Organizational Theory and Behavior

Emotional intelligence (EI) is a person's ability to

(1) perceive emotions in the self and others, (2) understand the meaning of these emotions, and (3) regulate one's emotions.

Managers

get things done through other people. They make decisions, allocate resources, and direct the activities of others to attain goals. A manager is an individual who achieves goals through other people.

By aggregating the resources of several individuals

groups bring more input as well as heterogeneity into the decision process. They offer increased diversity of views. This opens up the opportunity to consider more approaches and alternatives.

Apprenticeship and mentoring programs are examples of

serial socialization. Serial socialization is characterized by the use of role models who train and encourage.

Ideally, a chain network

should be used when accuracy of information is most important.

Numerous studies have shown that predicting leadership success is more complex than isolating a few traits or behaviors

since leadership styles that are effective in very bad times or in very good times do not necessarily translate into long-term success. This idea led researchers to change their focus from trait and behavior theories to situational influences on leadership styles, or contingency theories.

While psychology focuses on the individual,

sociology studies people in relation to their social environment or culture.

When evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of group decision making

speed of decision making is an area where individuals fare better.

When compliance with one role requirement may make it difficult to comply with another

the result is role conflict. Michael is experiencing conflict between his role as a church member and his role as an employee.

When parties in conflict each desire to fully satisfy the concerns of all parties

there is cooperation and a search for a mutually beneficial outcome. In collaborating, the parties intend to solve a problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view.

Evidence confirms that women are more emotionally expressive than men

they experience emotions more intensely, they tend to "hold onto" emotions longer than men, and they display more frequent expressions of both positive and negative emotions, except anger.

U.S. legislation

for all intents and purposes, outlaws mandatory retirement. Most U.S. workers today no longer have to retire at age 70.

The conscientiousness dimension is a measure of reliability.

A highly conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent.

MYERS-BRIGGS

A problem with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is that it forces a person into one type or another. For instance, if one is not introverted or extraverted, there is no in-between, though in reality people can be both extraverted and introverted to some degree.

Relationship between age and job performance

A reason that the relationship between age and job performance is likely to be of growing significance in the next decade is that U.S. legislation outlaws mandatory retirement.

SIMPLE STRUCTURE

A simple structure has a low degree of departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization. It is a "flat" organization; it usually has only two or three vertical levels, a loose body of employees, and one individual in whom the decision-making authority is centralized. So Mark's shop has a simple structure.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A situation in which a person inaccurately perceives another person and the resulting expectations cause the other person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

Any organization's environment has three dimensions: capacity, volatility, and complexity. Capacity refers to the degree to which the environment can support growth. Volatility describes the degree of instability in the environment. Complexity is the degree of heterogeneity and concentration among environmental elements.

WHAT IS EXPECTANCY THEORY

According to expectancy theory, the performance-reward relationship indicates the degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

LEADERSHIP THEORIES

According to the contingency approach to leadership, a leader needs to factor in organizational environment attributes?

Deep-level diversity

As people get to know one another, they become less concerned about demographic differences if they see themselves as sharing more important characteristics, such as personality and values, that represent deep-level diversity.

Larry is building on employee strengths.

Because his employee is good at enforcing rules, he is showing her how she can put that strength to use. Although a positive organizational culture does not ignore problems, it does emphasize showing workers how they can capitalize on their strengths.

SHARING STORIES

Bruce most likely knows this legend through the passing of stories. Stories circulate through organizations. They typically contain a narrative of events about the organization's founders, rule breaking, rags-to-riches successes, reductions in the workforce, relocation of employees, and organizational coping.

BUCK PASSING

Buck passing means transferring responsibility for the execution of a task or decision to someone else.

For people who are poor or who live in poor countries, pay does correlate with job satisfaction and overall happiness.

But once an individual reaches a level of comfortable living (in the United States, that occurs at about $40,000 a year, depending on the region and family size), the relationship between pay and job satisfaction virtually disappears. People who earn $80,000 are, on average, no happier with their jobs than those who earn closer to $40,000.

ADV. OF GROUP DECISION MAKING

By aggregating the resources of several individuals, groups bring more input as well as heterogeneity into the decision process. They offer increased diversity of views. This opens up the opportunity to consider more approaches and alternatives.

WHAT IS CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP?

Charismatic leadership has great potential for high levels of achievement but also risks of destructive courses of action

EFFECTS OF DISCRIMINATION

Discrimination can occur in many ways, and its effects can be just as varied depending on the organizational context and the personal biases of its members. Discrimination can lead to serious negative consequences for employers, including reduced productivity and citizenship behavior, negative conflicts, and increased turnover.

Most experts believe emotions are more fleeting than moods.

Emotions tend to come and go fairly quickly, maybe even in a matter of seconds. Unlike moods, emotions like anger and disgust tend to be more clearly revealed by facial expressions.

WHAT IS EQUITY THEORY

Equity theory states that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. Employees perceive what they get from a job situation (salary levels, raises, recognition) in relationship to what they put into it (effort, experience, education, competence) and then compare their outcome-input ratio with that of relevant others.

A person may recognize a conflict exists and want to withdraw from or suppress it.

Examples of avoiding include trying to ignore a conflict and avoiding others with whom you disagree.

WHAT IS GROUP THINK

Groupthink is defined as a phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.

Studies consistently show that the relationship between cohesiveness and productivity depends on the group's performance-related norms.

If performance-related norms are high, a cohesive group will be more productive than will a less cohesive group. If cohesiveness is high and performance norms are low, productivity will be low. If cohesiveness is low and performance norms are high, productivity increases, but less than in the high-cohesiveness/high-norms situation. When cohesiveness and performance-related norms are both low, productivity tends to fall into the low-to-moderate range.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

If we consider Maslow's needs hierarchy in the context of Japan, Greece, and Mexico, where uncertainty-avoidance characteristics are strong, security needs would be on top of the hierarchy.

Compared to men, women tend to behave in a less assertive, less self-interested, and more accommodating manner.

In addition, men tend to value economic outcomes more than women.

Legitimate power

In formal groups and organizations, probably the most common access to one or more of the power bases is through legitimate power. It represents the formal authority to control and use organizational resources based on structural position in the organization.

Self-serving bias

Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort and place the blame for failure on external factors such as bad luck or unproductive co-workers.

Self-serving bias

Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort and place the blame for failure on external factors such as bad luck or unproductive co-workers. This is known as a self-serving bias.

Leadership substituting

Leaders are important in organizations for a variety of reasons, however there are times when having a leader is irrelevant

WHAT IS TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP?

Leaders can build trust with their followers by engaging in transformational leadership, by creating fair processes, and by allowing participative decision making.

LEADERSHIP VS. MANAGEMENT

Leadership in contrast to management entails setting a direction for the organization. Leadership can be defined as the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. Leaders can emerge from within a group as well as by formal appointment.

HIGH VS LOW SELF MONITORS

Low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them. In contrast, high self-monitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation.

Some religious individuals may also believe they have an obligation to express their beliefs in the workplace

Many Christians do not believe they should work on Sundays, and many conservative Jews believe they should not work on Saturdays. Some religious individuals may also believe they have an obligation to express their beliefs in the workplace. For example, based on religious beliefs, some pharmacists refuse to hand out the RU-486, the "morning after" abortion pill.

Groups lead to increased acceptance of a solution.

Many decisions fail because people don't accept the solution. Group members who participated in making a decision are more likely to enthusiastically support the decision and encourage others to accept it. Group decisions are generally more accurate than the decisions of the average individual in a group but less accurate than the judgments of the most accurate. So in terms of accuracy, groups do not offer any unique advantage over individuals.

Emotions are intense feelings directed at someone or something.

Most experts believe emotions are more fleeting than moods. Emotions tend to come and go fairly quickly, maybe even in a matter of seconds. Unlike moods, emotions like anger and disgust tend to be more clearly revealed by facial expressions.

SOCIALIZING

No matter how good a job the organization does in recruiting and selection, new employees are not fully indoctrinated in the organization's culture and can disrupt beliefs and customs already in place. The process that helps new employees adapt to the prevailing culture is socialization.

ENCOUNTER STAGE

On entry into the organization, the new member enters the encounter stage and confronts the possibility that expectations about the job, co-workers, the boss, and the organization in general may differ from reality. If there occurs a mismatch between the expectations of the new member and the reality, then the new member may become disillusioned enough with the reality to resign.

DEPARTMENTALIZATION

One of the most popular ways to group activities is by functions performed. A manufacturing manager might organize a plant into engineering, accounting, manufacturing, personnel, and supply specialists departments.

UPWARD AND DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

One of the problems in downward communication is its one-way nature; generally, managers inform employees but rarely solicit their advice or opinions.

POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

Organizations are made up of individuals and groups with different values, goals, and interests, and this sets up the potential for conflict over the allocation of limited resources, such as departmental budgets, space, project responsibilities, and salary adjustments. As resources are limited, not everyone's interests can be satisfied. Furthermore, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as coming at the expense of others within the organization.

FORMS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Organizations have generally made progress toward limiting overt forms of sexual harassment. This includes unwanted physical touching, recurring requests for dates when it is made clear the person isn't interested, and coercive threats that a person will lose his or her job for refusing a sexual proposition. Problems today are likely to surface around more subtle forms of sexual harassment—unwanted looks or comments, off-color jokes, sexual artifacts like pinups posted in the workplace, or misinterpretations of where the line between being friendly ends and harassment begins.

DECENTRALIZED STRUCTURE

Organizations pursuing an innovation strategy tend to be organic with a loose structure, low specialization, low formalization, and decentralized control.

Communication must include both the transfer and the understanding of meaning.

Perfect communication, if it existed, would occur when a thought or idea was transmitted so the receiver perceived exactly the same mental picture as the sender. Communication serves four major functions within a group or organization: control, motivation, emotional expression, and information.

WHAT IS PERSONALITY

Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. Personality appears to be a result of both hereditary and environmental factors, and it changes over time. Research suggests that parents don't add much to their offspring's personality development.

People in good moods or experiencing positive emotions are more likely than others to use heuristics, or rules of thumb, to help make good decisions quickly.

Positive emotions enhance problem-solving skills. Depressed people are slower at processing information and tend to weigh all possible options rather than the most likely ones.

WHAT IS POWER

Power is a function of dependence.

WHAT IS PROCEDURAL JUSTICE

Procedural justice refers to the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.

People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so.

Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response; and that behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated.

SCAPEGOATING

Scapegoating is placing the blame for a negative outcome on external factors that are not entirely blameworthy.

Human beings are complex, and few, if any, simple and universal principles explain organizational behavior.

Since human beings are not alike, the ability to make simple, accurate, and sweeping generalizations is limited.

SOCIAL LOAFING

Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working in a group than when working individually. Group performance increases with group size, but the addition of new members has diminishing returns on productivity.

ELEMENTS OF SPAN OF CONTROL

Span of control determines the number of levels and managers an organization has. All things being equal, the wider or larger the span, the more efficient the organization.

WHAT ARE RELATIONSHIP CONFLICTS

Studies demonstrate that relationship conflicts are almost always dysfunctional. It appears that the friction and interpersonal hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding, which hinders the completion of organizational tasks.

LEVELS OF DIVERSITY

Surface-level diversity is defined as differences in easily perceived characteristics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, or disability, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel but that may activate certain stereotypes. These demographics characteristics are just the "tip of the iceberg" so to speak.

Human skills

The ability to understand, communicate with, motivate, and support other people, both individually and in groups, may be defined as human skills. Managers get things done through other people, and it is crucial for them to have good human skills.

ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

The advantages of oral communication are speed and feedback. We can convey a verbal message and receive a response in minimal time. If the receiver is unsure of the message, rapid feedback allows the sender to quickly detect and correct it. The major disadvantage of oral communication surfaces whenever a message has to pass through a number of people: the more people, the greater the potential distortion.

Evidence-based management

The basing of managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence can be termed as

Evidence-based management

The basing of managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence can be termed as evidence-based management

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

The chain of command is an unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports to whom. It answers questions such as To whom do I go if I have a problem? and To whom am I responsible?

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

The concept of organizational culture is concerned with how employees perceive the characteristics of an organization's culture, not whether they like them, and is therefore a descriptive term. On the other hand, the concept of job satisfaction seeks to measure how employees feel about the organization's expectations and reward practices and therefore is an evaluative term.

DIMENSIONS OF THE BIG 5 MODEL

The conscientiousness dimension is a measure of reliability. A highly conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable.

Citizenship behavior

The discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements and that contributes to the psychological and social environment of the workplace is called

WHAT IS RATIONAL PERSUASION

The effectiveness of some influence tactics depends on the direction of influence. For instance, rational persuasion is the only tactic effective across organizational levels.

WHAT IS DOWNSIZING

The goal of the new organizational forms is to improve agility by creating a lean, focused, and flexible organization. Companies may need to cut divisions that aren't adding value. Downsizing is a systematic effort to make an organization leaner by selling off business units, closing locations, or reducing staff.

WHAT DOES INFORMALITY CONVEY

The informality at the Alcoa headquarters conveys to employees that Alcoa values openness, equality, creativity, and flexibility.

MATRIX STRUCTURE

The matrix structure combines two forms of departmentalization: functional and product. Thus, members in a matrix structure have a dual chain of command: to their functional department and to their product groups.

Politicking

The more organizations use subjective criteria in the appraisal, emphasize a single outcome measure, or allow significant time to pass between the time of an action and its appraisal, the greater the likelihood that an employee can get away with politicking.

NEGOTIATION

The most widely cited example of distributive bargaining is labor-management negotiations over wages.

PLANNING

The planning function encompasses defining an organization's goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals, and developing a comprehensive set of plans to integrate and coordinate activities

Trait theories of leadership focus on personal qualities and characteristics

The search for personality, social, physical, or intellectual attributes that differentiate leaders from non-leaders goes back to the earliest stages of leadership research.

VIEWS OF CONFLICT

The traditional approach to conflict assumed all conflict was harmful and must be avoided.

Evidence suggests that job attitudes are highly related.

There is some distinctiveness among them, but they overlap greatly, for various reasons including the employee's personality.

Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.

They contain a judgmental element in that they carry an individual's ideas as to what is right, good, or desirable. Values contain a judgmental element in which they carry an individual's ideas as to what is right, good, or desirable.

Managers get things done through other people.

They make decisions, allocate resources, and direct the activities of others to attain goals. A manager is an individual who achieves goals through other people.

Motivation has a persistence dimension.

This measures how long a person can maintain effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

The human mind cannot formulate and solve complex problems with full rationality.

Thus, they operate within the confines of bounded rationality. The process of making decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity is known as bounded rationality.

Job dissatisfaction is more likely to translate into turnover when employment opportunities are plentiful because employees perceive it is easy to move.

When employees have high human capital—i.e., high education, high ability—job dissatisfaction is more likely to translate into turnover because they have, or perceive, many available alternatives.

It is important to match the persuasive message to the type of processing your audience is likely to use.

When the audience is not especially interested in a persuasive message topic, when they are poorly informed, when they are low in need for cognition, and when information is transmitted through relatively lean channels, they'll be more likely to use automatic processing. In these cases, use messages that are more emotion-laden and associate positive images with your preferred outcome. On the other hand, when the audience is interested in a topic, when they are high in need for cognition, or when the information is transmitted through rich channels, then it is a better idea to focus on rational arguments and evidence to make your case.

Stereotyping

When we judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are using the shortcut called stereotyping.

Information overload is

a condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual's processing capacity.

The openness to experience dimension

addresses range of interests and fascination with novelty. Extremely open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive.

The politically skilled

are able to exert their influence without others detecting it, which is a key element in their effective use of power.

Formal channels

are established by the organization and transmit messages related to the professional activities of members. They traditionally follow the authority chain within the organization. Other forms of messages, such as personal or social, follow informal channels, which are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices.

Moods

are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus. Contextual stimulus, strong feelings, and being directed at an event or person are characteristics of an emotion. In addition, both mood and emotion can be positive. Moods often last longer than emotions (hours or days), are more general in nature and often not indicated by distinct expressions. The are cognitive in nature.

Emotions

are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. The are caused by a specific event, very brief in duration, specific and numerous in nature, usually accompanied by distinct facial expressions and are action oriented in nature.

Extraverts

are more impulsive than introverts; they are more likely to be absent from work and engage in risky behavior.

Effectiveness and efficiency

are not the same thing. Managers want to strive for effectiveness along with efficiency.

Role expectations

are the way people believe others should act in a given context. This example shows the role expectations that most people have of a police officer.

Displayed emotions

are those that the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given job. They are not innate and are learned.

Internally caused behaviors

are those we believe to be under the personal control of the individual.

A firm can departmentalize

based on the particular type of customer the organization seeks to reach. Microsoft, for example, is organized around four customer markets: consumers, large corporations, software developers, and small businesses. Customers in each department have a common set of problems and needs best met by having specialists for each. Wiper Inc. is departmentalized to meet different customer needs.

The matrix structure

breaks the unity-of-command concept and increases ambiguity about who reports to whom. The strength of the matrix is its ability to facilitate coordination when the organization has a number of complex and interdependent activities.

In the third stage

close relationships develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie.

Of the three bases of formal power

coercive, reward, legitimate

Transformational leaders

create support for their ideas in part by arguing that their direction will be in everyone's best interest. This represents the key characteristics related to a leader's trustworthiness, benevolence.

Upward communication

flows to a higher level in the group or organization. It's used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress toward goals, and relay current problems. The employees are holding this signature campaign to convey their pay-related grievance to the management.

Psychology

focuses on the individual

Affective events theory (AET)

demonstrates that employees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work, and this reaction influences their job performance and satisfaction.

Deep-level diversity comprises

differences in values, personality, and work preferences that become progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to know one another better.

Several cultural characteristics

differentiate spiritual organizations from their nonspiritual counterparts, including benevolence, a strong sense of purpose, trust and respect, and open-mindedness.

The interactionist view

does not propose that all conflicts are good. Rather, functional conflict supports the goals of the group and improves its performance and thus is a constructive form of conflict. A conflict that hinders group performance is a destructive or dysfunctional conflict.

Power

does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence.

Collectivism

emphasizes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.

Technical skills

encompass the ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job.

The planning function

encompasses defining an organization's goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals, and developing a comprehensive set of plans to integrate and coordinate activities. Evidence indicates this function increases the most as managers move from lower-level to mid-level management.

Two bases of personal power

expert, referent

Each party in a negotiation

has a target point that defines what he or she would like to achieve. Each also has a resistance point, which marks the lowest outcome that is acceptable, the point below which the party would break off negotiations rather than accept a less favorable settlement. The area between these two points makes up each one's aspiration range. As long as there is some overlap between A's and B's aspiration ranges, there exists a settlement range in which each one's aspirations can be met.

The theoretical model of the exit-voice-loyalty-neglect framework is

helpful in understanding the consequences of dissatisfaction.

People with proactive personalities

identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs. They create positive change in the environment regardless of constraints or obstacles. They are more likely than others to be seen as leaders and to act as change agents.

The voice response

includes actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting improvements, discussing problems with superiors, and undertaking some forms of union activity.

Political skills of people

indicate their ability to influence others to enhance their own objectives.

Verbal persuasion

involves becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful. Motivational speakers use this tactic a lot.

Unfair discrimination

involves overlooking individual characteristics and assuming everyone in a group is the same. This discrimination is often very harmful to organizations and employees.

Appointing a devil's advocate

is a conflict-stimulation technique where a critic is designated to purposely argue against the majority positions held by the group.

Culture

is a liability when the shared values are not in agreement with those that further the organization's effectiveness. This is most likely when an organization's environment is dynamic and is undergoing rapid change. In this case, its entrenched culture may no longer be appropriate.

The conscientiousness dimension

is a measure of reliability. A highly conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent.

Automatic processing

is a relatively superficial consideration of evidence and information making use of heuristics. Automatic processing takes little time and low effort. Automatic processing is used when interest level, prior knowledge, and need for cognition are low.

The anchoring bias

is a tendency to fixate on initial information and fail to adequately adjust for subsequent information. It occurs because our mind appears to give a disproportionate amount of emphasis to the first information it receives.

An arbitrator

is a third party with the authority to dictate an agreement. Arbitration can be voluntary or compulsory. The big plus of arbitration over mediation is that it always results in a settlement.

Attribution theory

is an attempt to determine whether an individual's behavior is internally or externally caused. We judge people differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior. Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused.

Self-efficacy

is an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed.

Ability

is an individual's current capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Overall abilities are essentially made up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical.

A boundaryless organization

is an organization that seeks to eliminate the chain of command, to have limitless spans of control, and to replace departments with empowered teams. It eliminates vertical and horizontal boundaries within it and breaks down external barriers between the company and its customers and suppliers.

Referent power

is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits.

Emotional labor

is defined as a situation in which an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work, meaning that his/her job demands a certain set of emotional responses regardless of true feelings.

Cognitive dissonance

is defined as any incompatibility an individual might perceive between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes. Organizational dissonance, attitudinal clarification, positivity offset, and affective reactance are not types of attitude or behavior in OB.

Emotional dissonance

is defined as the inconsistency between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project.

Affect intensity

is defined as the individual differences in the strength with which individuals experience their emotions. Affectively intense people experience both positive and negative emotions more deeply: when they are sad, they are very sad, and when they are happy, they are very happy.

The theoretical model of the exit-voice-loyalty-neglect framework

is helpful in understanding the consequences of dissatisfaction.

Surface acting

is hiding inner feelings and foregoing emotional expressions in response to display rules.

Surface acting

is hiding inner feelings and foregoing emotional expressions in response to display rules. An employee masking her emotions of distrust toward the management is an example of surface acting.

Expert power

is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals. It is generally acknowledged that physicians have expertise and hence expert power: Most of us follow our doctor's advice.

One of the problems in downward communication

is its one-way nature; generally, managers inform employees but rarely solicit their advice or opinions.

A transactional leader

is likely to reward employees for the work that they have done, thus recognizing accomplishments.

The negotiation process

is made up of five steps: (1) preparation and planning, (2) definition of ground rules, (3) clarification and justification, (4) bargaining and problem solving, and (5) closure and implementation.

Sexual harassment

is more likely to occur when there are large power differentials. The supervisor-employee dyad best characterizes an unequal power relationship, where formal power gives the supervisor the capacity to reward and coerce. Because employees want favorable performance reviews, salary increases, and the like, supervisors control resources most employees consider important and scarce. Thus, sexual harassment by the boss typically creates the greatest difficulty for those being harassed.

Job dissatisfaction

is more likely to translate into turnover when employment opportunities are plentiful because employees perceive it is easy to move. When employees have high human capital—i.e., high education, high ability—job dissatisfaction is more likely to translate into turnover because they have, or perceive, many available alternatives.

Written communication

is often tangible and verifiable. Both the sender and receiver have a record of the communication, and the message can be stored for an indefinite period.

High job involvement

is related to reduced absences and lower resignation rates.

The management function planning

is said to increase the most as managers move from lower-level to mid-level management.

Feedback

is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved.

One explanation for social loafing

is the dispersion of responsibility. Because group results cannot be attributed to any single person, the relationship between an individual's input and the group's output is clouded. Individuals may then be tempted to become free riders and coast on the group's efforts.

Need for achievement (nAch)

is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards. Erika is demonstrating the need to achieve.

Contrast effect

is the evaluation of a person's characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

The closure and implementation step

is the final step in the negotiation process. It involves formalizing the agreement that has been worked out and developing any procedures necessary for implementation and monitoring.

The channel

is the medium through which the message travels.

Storming

is the second stage in the five-stage group development model. The storming stage is one of intragroup conflict. Members accept the existence of the group but resist the constraints it imposes on individuality.

Personality

is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. Personality appears to be a result of both hereditary and environmental factors, and it changes over time. Research suggests that parents don't add much to their offspring's personality development.

Social loafing

is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working in a group than when working individually. Group performance increases with group size, but the addition of new members has diminishing returns on productivity.

Illusory correlation

is the tendency of people to associate two events that in reality have no connection.

When people see themselves as over-rewarded

it creates guilt. According to equity theory, in order to reinstate a sense of equity, Jim will change his inputs (exert more if overpaid). He will increase his productivity and/or the overall quality of his work.

While intelligence is a big help in performing a job well

it does not make people happier or more satisfied with their jobs. The correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction is about zero. Research suggests that although intelligent people perform better and tend to have more interesting jobs, they are also more critical when evaluating their job conditions.

The all-channel network permits all group members to actively communicate with each other;

it's most often characterized in practice by self-managed teams, in which all group members are free to contribute and no one person takes on a leadership role.

According to the leader-member exchange theory

leaders are inconsistent in style and character across subordinates

People who have positive core self-evaluations

like themselves and see themselves as effective, capable, and in control of their environment. Those with negative core self-evaluations tend to dislike themselves, question their capabilities, and view themselves as powerless over their environment.

Today's trend toward decentralized organizations

makes culture more important than ever. When formal authority and control systems are reduced, culture's shared meaning points everyone in the same direction.

The limited information-processing capability of human beings

makes it impossible to assimilate and understand all the information necessary to optimize. In addition, many problems likely do not have an optimal solution because they are too complicated to be broken down into the parameters of the rational decision-making model. Hence, people satisfice, that is, they seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient.

According to Theory X

managers believe employees inherently dislike work and must therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it. Per Theory X, a manager would not trust employees and would feel inclined to control all aspects of their work.

In today's competitive and demanding workplace

managers cannot succeed on their technical skills alone. They also need to have good people skills.

In today's competitive and demanding workplace,

managers cannot succeed on their technical skills alone. They also need to have good people skills.

In order to minimize groupthink

managers should encourage group leaders to play an impartial role. Leaders should actively seek input from all members and avoid expressing their own opinions, especially in the early stages of deliberation. In addition, managers should appoint one group member to play the role of devil's advocate; this member's role is to overtly challenge the majority position and offer divergent perspectives.

Deductive reasoning

may be defined as a person's ability to use logic and assess the implications of an argument. For instance, a supervisor choosing between two different suggestions needs to have the deductive visualization dimension of intellectual ability.

Job involvement

measures the degree to which people identify psychologically with their job and consider their perceived performance level important to self-worth. Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work they do.

The organizational culture

most likely to shape high ethical standards among its members is one that's high in risk tolerance, low to moderate in aggressiveness, and focused on means as well as outcomes. This type of culture also takes a long-term perspective and balances the rights of multiple stakeholders, including the communities in which the business operates, its employees, and its stockholders.

The emotional stability dimension

often labeled by its converse, neuroticism, taps a person's ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and unsecure.

The basing of managerial decisions

on the best available scientific evidence can be termed as evidence-based management.

The cognitive component of an attitude is a description of

or belief in the way things are, which is exemplified in the statement, "A person who eats meat and then fights for animal rights demonstrates double standards."

In high-context cultures

people rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues in communicating with others, and a person's official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerable weight. What is not said may be more significant than what is said. In contrast, in low-context cultures, people rely essentially on spoken and written words to convey meaning; body language and formal titles are secondary.

The four primary management functions include:

planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. There used to be a list of five, but "commanding" was removed as the nature of the workforce has changed and most of us don't expect to our supervisors to "command" performance. If you've been in one of the branches of the armed service, you might be more familiar with that sort of management function and those of you in the homeland security/emergency management field can probably relate to it as well.

Job dissatisfaction and antagonistic relationships with co-workers

predict a variety of behaviors organizations find undesirable, including unionization attempts, substance abuse, stealing at work, undue socializing, and tardiness. Researchers argue these behaviors are indicators of a broader syndrome called deviant behavior in the workplace (or counterproductive behavior or employee withdrawal).

The three-component model of creativity

proposes that individual creativity essentially requires expertise, creative thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation.

Self-determination theory

proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation.

The two-factor theory

proposes that the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction.

A strong culture should

reduce employee turnover because it demonstrates high agreement about what the organization represents. Such unanimity of purpose builds cohesiveness, loyalty, and organizational commitment. These qualities, in turn, lessen employees' propensity to leave.

Biographical characteristics

refer to personal characteristics such as age, gender, race, and length of tenure that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. These characteristics are representative of surface-level diversity.

Instrumental values

refer to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values. Personal discipline is an instrumental value and all other options are terminal values.

Contingency variables

refer to situational factors that moderate the relationship between two or more variables.

Self-monitoring

refers to an individual's ability to adjust his/her behavior to external, situational factors. Individuals scoring high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external situational factors. They are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in different situations.

Employee engagement

refers to an individual's involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for, the work he/she does. Highly engaged employees have a passion for their work and feel a deep connection to their company whereas disengaged employees put in time but not energy or attention into their work.

Integrity

refers to honesty and truthfulness. It is the most critical characteristic in assessing another's trustworthiness. Integrity also means having consistency between what you do and say.

Filtering

refers to how a sender purposely manipulates information so the receiver will see it more favorably.

Escalation of commitment

refers to staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence it is wrong.

Centralization

refers to the degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. In centralized organizations, top managers make all the decisions and lower-level managers merely carry out their directives.

Formalization

refers to the degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized. If a job is highly formalized, the employee has a minimum amount of discretion over what, when, and how to do it. A high degree of formalization is characterized by clearly defined procedures covering work processes in organizations. Since the clerical and editorial employees have to follow a set of precise procedures dictated by management, their jobs score high on the degree of formalization.

Workforce diversity

refers to the heterogeneity of organizations in terms of gender, age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and inclusion of other diverse groups.

Procedural justice

refers to the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.

Availability bias

refers to the tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them.

Procedural justice

relates most strongly to job satisfaction, employee trust, withdrawal from the organization, job performance, and citizenship behaviors.

The rational decision-making model

relies on a number of assumptions, including that the decision maker has complete information, is able to identify all the relevant options in an unbiased manner, and chooses the option with the highest utility.

The affective component

represents the emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude.

Leadership

requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led.

Of the three bases of formal power (coercive, reward, legitimate) and two bases of personal power (expert, referent)

research suggests pretty clearly that the personal sources of power are most effective.

Equity theory

states that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. Employees perceive what they get from a job situation (salary levels, raises, recognition) in relationship to what they put into it (effort, experience, education, competence) and then compare their outcome-input ratio with that of relevant others.

Sociology

studies people in relation to their social environment or culture.

The most important thing managers can do to raise employee satisfaction is focus on the intrinsic parts of the job

such as making the work challenging and interesting. Although paying employees poorly will likely not attract high-quality

The most important thing managers can do to raise employee satisfaction is focus on the intrinsic parts of the job

such as making the work challenging and interesting. Although paying employees poorly will likely not attract high-quality employees to the organization or keep high performers, managers should realize that high pay alone is unlikely to create a satisfying work environment.

Research suggests activities that are physical

such as skiing or hiking with friends, informal, such as going to a party, or epicurean, like eating with others, are more strongly associated with increases in positive mood than events that are formal or sedentary.

Attribution theory

suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Determination however, depends largely on three factors, namely, distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency.

Needs for affiliation and power

tend to be closely related to managerial success. The best managers are high in their need for power and low in their need for affiliation. In fact, a high power motive may be a requirement for managerial effectiveness.

Individuals low in self-monitoring

tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every situation; hence, there is high behavioral consistency between who they are and what they do.

Studies show that satisfaction

tends to continually increase among professionals as they age, whereas it falls among nonprofessionals during middle age and then rises again in the later years.

The discretionary behavior

that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements and that contributes to the psychological and social environment of the workplace is called citizenship behavior.

Leadership can be defined as

the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. Leaders can emerge from within a group as well as by formal appointment.

According to Hofstede's framework

the degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations defines their uncertainty avoidance. Cultures low on uncertainty avoidance are more accepting of ambiguity, are less rule oriented, take more risks, and more readily accept change.

According to the exit-voice-loyalty-neglect framework

the neglect response passively allows conditions to worsen and includes chronic absenteeism or lateness, reduced effort, and increased error rate.

To work out any problems discovered during the encounter stage

the new member changes, or goes through the metamorphosis stage. It is the last stage in the three-stage socialization process. At the end of this stage, the new members internalize and accept the norms of the organization and their work group, are confident in their competence, and feel trusted and valued by their peers.

In a strong culture

the organization's core values are both intensely held and widely shared. The more members who accept the core values and the greater their commitment, the stronger the culture and the greater its influence on member behavior because the high degree of sharedness and intensity creates an internal climate of high behavioral control.

During the cognition and personalization stage

the parties decide what the conflict is about. The definition of a conflict is important because it typically delineates the set of possible settlements.

Since group results cannot be attributed to any single person

the relationship between an individual's input and the group's output is clouded. Individuals may then be tempted to become free riders and coast on the group's efforts. To avoid this, individual efforts in a group's outcome should be identified.

When most people think of conflict situations

they tend to focus on Stage IV because this is where conflicts become visible. The behavior stage includes the statements, actions, and reactions made by the conflicting parties, usually as overt attempts to implement their own intentions.

Evidence indicates that work specialization contributes

to higher employee productivity but at the price of reduced job satisfaction.

Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations

to reflect common problems, situations, or experiences faced by groups of members in the same department or location. The purchasing department can have a subculture that includes the core values of the dominant culture plus additional values unique to members of the purchasing department.

In group favoritism means

we see members of our in group as better than other people, and people not in our group as all the same.

People perceive their organization as supportive when rewards are deemed fair...

when employees have a voice in decisions, and when they see their supervisors as supportive.

Conflict is constructive

when it improves the quality of decisions, stimulates creativity and innovation, encourages curiosity and interest among group members, provides the medium for problems to be aired and tension released, and fosters self-evaluation and change.

The trend in recent years has been toward wider spans of control

which are consistent with efforts to reduce costs, cut overhead, speed decision making, increase flexibility, get closer to customers, and empower employees.

Any characteristic that makes a person, an object, or an event stand out

will increase the probability we will perceive it. Since we can't observe everything going on about us, we engage in selective perception.

A formal group is one that is defined by the organization's structure

with designated work assignments establishing tasks. An informal group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined.