sometimes people do pay more attention to information that comes later rather than earlier. When the topics are familiar, interesting, or controversial to the receiver, the important points should be made early: the first item in a long list of items is the one most likely to be remembered.

persuasive style

how to pitch the message: encourage active participation, consider vividness and intensity of language, use threats; incite fears, violate the receiver's expectations

social proof

proof suggests that people look to others to determine the correct response in many situations. This principle suggests that people often behave in certain ways because everyone else is doing so. (ex: Negotiators will talk about how popular their new product is and how sales have really increased this year.) Dilute this by identifying false information and giving it proper weight.

exchange

relies on resources available to the influence seeker as the power base, particularly resources that can be translated into rewards for the other—favors, benefits, incentives, treats, perks, and the like. Thus, exchange frequently invokes the use of promises and commitments as persuasive tools— obligations that you are willing to make in exchange for the other's cooperation, compliance, or commitment to give you what you want. often negotiated so that the other party completes their obligation now but chooses not to ask you to complete your obligation until some point in the future.

status differences

signaled by a variety of criteria: occupation, age, education level, the neighborhood where a person lives, dress, type of automobile, and the like Status can make someone influential, however, a status difference may also increase resistance because listeners may expect to be persuaded by a high-status communicator and, therefore, may focus their defenses against the effort. Persuaders need to decide whether they should enforce a status difference (act or dress consistently with their status) or minimize the difference by acting or dressing more like the listener.

true

successful influence does not necessarily require having power over the individuals you seek to influence

reward and punishment

that control over resources is a strong source of power. These resources can be deployed as tools of influence in two major ways: by offering exchanges that will reward the other party to gain their compliance or by pressuring the other party with threats of punishment.

timing and form

the effectiveness of a threat may depend on its ______________ threats made early in a negotiation are more effective when made implicitly (i.e., suggesting that there will be negative consequences without explicitly stating what that will entail). On the other hand, threats made late in the negotiation are more effective when they are explicit. Negotiators in this study saw explicit threats that came early and implicit threats that came later as unduly aggressive, which may explain their tactical ineffectiveness.

peripheral routes to influence

the receiver attends less to the substance of persuasive arguments and is instead susceptible to more "automatic" influence through subtle cues. Usually occurs when the target is unmotivated or unable to attend carefully to the substance of a persuasive message. -Less likely to be about real attitude change. -More likely to last a shorter time. -And more vulnerable to counterinfluence.

recency effect

the tendency for the last item presented to be the best remembered. when the topic is uninteresting, unfamiliar, or not very important to the receiver, the most critical point should be placed at the end of the message should be considered when the message is likely to be contrary to the receiver's current point of view

pressure

the use of power through threat of punishment. An influencer can make demands, suggest consequences about what will happen if the demands are not met, engage in frequent surveillance to determine whether the demands are carried out, remind the other person frequently about what is expected, and eventually follow through with the actual punishment if the demand is not met on time. should be used selectively and sparingly because their use is likely to corrode the relationship between the parties, and frequent use runs the risk of destroying it.

subvocalization

what people say to themselves as they hear a message. Sometimes subvocalizations are counterarguments, which occur when the receiver is opposed to or cautious about the message, but they can be supportive arguments as well. A receiver who wants to protect themself from temptation could create their own distractions