Neuroscience Chapter 1
What is there a grater influence of in the brain?
"higher order" functions of the brain-THINKING-as opposed to conditioning (language, planning, flexibility)
Coolidge Effect
(Lester & Gorzalka) the fact that a copulating male who becomes incapable of continuing to copulate with one sex partner can often recommence copulating with a new sex partner
Examples of Molar Level of Analysis (4)
-Cognitive Explanations -Behavioral Explanations -Brain-Behavior Relationships -Behavioral Genetics
Examples of Molecular Level of Analysis (4)
-Pharmacology -Neurochemistry -Genetics -Neurotransmitters
Two aspects of clinical implications
-much of what biopsychologists learn about the functioning of the normal brain comes from studying the diseased or damaged brain -much of what biopsychologists discover has relevance for treatment of brain disorders
What 4 fields does neuroscience include?
-neurochemistry (brain chemistry) -neurophysiology (brain physiology; how the brain functions) -neuroanatomy (anatomy of the brain) -neuropsychology (the relation of the brain to mind & behavior)
Korsakoff's Syndrome
-neuropsychological disorder in which Jimmie G. Suffered-which was 1st described in the late 19th century by S.S. Korsakoff (a Russian physician) --> has severe memory loss (largely caused by brain damage associated with thiamine (B1 deficiency)-often happens with alcohol b/c calories come from alcohol with no vitamins -Results from: convergence of neuropsychological case studies, quasi experiments with humans & controlled experiments on lab animals
Non-human research advantages
-simpler brain-behavior interactions -insights often arise from the comparative approach (study of biological processes by comparing different species) -ethical reasons
Evolutionary Perspective
-the comparative approach (trying to understand biological phenomena by comparing them in different species) --> one of the cornerstones of modern biopsychological inquiry
3 major dimensions with approaches to biopsychology research:
1. Human & non-human subjects 2. Experiments & non-experiments 3. Pure & Applied Research
Divisions of Biopsychology (6)
1. Physiological Psychology 2. Psychopharmacology 3. Neuropsychology 4. Psychophysiology 5. Cognitive Neuroscience 6. Comparative Psychology
Four Major Themes of Neuroscience
1. Thinking Creatively about Biopsychology 2. Clinical Implications 3. The Evolutionary Perspective 4. Neuroplasticity
Judging the validity of any scientific claim:
1. determine whether the claim & research on which it is based were published in a reputable scientific journal (b/c they have to be judged as good to be included)
Four conceptual frameworks, or approaches to behavioral neuroscience can be clearly identified..
1. evolutionary/genetic/comparative 2. anatomical/physiological 3. learning/behavioral 4. perceptual/cognitive
How many neurons are there in the brain?
100 billion
How many connections are there among the neurons in the brain?
100 trillion
What is the Evolutionary/Genetic/Comparative approach to mind and behavior? -Evolutionary Theory
All earthly organisms-plants & animals-are related genetically. The theory that discusses the integration of all life forms is called this
What is the Learning/Behavioral Approach? -During this century, how have psychologists been relatively successful in understanding behavior?
By taking a "black-box" approach. Behavior is analyzed in terms of the effect stimuli have upon responses (S-R psychology). Neuroscientists are studying what goes on inside the black box (i.e. the brain).
What is the Evolutionary/Genetic/Comparative approach to mind and behavior? -Phylogenetic
Each organism has this: heredity history
What is the Evolutionary/Genetic/Comparative approach to mind and behavior? -Ontogentic
Individual organisms have a unique ____ or environmental history
What is Anatomical/Physiological approach to mind & behavior? -What Neuroscientists assume
Neuroscientists assume that such common psychological properties as perception, emotion, motivation, and temperament-as well as presumable more complex processes of thinking, learning, and memory-result from changes in brain chemistry & brain functioning during one's lifetime. Everyone knows that damage to one's brain very often causes psychological deficits. Normal psychological functioning is also due to normal brain functioning.
What is the Evolutionary/Genetic/Comparative approach to mind and behavior? -Comparative Method
We can understand the behavior of an individual organism by studying, first, the individual, second, the species that the individual belongs to, & finally by making comparisons among species. Comparing human brains & behavior with that of other species is defined as this
What is the Learning/Behavioral Approach? -The approach with animals & how they respond
What causes an animal to respond? to move? to think? to talk? If you were not born engaging in these behaviors, then you must have learned them during your life. This approach is the nurture in nature/nurture arguments.
What does the word biopsychology denote?
a biological approach to the study of psychology rather than a psychological approach
What is the Perceptual/Cognitive approach? -What does the cognitive approach include?
a study of the parts of the brain implicated in perception, memory and language. Also, neuroscientists use computer models & analogies of memory & thought processes-such as investigations of artificial intelligence
Ethological psychology
a subfield that focuses on understanding behavior by considering its likely evolutionary origins
Scientific Method
a system for things out by careful observation
What kind of species does behavioral neuroscience study?
all species & some are interested mostly in non-human animals / many use animals to understand human brain-behavior relationships--the behavior we see in other organisms is similar to that in humans
What is behavioral neuroscience grounded in?
always grounded in behavior
What is the Learning/Behavioral Approach? -What is the S-R model the best for?
analyzing the ways that behavior is produced & controlled in local situations
Lordosis
arched-back, rump-up, tail-diverted posture of female rodent sexual receptivity (in the coolidge effect with hamsters)
The emphasis in Introduction to Neuroscience is on what?
behavioral neuroscience
What are two other terms for neuropharmacology?
behavioral pharmacology & psychopharmacology
What disciplines does behavioral neuroscience borrow from?
biology, psychology, chemistry, philosophy, etc.
Change in brain functioning leads to change in behavior-->
brain is critical / brain is mind
What is the Evolutionary/Genetic/Comparative approach to mind and behavior? -In conjunction with more molecular behavioral level of analysis physiological approaches allow scientists to investigate what?
brain-behavior (structure & function) relationships -genetics & neurochemistry are molecular approaches
Molecular Level of Analysis is a more ____ approach
broad
The Organization of Behavior
by D.O. Hebb--> play key role in emergence of biopsychological study (1st comprehensive theory of how complex psychological phenomena might be produced by brain activity)
Neurons
cells that receive & transmit electrochemical signals
To conduct experiment-->
designs 2 or more conditions where subjects are tested (between-subject design), but sometimes (within-subjet design)
What is the Evolutionary/Genetic/Comparative approach to mind and behavior? -Genes
determine the unique arrangements of protein which make up individuals, including their brains. Each developing organism is the raised in a unique environment which shapes individual behavior
Independent Variable
difference between the conditions
Physiological Psychology
division of biopsychology that studies the neural mechanism of behavior through direct manipulation & recording of brain in controlled experiments (surgical & electrical methods = most common)
Psychophsyciology
division of biopsychology that studies the relation between physiological activity & psychological process in human subjects
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
division of the nervous system that regulates the body's inner environment -most focusses on understanding the physiology of psychological processes--attention, emotion, information processing
Scientific Inference
empirical method that biopsychologists & other scientists use to study the unobservable --> scientists carefully measure key events they can observe & then use these measures as a basis for logically inferring the nature of events they cannot observe -they gather measures of behavior & neural activity from which to infer the nature of the neural processes that regulate behavior (Hammond, Merton & Sutton injected paralytic into the eye)
What is the major method of cognitive neuroscience
functional brain imaging -recording images of the activity of the living human brain, while a volunteer is engaged in a particular cognitive activity -often other types of biopsychology are used-more than just this one
Scientific Inference
fundamental method of biopsychology & most other sciences
What makes humans unique?
how we process things -also plan for the future, reason
Applied Research
intended to bring about some direct benefit to humankind
What does the term neuroscience designate?
interdisciplinary scientific approaches to the study of the mind and brain
Reductionism
look for complicated behavior & find underlying causes
Experiment
method used by scientists to study causation --> to find what causes what
What is the Evolutionary/Genetic/Comparative approach to mind and behavior? -What the search for brain mechanisms underlying mind & behavior includes..
molecular approaches: neurochemistry, neuropharmacology, & genetics are examples of molecular approaches
Pure Research
motivated primarily by the curiosity of the researcher (done for the purpose of acquiring knowledge)
Biopsychologists
neuroscientists who bring their research a knowledge of behavior & of the methods of behavioral research
Molar Level of Analysis...
not just genes, but behavioral genetics-sometimes it's more useful at this level
What are other terms for ontogenetic & phylogenetic?
nurture & nature
Cerebral cortex
outer layer of the central hemisphere (most likely damages by accident/surgery)
Clinical
pertaining to illness or treatment-considerations are woven through the fabric of biopsychology
Converging Operations
progress is most likely when different approaches are focused on a single problem in such a way that the strengths of one approach compensate for the weakness of the others--> this is the combined approach
What is biopsychology also known as?
psychobiology, behavioral biology, or behavioral neuroscience
What other three things also refer to behavioral neuroscience?
psychobiology, biological psychology, and biopsychology
What kind of research is better for politics?
pure research-b/c there is not much understanding as to why research that doesn't immediately make a difference is used
What is the Evolutionary/Genetic/Comparative approach to mind and behavior? -Following this reasoning, one approach to understanding the mind of humans is by what?
reference to how human heredity & human brain functioning compares with heredity, brains, and brain functions of other species
Brian-behavior relationships
refers to how the brain functions in producing such psychological phenomena as seeing, remembering, feeling pain, etc.
Psychology
scientific study of behavior--> scientific study of all overt activities of organism as well as all the internal processes presumed to underlie (e.g. learning, memory, motivation, perception, emotion)
Psychopharmacology
similar to physiological psychology, except it focuses on the manipulation of neural activity & behavior with drugs -large portion = applied research -purpose of many is to develop therapeutic drugs or reduce drug abuse
Quasiexperimental Studies
some experiments are not logical or ethical, which are known as quasi experimental studies (studies of groups of subjects who have been exposed to the conditions of interest in the real world --> not true experiments b/c potential confounded variable haven't been controlled -for it to be a true experiment, the experimenters have to choose which group a person will be in-the person can't choose that on their own
What is the Learning/Behavioral Approach? -Explain the black box example (pg. 17)
stimuli (S) impinge upon an animal, & responses (R) triggered by the stimulus are measured. It is assumed that learning goes on within the black box.
Case Studies
studies that focus on a single case or subject (often more in-depth)
Disciplines of neuroscience that are relevant to biopsychology: -Neurochemistry
study of chemical bases of neural activity
Behavioral genetics
study of genetic influences on behavior
Disciplines of neuroscience that are relevant to biopsychology: -Neuroendocrinology
study of interactions between nervous system & endocrine system
Disciplines of neuroscience that are relevant to biopsychology: -Neuropathology
study of nervous system disorders
Disciplines of neuroscience that are relevant to biopsychology: -Neuropharmacology
study of nervous system disorders
Neuropsychology
study of psychological effects of brain damage in human patients -deals with case studies & quasiexperimental -this is the most applied of biopsychological sub disciples (helps to know what meds are needed, care & counseling after brain injury
Disciplines of neuroscience that are relevant to biopsychology: -Neuroanatomy
study of structure of the nervous system
Disciplines of neuroscience that are relevant to biopsychology: -Neurophysiology
study of the functions & activities of nervous system
Neuroplasticity
the adult brain is not a static network of neurons (as they thought in the 90's)--> it is a plastic (changeable) organ that grows & changes in response to genes & experiences
Generalizability
the degree to which their results can be applied to other cases --> problem with case studies
The terms behavioral neuroscience, psychology, biological psychology, and biopsychology, are not synonymous, but refer to what?
the interdisciplinary study of brain-behavior relationships
Critical Thinking
the process by which these weaknesses are recognized (weak of existing ideas & evidence they are based on)
What makes neuroscience distinct?
the relationship between brain & behavior
Biopsychology
the scientific study of the biology behavior
Neuroscience
the scientific study of the nervous system
What is the Evolutionary/Genetic/Comparative approach to mind and behavior? -Most of our understanding of brain functioning & brain-behavior relationships has come about through what study?
the study of animals other than humans
Cognition
the study of thinking, memory, and other higher aspects of human psychology
What is the Perceptual/Cognitive approach? -Explain complex organism have complex minds..
there are inherent limitations in an analysis of behavior that is restricted to simple responses-for example, how an organism presses a lever in an experimental chamber in response to patterns of food reward
What is true of the scientific approach to the brain?
there is no one single discipline that provides a complete understanding of brain-behavior relationships--this is why neuroscience is defined as interdisciplinary
What do neuroscientists do?
they can be found teaching, doing research in various departments (in colleges & universities)-including anatomy, biology, chemistry, neurobiology, neurology, neuroscience, neurosurgery, physiology, pharmacology, psychiatry, psychology, etc. Some medical doctors also do research in this field.
What is the Perceptual/Cognitive approach? -Explain humans perceive their environment, use their language, and therefore...
think & reason & plan in unique ways. Other animals exhibit complexities of reasoning when properly challenged. These & other mind properties & behavior are studied in the neurosciences
Thinking Creatively
thinking in productive, unconventional ways = the cornerstone of any science
What is one of biopsychologies' main goals?
to characterize-through empirical methods, the unobservable processes by how the nervous system controls behavior
Brain & nervous system controls behavior _______.
unequivocally
What is the Evolutionary/Genetic/Comparative approach to mind and behavior? -Individual organisms have what?
unique minds & behavior
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
usual measure of brain activity on scalp
Dependent Variable
variable measured by the experiments to assess the effect of the independent variable
Confounded Variable
what results when there is more than one difference that could affect the dependent variable-difficult to assess
Cognitive Neuroscience
youngest division of biopsychology -the study of the neural bases of cognition (refers to higher intellectual processes-like thought, memory, attention, complex perceptual processes)
