Organizational Final Open note
three common themes across leadership approaches identified by Yukl (p. 412).
1. importance of influencing and motivating: 2. importance of maintaining effective relationships 3. importance of making decisions- leaders who have technical knowledge and cognitive skills are better at making decisions
preconditions of flow and flow channel
3 Preconditions 1. Balance between the challenge of the task and the skills of the person preforming the task 2. Need of clear set goals, also individual must understand what is required of them for the activity or task. 3. Clear and immediate feedback that is inherent Flow Channel Picture in book on page 369 it shows that higher challenge as well higher skills puts you in the "flow channel"
3 components of expectancy theory and meaning of a "force score"
3 components 1. Expectancy- the belief that efforts leads to performance 2. Instrumentality- Performance will lead to an outcome 3. Valence- Outcome is valued ***The higher the valence, expectancy, and instrumentality, the higher the force Force Score- The higher the three components combined= the higher the "force score," (the more drive or "force" a person will feel to perform an action)
self-determination theory basic needs
A theory of motivation based on the fulfillment of basic needs to experience inartistic motivation 3 Basic needs 1. Autonomy- People have say in what they do- make own choices more enjoyment in task 2. Competence- Accomplishing things or performing successfully, experiencing mastery over a task Relatedness- Felling connected to others, interaction and belongingness ***it is when extrinsic rewards undermine these basic needs that intrinsic motivation decreases. ***intrinsic motivation is related to quality of one's performance and extrinsic motivation is related to quantity of performance.
three determinants of behavior
Ability- Broad, things like intelligence or physical coordination, Fairly Stable in individuals the "Can do" factor Situational Factors- Environmental influences and opportunities that facilitate or constrain behavior (Example: tools equipment, procedures) "Allowed to do" factor Motivation- "Will do" factor, given your ability
Characteristics of goals that result in high performance
Affects performance through 4 mechanisms: 1. They direct attention toward goal-relevant activities 2. They are energizing 3. They make us "stick with it" 4. They lead us to find and use task-relevant strategies and knowledge related to higher quality planning
difference between behavior and performance
Behavior- action which we infer motivation, engaging in any broad constellations of human activities Performance- Evaluation of behavior, judged against some standard Level of performance- level of performance to judge if one's skills are adequate or inadequate enough to hold a job
Behavioral factors identified by Ohio State leadership and the role of group size; 2 additional behavioral factors identified more recently
Behavioral factors identified: initiation of structure; addresses the means by which leaders provide direction or structure to get employees to finish tasks. These are the outcomes: Effective work performance, lower group member job satisfaction, increased turnover. Consideration is the other factor; it addresses how leaders interact on a personal level with workers. These are the outcomes: Higher job satisfaction, relationship with work productivity is unclear Additional behavioral factors found recently: Monitoring the employee's work Providing clarification on unclear issues How does group size impact how the factors relate to success of leaders? small group= effective if the leader is high in consideration and low in structure big group= effective if high in structure and low consideration ^^^this has to do with job satisfaction! additional behaviors: monitoring employees work providing clarification for ambiguous issues
three components of the definition of motivation
Direction- adresses the choices of activities we make in expanding efforts (choosing to do one task but not another) Intensity- How hard we choose to work or how much effort we choose to expend (choosing to work hard and understand tough material) Persistance or Duration- Reflects motivation over time, as opposed to a one-time choice between courses of action (direction) or high levels of effort aimed at a single task(intensity)
Know the main assumptions of the following theories and where each falls on the continuum of proximal to distal constructs: biological, flow, self-determination, expectancy, equity, goal setting, work design
Figure 12-4 on page 386, Draw after print out for test??
experience of flow
Flow is the mental and emotional state of optimal sensation, with focus, attention, a clear mind, distortion of time, self-consciousness, and an intense feeling of enjoyment, feel in control, actions feel automatic and spontaneous
The Focused Leader article
Focusing on yourself: -Attain self awareness (getting in touch with yourself)Leaders who use this knowledge can make better decisions and connect with themselves in an authentic way. Self awareness means paying attention to internal physiological signal. These signals are monitored by the insula which is behind the frontal lobes of the brain. The insula's sensitivity amps up to the part of the body that attention is given to. Paying attention to your heart beat activates more neurons and helps one measure self awareness. Having a gut feeling is due to the insula and the amygdala (this is called somatic markers) they guide us towards better options when making decisions. THE STUDY IN THE ARTICLE: has to do with traders in investment banks. The most successful traders focused on their emotions to judge their intuition. You must be authentic, using open awareness, where one broadly notices whats going on around them without getting caught up by things, no judging or tuning out (this is hard for leaders who are more used to giving input rather than receiving it) True North groups- these groups are based on the precept that self-knowledge starts with self revelation, they are open and intimate where members can share personal issues and hear themselves talk. A structured way to match our view of our true selves views of those we trust. Self control- "cognitive control" keeping attention where you want. Willpower has three components (ability to disengage your focus from the desired object, ability to resist distraction so you don't revert back, ability to concentrate on future goals/feelings) Focusing on others- having empathy: 1. cognitive empathy: ability to understand one's persons perspective and explain self in meaningful ways 2. emotional empathy: ability to feel what one feels and reading others 3. empathetic concern: ability to sense what someone needs from you
Full-range leadership theory, including characteristics of transformational leadership, transactional leadership, and charismatic leadership (also know when each is most effective and benefits/drawbacks to each)
Full range theory= consists of three separate groups of behavior that form the spectrum TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP- is on the highest end of the spectrum, view of leadership that involves influence by a leader over workers, but the effect is to empower workers who became leaders in the process of transforming the org. Transformational leaders success is defined by the group's ability to function at a higher level than before. Transformational leaders use one or more of the following: 1. idealized influence: backing up one's beliefs with the correlating actions 2. inspirational motivation: provide meaning and challenges, get workers to envision the future, clearly communicate expectations 3. intellectual stimulation: stimulate workers efforts to be innovative and creative. Question assumptions and reframe problems, approach old situations in new ways. 4. individualized consideration: pay attention to each worker's needs for growth , act as a coach/mentor. POSITIVES: oriented towards long term goals, makes full use of human resources, inspires/develops/empowers NEGATIVE: unending energy can wear followers out, big picture focus may be problematic CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP THEORY: Attributed charisma: powerful and charming, inspiring, able to generate an emotional reaction in workers by using environments -Effective when high situational uncertainty -Ineffective when low situational uncertainty -characteristics of charismatic leader: sensitivity to followers, ability to inspire, creative and original vision -follower characteristics: identify with leader, susceptible to leaders emotional messages, crisis situations and willing to follow NEGATIVE- Engage in projects in order to call attention to themselves Be overly concerned with the "big picture" Be unskilled or uninterested at cultivating protégés to continue vision TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP: managerial and supervisory behaviors that focus on giving rewards/punishments to make change. 1. contingent reward: provide rewards if workers perform in desired ways. Can be economic rewards, emotional, tangible. 2. active management by exception: leaders actively search for mistakes and breaking rules, and take corrective action (takes supervision) 3. passive management by exception: leaders punish undesirable behaviors, they are passive not active in the pursuit of the problem. They wait for issues to arise instead of intervening right away. POSITIVES: clear structure, results in follower compliance NEGATIVE: doesn't result in enthusiasm, assumes they are motivated by money and will exhibit predictable behavior, doesn't tap workers need for meaningful work/creativity, short term leaders who use transactional and transformational leadership are more effective then using one.
Ways to increase goal commitment & more specifically, importance of goal attainment & self-efficacy
Increase importance of goal attainment 1. Leaders with an inspiring vision 2. The power of making it public 3. Worker participation 4. Extrinsic rewards Increase self-efficacy 1. Provide training 2. Identifiable role models 3. Persuade them they can do it!
LMX theory of leadership, including how leaders differentiate their subordinates and the differences in attributes of the in-group versus the out-group.
LMX= leader- member exchange theory this theory says that leaders categorize their followers in 3 ways 1. competence and skill 2. how much they can be trusted 3. their motivation to move up within the unit -in group: members go beyond their formal job duties and take on tasks that are very important to the success of the group. They receive more attention, support and sensitivity and more info about the org from leaders. HIGH EXCHANGE RELATIONSHIPS^^ -out group:do more routine and boring tasks, have a formal relationship with their leader. leaders use more formal authority to influence people in the out group research has found, when there is a strong lmx relationship, employee's trust their leader and are less resistant to change and greater commitment to psychological contract a power and influence theory: improving leader member relation leads to increases in work group productivity, Subordinates' job and satisfaction Citizenship behavior -each person is treated individually there is an influence between follower and leader going both ways
Equity theory
Motivation is social in nature, this theory is based on how fair individuals see situations and interactions. Individuals make comparisons between themselves and others to determine how hard to work Comparison of a ratio of their inputs (contributions they make) and outcomes (outcomes they receive) with those of others When ratio is equal, there is equity When ratio is not equal, there is inequity
Limitations of expectancy theory
Parking available, if they drive or not, incentive may have little value to employee Not predictive for those not motivated by rational processes
French and Raven's bases of power
Reward power-the capacity to offer positive incentives for desirable behaviors (promotions, raises, vacations Coercive power- the capacity to punish undesirable behavior. (firing, docking pay, reprimands, unpleasant work assignment) Legitimate power- aka authority, employee believes the organizations power over them is legitimate. (having norms and expectations) Expert power- power relies on expertise someone has. This is not formally sanctioned in the organization. (consultants) Referent power- an employer may admire another person (the referent) want to be like that person and want approval by that person. The source of the referent power is this persons personal qualities. (younger often admire older people, as well as certain groups in an organization) Influence produces three outcomes- commitment- an individual (the target) happily accepts a request from someone (the agent) and tries to do it well. compliance- the target is willing but not excited to carry out the request, puts in little effort. resistance- target is opposed to the request, avoids trying to do it. EXAMPLES: Authoritarian managers use reward and coercive power, Participative managers use expert and referent power, Military uses legitimate power, university professors use referent and expert power
Expectancy theory implications for managers
Reward- Say things like "your work has been great lately so I will promote you" Incentives like parking spots, employee of the month Make performance-reward relationship clear Make it clear what the rewards are Make sure rewards are desirable Make rewards obtainable
major components of self-regulation theory: self-monitoring, feedback seeking, responding to feedback, self-efficacy.
Self-monitoring: the person is aware of their progress in pursuit of the goals they set. This awareness is due to feedback Feedback seeking: receiving info about how "on target" you are towards your goal. Feedback produces a discrepancy between your current status in pursuing the goal and the needed status to reach the goal. This produces an "error message" that the person is off track Responding to feedback: a person's response can be in the form of altering behavior in order to reduce the discrepancy, unless the discrepancy is so small that they do not need to. They can adjust their goals (goal revision) Self efficacy: the belief in your capabilities and capacity to perform well. (small discrepancies= more self efficacy, big discrepancies= less self efficacy)
What Leaders Really Do article
Setting direction versus planning and budgeting: setting a direction is when leaders gather a range of data and look for patters/relationships and likes that explain things. This does not create plans, it makes vision and strategies, like what the organization should become over a span on time and cope up with ways to achieve this goal. Aligning people versus organizing and staffing: aligning is more of a communications challenge, it involves talking to many more individuals , it empowers people in two ways: 1. lower level workers can initiate actions without as much vulnerability and 2. since everyone is aiming at the same target there is less conflict between people's initiatives Motivating people versus controlling and problem solving: successful motivation ensures that people will have the energy to overcome obstacles. Motivation satisfies basic human needs for achievement , belonging, recognition, self esteem, control, living up to your ideals. Leaders motivate by articulating org. vision, involve others in decisions, , providing coaching and feedback and role modeling, recognize and reward success Creating a culture of leadership: recruit people with leadership potential, managing their career patterns, those who have gone through a significant challenge early in their career, breadth of knowledge, network of relationships
assumptions of expectancy theory
Theory of motivation based off perceived degree of relationship between; how much effort a person expends and the performance that results from that effort Assumptions 1. Expectancy: Effort will lead to performance, what is the relationship between how much work you do/how hard you try and how well you do? People want to see a relationship between these two aspects 2. Instrumentality: Performance will lead to an outcome. A person must believe there is a relationship between job performance and attainments of outcomes 3. Valence: Outcome is valued, what does the employee feel about the outcome? Is it attractive or satisfying? If they feel indifferent about the outcome then the valence is 0.
Goal orientation
This is the way in which people approach or avoid goals to achieve situations 2 goal orientations: 1. Learning goal- approach task or situations for own sake 2. Performance goal- approaching or avoiding task with goal of gaining favorable judgement or avoiding negative judgements from others.
Work design theory components: relationship between the core dimensions, the critical psychological states, and the outcome of increased motivation. Understand what growth need strength and its proposed role in the theory.
Work design theory: has to do with motivation and is based on the presence of characteristics of jobs that create the expenditure of effort. 1.skill variety: extent to which a job requires lots of skills, activities, and talents 2. task identity: degree to which a job requires a completed piece of work, doing a job from start to finish and seeing the results 3. task significance: job's impact on people's lives or the work of others. (within and outside of the org.) 4. autonomy: freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling work, and determining procedures 5. task feedback: degree to which carrying out activities result in direct/clear info about performance Critical psychological states: these core components set the basis for enriched and meaningful work. Growth need strength- how much an employee has a need to experience personal growth through their work. Some people have a deep need to feel like they are growing or they won't feel satisfied, others may very satisfied with their work without seeing any personal growth at all. OUTCOME OF INCREASED MOTIVATION
benefits of flow
Work related flow- heightened self efficacy, high quality customer service performance, Work family interactions- when in flow at work, they felt more energetic and less exhausted at home after work.
Goal setting theory
based on direction your efforts towards attaining a specific goal. the basic idea of it is that you set clear, specific and challenging goals that lead to enhanced performance by increasing motivation Goals should be: specific, difficult, attainable, specifying instructions
Differences in equity sensitivity
individual difference for preference/tolerance for equity/inequity benevolents: those who have a greater tolerance for under-reward entitleds: those who have a greater preference of being over-rewarded equity sensitives: those who prefer to have equal ratios ***according to this idea, benevolent and equity sensitives are more likely to take action to reduce inequity due to over-reward
Authentic leadership
leaders are genuine in their thoughts and actions. There are 4 main parts: 1. self awareness: leaders are aware of their own strengths and weaknesses/ how the view themselves compared to how others view them. 2. relational transparency: leaders present themselves as they are. share their doubts, insecurities, and vulnerabilities as well as their strengths, etc. 3. balanced processing: analyze info, decide in unbiased ways. Use info from others, maintain integrity in decision making 4. internalized moral perspective: think and behave in accordance with their values. you can develop authentic leadership by: self reflection, discussion about moral dilemmas, etc.
trait approach to leadership
leaders possess characteristics that are associated with leadership talents. (i.e. decisive, dynamic, outgoing, assertive, strong, bold, etc. Physical traits include: tall, good looking, poised, articulate and confident. ***3 motives/needs of leaders****: power (desire to influence other people, have control) achievement (solve problems, attain results, accomplish objectives) affiliation (desire to associate with others, provide guidance and support, get gratification from helping others) this approach is limited by the nature of traits. Traits interact with situational demands/constraints that can change a leaders behavior, which interacts with group variables and performance. It is hard to understand how leader traits affect group performance and motivation unless you study how traits are expressed in the leaders actual behavior. **presence of these traits does not mean you will be a successful leaders Recent research looks at constellations of leadership characteristics -(the big five) traits correlation with leadership success (.31 correlation with extraversion and .38 correlation with conscientiousness)
Types of goals/ goal orientation
learning goals- aimed at improving development performance goals- aimed at demonstrating ability goal orientation- the way in which people approach or avoid goals learning goal orientation- a tendency to approach jobs with the idea of learning for its own sake. performance goal orientation- approaching/avoiding tasks aiming at gaining good judgements or avoiding bad ones from others
Borman and Brush (1993) study of the overlap between managerial and leadership behaviors
looked through tons of research articles and identified 246 dimensions of managerial behaviors. • Planning and organizing • ***Guiding, directing, and motivating subordinates • ***Training, coaching, and developing subordinates • Communicating effectively & keeping others informed • Representing the organization to customers and the public • techinical proficiency • administration and paperwork • ***maintaining good working relationships • ***Coordinating subordinates & other resources to get the job done • Decision making and problem solving • Staffing • Persisting to reach goals • Handling crises • Organizational commitment • Monitoring and controlling resources •*** Delegating • ***Selling/influencing • Collecting & interpreting data 1/3 of typical managers job involve leadership behaviors ***are leadership behaviors take home message is that there is overlap between what a manager and leader does. Managers have parts of their job that include leadership abilities
difference between leadership and management
management: has to do with coping with complexity and managing chaos (focusing on the "now"). Brings order and consistency to quality and profitability of products leadership: about coping with change (future oriented). Leader cares about how they carry tasks out, and they are trying to influence others and improve the vision of the organization
Understanding of the ways people try to reduce inequity
may try to restore equity by 1)reducing your inputs (slacking off) 2)increasing your outcomes (stealing from an organization or asking for a raise) 3) distorting your perception of the situation (change the way you see your coworkers input and output ratio in order to match yours) 4) changing the person with whom you compare yourself 5) leave the situation (quitting)
Great man and Great woman theory
people would identify people they thought were good leaders and try to find out what in their history caused them to be great leaders. Like: having overcome difficult things in one's past (family issues) this progressed into the trait approach
Sensemaking
the process by which we make sense of our lives and the world around us. We are motivated and driven to understand events in our lives, and when we cannot make sense of something it bothers us. -sensemaking means there is no single objective truth we are looking for, but rather something personal that gives us the comfort of understanding. -informational justice gives us comfort in knowing and understanding things in our job