ORGB 2811 EXAM PREP NO

Prospect theory effect

A natural tendency to feel more dissatisfaction from losing a particular amount than satisfaction from gaining an equal amount.

Need for affiliation (nAff)

A need in which people seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation.

Need for acheivement (nAch)

A need in which people want to accomplish reasonable challenging goals, and desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success.

Need for power (nPow)

A need in which people want to control their environment, including people and material resources, to benefit either themselves (personalized power) or others (socialized power).

Define primacy effect.

A perceptual error in ehich we quickly form an opinion of people on the basis of first information we receive about them.

Define recency effect.

A perceptual error in which the most recent information dominates our perception of others.

Define false-consensus effect.

A perceptual error in which we overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own.

Define halo effect.

A perceptual error whereby our general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, distorts our perception of other characteristics of that person.

Briefly explain implicit leadership perspective.

A perceptual perspective. Implicit leadership theory is based on followers' perceptions of attributes a leader has. Has two components: leader prototypes and the romance or attribution of leadership. Provides valuable perspective that leadership is a perspective of followers as much as the actual behaviors and formal roles (see the romance of leadership). Potential leaders must take that into account (understand what followers expect). Not making an effort to fit leadership prototype may result in more difficulty bringing about necessary organizational change.

Explain referent power.

A person has referent power when others identify, or like, or respect him or her. Originates from within powerholder. Mostly a funtion of interpersonal skills and develops slowly. Associated with charisma (interpersonal attraction, a gift, magical powers - no good explanation given in the book) that provides high degree of trust, respect and devotion towards the charismatic individual.

Define self-efficacy.

A person's belief that he or she has the ability, motivation, correct role perceptions and favourable situation to complete a task successfully.

Job satisfaction

A person's evaluation of his or her job and work context.

Define locus of control.

A person's general belief about the amount of control he or she has over personal life events.

Define self-verification.

A person's inherent motivation to confirm and maintain his or her existing self-concept.

Define self-enhancement.

A person's inherent motivation to have positive self-concept (and to have others to perceive him or her favourably), such as being competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, and important.

Define empathy.

A person's understanding of and sensitivty to the feelings, thoughts, and situation of others.

Define emphathy.

A person's undestanding of and sensitivity to feelings, thoughts, and situation of others.

Define and explain ethical sensitivity

A personal characteristic that enables people to recognize the presence of an ethical issue and determine its relative importance. Ethically sensitive people are not necessarily more ethical. Ethically sensitive people tend to have higher empathy. Ethically sensitive people usually have more information about the situation.

Define conscientiousness

A personality dimension describing people who are careful, dependable, and self-disciplined.

Define extroversion

A personality dimension describing people who are outgoing, talkative, sociable and assertive.

Define neuroticism

A personality dimension describing people with high levels of anxiety, hostility, depression, and self-consciousness.

Define positive organizational behavior.

A perspective of organizational behavior that focuses on building positive qualities and traits within the individuals or institutions as opposed to focusing on what is wrong with them.

Define high-performance work practices (HPWP)

A perspective which holds that effective organizations incorporate several workplace practices that leverage the potential of human capital.

Define organizational learning aka knowledge management

A perspective which holds that organizational effectiveness depends on the organization's capacity to acquire, share, use, and store valuable knowledge.

Define open systems

A perspective which holds that organizations depend on the external environment for resources, affect that environment through their output, and consist of internal subsystems that transform inputs into outputs.

Strengths-based coaching

A positive organizational behavior approach to coaching and feedback that focuses on building and leveraging the employee's strengths rather than trying to correct his or her weaknesses.

Mental imagery

The process of mentally practising a task and visualizing its successful completion.

Goal setting

The process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives.

Define perception.

The process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us.

Self-talk

The process of talking to ourselves about our own thoughts or actions.

social networks

social structures of individuals or social units that are connected to each other though one or more forms of interdependence

define leadership substitutes

A theory identifying contingencies that either limit a leader's ability to influence employees or make a particular leadership style unnecessary.

Job burnout

The process of emotional exaustion, cynicism, and reduced personal accomplishment that results from prolonged exposure to stressors.

Self-leadership

The process of influencing oneself to establish the self-direction and self-motivation needed to perform a task.

What is process losses?

Resources (including time and energy) expended toward team development and maintenance rather than the task.

Employee share ownership plans (ESOPs)

Reward systems that encourage employees to buy company shares.

Share options

Reward systems that give employees the right to purchase company shares at a future date at a predetermined price.

Describe the elements of self-concept and explain how they affect an individuals behavior and well-being.

Self-concept: 1. Self-beliefs. 2. Self-evaluations. 3 structural dimensions: complexity, consistency, clarity influence well-being, behavior and performance. Inherent need for: self-enhancement (promote and protect) and self-verification (maintenance). Self-evaluations consist of self-esteem, self-efficacy and locus of control. Self-concept also consists of both personality identity and social identity. Social identity theory explains how people define themselves in terms of the groups to which they belong or have an emotional attachment.

Explain team roles and what are two types of team roles.

Set of behaviors people are expected to perform because of the positions they hold in the team or organization. Roles maybe formal and informal. Formal: responsible for design. Informal: a shoulder to cry on.

Describe personal goal setting.

Setting goals alone, rather than getting them assigned or jointly decided.

What type of influence do people with strong legitimate power tend to use?

Silent authority.

Explain situational factors of ethical conduct.

Situational factors may influence ethical behavior. A common factor that influences unethical behavior is pressure from upper management. to meet unrealistic deadlines and objectives.

Explain natural rewards.

Slightly altering tasks to make them more enjoyable and motivating.

What are the sources of feedback?

Social and non-social. Non-social: electronic displays, etc.

Explain sources of conflict in organizations.

Source of conflict: 1. Incompatible goals. For example, production dpt wants cost reduction, but sales wants faster production. 2. Differentiation. Difference in training, values, beliefs and experiences. For example, micro-managing or giving autonomy when striving for the same goal. Also includes intergenerational conflicts. Different needs, expectations and workplace practices. Also includes mergers. Employees from different companies are likely to have different ways of doing things due to their unique experiences. 3. Interdependence. Task interdependence - sharing materials, information or expertise to perform job. It is easier to interfere, so easier to generate conflict. 4. Scarce resources. For example, most strikes occur because the companies do not have sufficient resources to satisfy employee demands. 5. Ambiguous rules. Uncertainty increases the risk that one party will **** the other party over. Also encourages politics and free-for-all battle for more stuff. Also mergers - employees have conflicting practices and values and rules are yet to be developed - free area to **** around. When clear rules exist, this behavior stops. 6. Poor communication. Lack of opportunity, ability or motivation to communicate effectively fuels conflict. Lack of opportunity promotes reliance on stereotypes. Lack of skills may make people unable to communicate effectively, respectfully, politely etc. Arrogant communication creates a heightened perception of the conflict for opponents. The opposing party may reciprocate and everyone gets ****ed.

Define values

Stable, evaluative beliefs, that guide our preferences for outcomes or courses of actions in a variety of situations. They are stable and long-lasting.

Explain stakeholder perspective

Stakeholder perspective states that leaders manage the interests of diverse stakeholders by relying on their personal and organizational values for guidance. Ethics and corporate social responsibility (CSR) are natural extentsions of values-based organizations. CSR consists of organizational activirties intended to benefit society and the environment, without financial benefits to the company or legal requirements.

Job evaluation

Systematically rating the worth of jobs within an organization by measuring their required skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions.

What types of performance does emotional intelligence not improve?

Tasks that require minimal social interaction.

Role of team building in acceleration of team development.

Team building attempts to speed up team development process. Can be applied to new teams, but is most commonly introduced to old teams that regressed to earlier stages due to membership turnover or loss of focus. Team-building interventions can be: 1. task-focused: clarify performance goals, increase team's motivation to accomplish these goals, establish a mechanism for systematic feedback on the team's goal performance. 2. problem-solving skills improvement. 3. clarify and reconstruct role perceptions individually. Also helps develop shared mental models. 4. improve relations between team members. Aim to to get everyone to learn more about each other, build trust in each other and find ways to manage conflict. Team building activities are ok as a solution to general problems. Specific problems need to be singled out, broken down and addressed. Also team building is often implemented as one-shot intervention, when in reality it needs to be continuously reinforced. Also, team building occurs on a job, not only in a leisure center like a park or what-not. To facilitate on-the-job team-building the members are encouraged to reflect on their work experiences.

Explain team norms

Team norms are informal rules and shared expectations that groups establish to regulate the behavior of their members. They apply to behavior only, not thoughts and feelings, and apply to team-relevant behaviors only. Based on punishment and reinforcement.

Gainsharing plans

Team-based rewards that calculate bonuses from the work unit's cost savings and productivity improvement.

When are teams better and when are individuals better?

Teams are better for complex tasks when several people are needed to have appropriate knowledge and skills. Complex work has better outcome when it is divided in specialized tasks coordinated with each other. Non-complex work that won't benefit from the specialization or that cannot be specialized is better is performed by the individual with sufficient skills, rather than a group. In case of needing specialization, team structure may not be necessary if minimal coordination is required.

Task characteristics and team development.

Teams are well suited when complex work is divided in specialized tasks and people coordinate with each other. Also, well-structured tasks work better with teams.

Define virtual teams

Teams whose members operate across space, time, and organizational boundaries, and are linked through information technologies to achieve organizational tasks.

Define virtual teams.

Teams, whose members operate across space, time and organizational boundaries and are linked though information technologies to achieve organizational tasks.

Explain coersive power

The ability to apply punishment. Managers can do it through dismissal threats. Employees through sarcasm, threats for exclusion (for example, if you don't pull your weight - we will not like you).

Intuition

The ability to know when a problem or opportunity exists and to select the best course of action without conscious reasoning.

Define organizational efficiency

The amount of outputs relative to inputs in the organization's transformation process.

Discuss preventing and changing dysfunctional team norms (4).

The best prevention is to establish desirable norms when the team is created. Another way is to select people with appropriate values. As for change, leaders can reduce bad norms and increase good norms though speaking up or active coaching or team-based rewards (the latter is not always effective). If the dysfunctional norms are deeply ingrained, it may be necessary to disband the team completely and get more fitting members.

Attitudes

The cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event (called an attitude object).

Explain workplace communication through social media.

The companies are considering switching from email to social media. Social media serve several functions: 1. Presenting the individual's identity. 2. Enabling conversations. 3. Sharing information. 4. Sensing the presence of others in virtual space. 5. Maintaining relationships. 6. Revealing reputation or status. 7. Supporting communities. Different social media has a different combination of these functions. Many companies are not implementing social media, because of lack of knowledge, staff/resources and technical support.

Creativity

The development of original ideas that make a socially recognized contribution.

Skill variety

The extent to which employees must use different skills and talents to perform tasks within their jobs.

Define and explain role perceptions and three ways that make roles clear or unclear.

The extent to which people understand the job duties (roles) assigned to or expected of them. 3 ways of roles being clear: 1. Make duties specific and consequences clear. 2. Make clear understanding of prioritizing and performance expectations. For example, quantity vs quality and vice versa. 3. Make clear preferred behaviors. This applies to situations when employees have several ways of accomplishing the task.

Task interdependence

The extent to which team members must share materials, information or expertise in order to perform their jobs.

Motivation

The forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity and persistence of voluntary behaviour.

Exit-voice-loyalty-neglect (EVLN) model

The four ways, as indicated in the name, that employees respond to job dissatisfaction.

Define self-fullfilling prophecy.

The perceptual process in which our expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations.

Define attribution process

The perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behavior or event is caused largely by internal or external factors.

Define attribution process.

The perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behavior or event is caused largely by internal or external factors.

Job enlargement

The practice of adding more tasks to an existing job.

Job enrichment

The practice of giving employees more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating and planning their own work.

Define evidence-based management

The practice of making decisions and taking actions based on research evidence.

Job rotation

The practice of moving employees from one job to another.

Social loafing

The problem that occurs when people exert less effort (and usually perform at a lower level) when working in teams than working alone.

Job specialization

The result of division of labour in which each job includes a subset of the tasks required to complete the product or service.

Explain organization-community values congruence.

The similarity of organization's dominant values with the prevailing values of the community or society in which it conducts business.

Define human capital

The stock of knowledge, skills, and abilities among employees that provides economic value to the organization.

Escalation of commitment

The tendency to repeat an apparently bad decision or allocate more resources to a failing course of action.

Define confirmation bias.

The tendency to screen out information that is contrary to our decisions, beliefs, values, and assumptions, and to more readily accept confirming information.

Define fundamental attribution error.

The tendency to see the person rather than situation as the main cause of that person's behavior.

Define persuasion.

The use of facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person's beliefs and attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing the person's behavior.

Explain person-organization values congruence.

This occurs when a person's values are similar to the organization's dominant values.This leads to higher job satisfaction.

Compare and contrast 4 current perspectives of organizational effectiveness as well as the early goal attainment perspective.

The goal attainment perspective (organizations are only effective if they achieve their stated objectives) is not longer accepted. This is because: 1. Goals may be too easy. 2. Goals may be too abstract to determine their accomplishment. 3. Achievement of some goals may threaten the company's survival. 1. Open systems perspective - organizations are complex organisms living within external environment. They depend on external environments for resources, use organizational subsystems to transform these resources into outputs that are returned to the environment. Feedback from the external environment helps maintain a good fit. Fit occurs by adapting to the environment, managing the environment or moving to another environment. 2. Organizational learning perspective - organizations are effective if they can acquire, share, use and store valuable knowledge. Ability to acquire and store depends on organization's absorptive capacity. Intellectual capital consists of human capital, structural capital, and relationship capital. Knowledge is retained in the organizational memory. Companies can selectively unlearn. 3. HPWP - high performance work practices. This is a bundle of systems and structures to use workforce potential most effectively. The components are: 1. Employee involvement. 2. Job autonomy. 3. Developing employee competencies 4. Peformance/skill-based rewards. 5. Stakeholder perspective states that leaders manage the interests of diverse stakeholders by relying on their personal and organizational values for guidance. Ethics and corporate social responsibility (CSR) are natural extentsions of values-based organizations. CSR consists of organizational activirties intended to benefit society and the environment, without financial benefits to the company or legal requirements.

Define organizational effectiveness

A broad concept represented by several perspectives, including the organization's fit with the external environment, internal-subsystems configuration for high performance, emphasis on organizational learning and ability to satisfy the needs of key stakeholders.

define situatuional leadership theory (SLT)

A commercially popular but poorly supported leadership model stating that effective leaders vary their style (telling, selling, participating, delegating) with the "readiness" of followers.

Define management by walking around (MBWA)

A communication practice in which executives get out of their offices and learn from others in the organization through face-to-face dialogue.

Define intellectual capital

A company's stock of knowledge, including human capital, structural capital and relationship capital.

Define information overload.

A condition in which the volume of information received exceeds the person's capacity to process it.

define Fiedler's contingency model

A early contingency leadership model, developed by Fred Fiedler, which suggests that leader effectiveness depends on whether the person's natural leadership style is appropriately matched with the situation.

Outline the main features of a global mindset and justify its usefulness to employees and organizations.

A global mindset is a multidimensional competency that includes the individual's ability to perceive, know about, and process information across cultures. This includes: 1. An awareness of, openness to, and respect for other views and practices in the world. 2. The capacity to empathize and act effectively across cultures. 3. Ability to process complex information about novel environments. 4. Ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural matters with multiple levels of thinking. A global mindset enables people to develop better cross-cultural relationships, to digest huge volumes of cross-cultural information, and to identify and respond more quickly to emerging global opportunities. Employees develop a global mindset through self-awareness, opportunities to compare their own mental models with people from other cultures, through formal cross-cultural training, and through immersion in other cultures.

Balanced scorecard (BSC)

A goal-setting and reward system that translated the organization's vision and mission into specific, measurable peformance goals related to financial, customer, internal, and learning/growth (i.e. human capital) processes.

Job characteristics model

A job design model that relates the motivational properties of jobs to specific personal and organizational consequences of those properties.

define managerial leadership

A leadership perspective stating that effective leaders help employees improve their performance and well-being in current situation.

define transformational leadership

A leadership perspective that explains how leaders change teams or organizations by creating, communicating, and modelling a shared vision for the team or organization, and inspiring employees to strive for that vision.

Define media richness.

A medium's data-carrying capacity, that is, the volume and variety of the information that can be transmitted during a specific time.

Define and explain Johari Window

A model of mutual understanding that encourages disclosure and feedback to increase our own open area and reduce the blind, hidden and unknown areas. There are 4 windows of info about a you: open (info known to you and others), blind (known to others only), hidden (known to you only) and unknown (not known to you or others). The window can be made smaller by disclosure - informing others of your beliefs, feelings and experiences.

General adaptation syndrome

A model of the stress experience, consisting of three stages: alarm reaction, resistance and exhaustion.

Expectancy theory

A motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes.

Maslow's needs hierarchy theory

A motivation theory of needs arranged in a hierarchy whereby people are motivated to fulfill a higher need as a lower one becomes gratified.

Define presenteeism

Attending scheduled work when one's capacity to perform is significantly diminished by illness or other factors.

What is the difference between attitudes and emotions?

Attitudes are judgements, but emotions are experiences.

Define wikis

Collaborative Web spaces where anyone in a group can write, edit, or remove material from the website.

Explain changing organizational culture.

Changing corporate culture is hard and often the culture ends up changing or replacing corporate leaders. However, sometimes the change is necessary to keep to company afloat with the changing environment. Ways to change organizational structure: 1. Actions of founders and leaders. Great leaders form their organizational culture during its early stages and introduce ways to make the culture stick often through being powerful visionaries and role models. The founders personality may imprint on company's culture, the founders may be a subject of organizational stories that also reinforce the culture. This culture can be reshaped through transformational leadership and organizational change practices. 2. Aligning artifacts. Artifacts are visible indicators of culture that keep the culture in place. By altering artifacts, or creating new ones leaders can potentially adjust shared values and assumptions. Corporate culture is altered and strengthened through the artifacts of stories and behaviors. Leaders play a role by creating memorable events that symbolize the cultural values they want to develop and maintain. Companies also strengthen culture in new operations by transferring current employees who abide by the culture. 3. Introducing culturally consistent rewards. Reward systems are artifacts that often have powerful effects on strengthening or reshaping an organization's culture. 4. Selecting and socializing employees. Organizational culture is strengthened by attracting and hiring people who already embrace the cultural values. This process, along with weeding out people who don't fit the culture is explained by attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory. ASA theory states that organizations have a natural tendency to attract, select and retain people with values and personality characteristics that are consistent with organization's culture. Attraction. Job applicants engage in self-selection by avoiding employment in the companies whose values seem incompatible with their own. Companies try to describe their culture, as well as applicants look for artifacts when visiting the company. Selection. How well a person fits in with the company culture. Interviews, other selection tests. Attrition. If the environment is a poor fit, the people leave. Work environment supports social identity and minimizes internal role conflict. Even if employees aren't forced out, many quit when values incongruence is sufficiently high. Organizational socialization is the process by which individuals learn values, expected behaviors, and social knowledge necessary to assume their roles in the organization. It can change employees values to become more aligned with the company's culture, however, it is a difficult process. It also helps newcomers adjust to coworkers, work procedures, and other corporate realities. Effective socialization increases performance, job satisfactions and length of employment with the company. Organizational socialization is a process of learning and adjustment. Learning: learning organization's performance expectations, power dynamics, corporate culture, history and jargon; forming relationships with coworkers, this creating a cognitive map of physical, social, strategic and cultural dynamics of the organization without info overload. Adjustment: adapting to new work environment. Discovery of work roles that reconfigure social identity, adopt new team norms and practice new behaviours; is a rapid process; newcomers with diverse work experience seem to adjust better (larger toolkit of knowledge and skills).

Cultural and gender differences in conflict handling styles.

Culture differences may influence conflict handling style. Men and women may have different conflict handling styles as well. Women pay more attention to relationships between parties and like compromising and occasionally problem solving style. Men are more competitive and have short-term orientation to the relationship. This leads to liking forcing approach in low-collectivism cultures. Though, overall, gender has low influence.

List 4 current and 1 outdated perspective of organizational effectiveness.

Current: 1. Open systems perspective. 2. Organizational learning perspective. 3. HPWP perspective. 4. Stakeholder perspective. Outdated: 1. Goal attainment perspective.

Define globalization

Economic, social, and cultural connectivity with people in other parts of the world.

Why is feedback important?

Feedback clarifies role perceptions, improves skills and knowledge, motivates when it is constructive and when employees have strong self-efficacy.

What 3 sources of power originate mostly from powerholder's formal position or informal role? What 2 sources of power originate mostly from powerholder's pwn characteristics?

Formal position: 1. legitimate 2. reward 3. coersive Personal characteristics: 1. expert 2. referent

Needs

Goal-directed forces that people experience.

Motivation-hygiene theory

Herzberg's theory stating that employees are primarily motivated by growth and esteem needs, not by lower-level needs.

What is value system?

Hierarchy of preferences in values.

Explain espoused-enacted values congruence.

How consistent the values apparent in our actions (enacted values) are with what we say we believe in (espoused values).

Explain values congruence.

How similar a person's vlaues hierarchy is to the values hierarchy of the organization, a co-worker, or another source of comparison.

Explain contingency of power: centrality.

Icreases with the number of people dependent. and how quickly and severely they are affected. The more - the higher the centrality.

Contingency perspective of leadership: explain path-goal theory of leadership essense.

Idea is that leaders create paths (expectancies) to effective performance (goals) for their employees. They ensure that good performers receive more valued rewards, than poor performers. They also provide information, support, and other resources necessary to help employees complete their tasks. Effective leaders are capable of selecting appropriate to the situation leadership style: directive, supportive, participative or achievement-oriented. Contingencies are skill and experience, locus of control, task structure and team dynamics. Some contingencies such as task structure have limited research support. Other contingencies and leadership styles have not been investigated at all. The model may be too complex for practical use (hard to remember). Despite all that, it is a pretty robust model.

What are situational factors?

If you have the best employees, but lack resources, time etc, the outcome may not be favorable. These can be managed by the employer. Other reasons may be economic conditions and consumer preferences. This can't be managed by the employer.

Is EI inherited or a skill?

It is a skill.

Are organizations most successful with high levels of congruence and why or why not?

Nope. Comfortable level of values congruence is necessary, however some level of incongruence is good as it offers different perspectives. Too much congruence can create a "corporate cult" that undermines creativity, organizational flexibility and business ethics.

Explain resolving conflict through negotiation.

Negotiation is when two or more conflicting parties attempt to resolve their conflict through redefining the terms of their interdependence. People negotiate when they think that discussion can produce a more satisfactory arrangement in their exchange of goods and services. Bargaining zone model of negotiations: You have initial point, target point and resistance paint. The opposing party has initial offer point, target point and resistance point. You start with sky-high initial point and so does opposition. This partially (or fully?) due to anchoring heuristic. Claim value - get the best possible outcome for themselves (Achieved through competition). Create value - discover ways to achieve mutually satisfactory outcomes for both parties (Achieved through cooperation). The best approach is combination of competition and cooperation. Cooperation is important as it maintains a degree of trust necessary to share information. It may also improve concessions so the negotiations are resolved more quickly and with greater mutual gains. Strategies for claiming value: 1. Prepare and set goals. Develop alternate strategies to achieve goals and to research what the other party wants from the negotiation. 2. Know you BATNA. BATNA - best alternative to a negotiated agreement. Basically, if you tell them to suck it and walk out, do you have alternatives in the pocket? It represents an estimated cost of walking away from the relationship. A common problem is that people overestimate their BATNA. 3. Manage time. More concessions are made as the negotiations deadline gets closer. Common practice: "exploding offer"- giving opponent very short time to accept the offer. (consumer sales for example). They produce time pressure. Another factors is that the more time someone has invested in the negotiation, the more committed they become to ensuring that an agreement is reached. This increases tendency to make unwarranted concessions so that negotiations do not fail. 4. Manage first offers and concessions. Anchor and adjustment technique. High/low first bid tends to push the other part more quickly toward their resistance point. It may even cause opponents to lower their resistance point After the first offer the concessions are made. Concessions serve these 3 major purposes: 1. enable parties to move toward the area of potential agreement. 2. symbolize each party's motivation to bargain in good faith. 3. tell the other party of the relative importance of the negotiating items. However, concessions need to be clearly labeled and should be accompanied by an expectation that the other party will reciprocate. Also should be offered in groups, as people experience more positive emotions from a few small concessions, than one large one. Strategies for creating value: 1. Gather information. Information is the cornerstone to effective value creation. Listen first to understand what the opponents want. Listen closely and ask for details. It is important to look beyond stated justifications. 2. Discover priorities through offers and concessions. Some offers are better than others at creating value. Key is to discover and signal which issues are more important to each side. One way to figure out relative importance of issues is to make multi-issue offers rather than discussing one issue at a time. The other party's multiple offer signals what is more and less important to them. Your subsequent concessions show what is more important to you. 3. Build the relationships. Trust is critical for problem-solving style of conflict. To build trust: (1) discover common backgrounds and interests, hobbies and sports etc. If there is a big age difference, consider teammates closer to the opponents' age. Same with backgrounds. These first impressions are important, since emotions attach to them very quickly. (2) signalling that you are trustworthy helps strengthen the relationship. We can signal this by demonstrating that we are reliable and keep our promises, as well as by identifying shared goals and values. (3) develop a shared understanding of the negotiation process, including its norms and expectations about speed and timing (4) emotional intelligence though managing emotions you display, particularly avoiding image of superiority, aggressiveness or insensitivity, and through managing the other party's emotions. We can use well-placed flattery, humour, and other methods to keep everyone in good mood and to break unnecessary tension. Situational influences on negotiations: 1. Location. Negotiating on your own territory helps maintain comfortable routines and gives you an advantage. This is why mostly negotiations are done on neutral territory. Sometimes negotiations are done not in person, but over media sources, but that cannot replace richness of face-to-face interaction. 2. Physical setting. Physical distance, formality and sitting arrangement of the setting also affects the orientation between parties. Sitting face-to-face is more likely to induce win-lose orientation. Facing a white board is like all facing a common problem. Another solution is to intersperse participants around tale to convey a win-win orientation. 3. Audience characteristics. Negotiators act differently if their audiences are observing them or has detailed information about the process. When audience has direct surveillance, the negotiators tend to be more competitive, less willing to make concessions and more likely to engage in political tactics against the other party.

Define categorical thinking.

Organizing people and objects in preconceived categories that are stored on our long-term memory.

Explain parallel learning structures approach.

Parallel learning structures are highly participative arrangements composed of people from most levels of the organization who follow the action research model to produce meaningful organizational change. They are social structures developed alongside the formal hierarchy with the aim to increase organizational learning. The idea s that these people are free from organizational constraints and can effectively solve organizational issues.

How do we evaluate opportunities?

People tend to jump to the first available opportunity rather than exploring further. Emotions have a strong influence

Distributive justice

Perceived fairness in the individual's ratio of outcomes to contributions compared with a comparison to other's ratio of outcomes to contributions.

Exlain influencing and power difference and role of influence.

Power is only a capacity. Influence is a behavior that attempts to alter someone's attitudes or behavior (power in motion). Influence is essential and in all directions.

Define goal setting.

Process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives.

Explain psychological contracts.

Psychological contract refers to the individual's beliefs about the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that person and another party (typically the employer). It is a perception formed during recruitment or organization socialization process about what the employee is entitled to receive and is obliged to offer the employer in return. Two types: transactional and relational: 1. Transactional. Primarily short-term economic exchanges. Responsibilities are well-defined around a fairly narrow set of obligations that do not change. Usually temps and new employees are in this type of contract. 2. Relational. Long-term attachments that encompass a broad array of subjective mutual obligations. (like a marriage) . These employees are more willing to contribute without the organization paying back in short-term. Relational contracts are dynamic with tolerance for a change in balance. Organizational citizenship behaviors are more likely with this type of contract.

Trust

Refers to positive expectations one person has toward another person or group in situations involving risk.

Divergent thinking

Reframing a problem in an unique way and generating different approaches to the issue.

Define organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs)

Various forms of cooperation and helpfulness to others that support the organization's social and psychological context.

define superordinate goal

a broad goal that all parties to a dispute value and agree is important

centrality

a contingency of power pertaining to the degree and nature of interdependence between the powerholder and others

substitutability

a contingency of power referring to availability of alternatives

define path-goal leadership theory

a contingency theory of leadership based on the expectancy theory of motivation that relates several leadership styles to specific employee and situational contingencies.

evaluation apprehension

a decision making problem that occurs when individuals are reluctant to mention ideas that seem silly because they believe (often correctly) that other team members are silently evaluating them.

coalition

a group that attempts to influence people outside the group by pooling the resources and power of its members

realistic job preview (RJP)

a method of improving organizational socialization in which job applicants are provided with a balance of positive and negative information about the job and work context.

charisma

a personal cahracteristic or special "gift" that serves as a form of interpersonal attraction and referent power over others

inoculation effect

a persuasive communication strategy of warning listeners that others will try to influence them in the future and that they should be wary about the opponent's arguments

define action research

a problem-focused change process that combines action orientation (changing attitudes and behaviour) and research orientation (testing theory through data collection and analysis).

define conflict

a process in which one party perceives that his or her interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party

define bicultural audit

a process of diagnosing cultural relations between the companies and determining the extent to which cultural clashes will likely occur.

define attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory

a theory that states that organizations have a natural tendency to attract, select, and retain people with values and characteristics that are consistent with the organization's character, resulting in a more homogeneous organization and a stronger culture.

define relationship conflict

a type of conflict in which people focus on the characteristics of other individuals, rather than on the issues, as the source of conflict

constructive conflict

a type of conflict in which people focus their discussion on the issue while maintaining respect for people having other points of view.

define constructive conflict

a type of conflict in which people focus their discussion on the issue while maintaining respect for people having other points of view.

legitimate power

an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviours of others

structural hole

an area between two or more dense social network areas that lacks network ties.

define future search

an organizational change strategy that consists of system-wide group sessions, usually lasting a few days, in which participants identify trends and identify ways to adapt to those changes.

ingratiation

any attempt to increase liking by, or perceived similarity to, some targeted person

Define ostracize

exclude (someone) from a society or group.

Define organizations

groups of people who work interdependently toward some purpose.

Teams

groups of two or more people who interact and influence each other, are mutually accountable for achieving common goals associated with organizational objectives, and perceive themselves as a social entity within an organization.

define parallel learning structures

highly participative arrangements composed of people from most levels of organization who follow the action research model to produce meaningful organizational change.

define leadership

influencing, motivating, and enabling others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations in which they are members.

define divergent

tending to be different or develop in different directions.

define win-lose orientation

the belief that conflicting parties are drawing from a fixed pie, so the more one party receives, the less the other party will receive.

Machiavellian values

the belief that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to influence others and that getting more than one deserves is acceptable

define win-win orientation

the belief that the parties will find a mutually beneficial solution to their disagreement

define psychological contact

the individual's beliefs about the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that person and another party (typically the employer)

social capital

the knowledge and other resources available to people or social units (teams, organizations) from a durable network that connects them to others

define refreezing

the latter part of the organizational change process, in which systems and conditions are introduced that reinforce and maintain the desirefd behaviors.

define artifacts

the observable symbols and signs of an organizational culture

define negotiation

the process whereby two or more conflicting parties attempt to resolve their divergent goals by redefining the terms of their interdependence.

Define stagnation

the state of not flowing or moving.

define reality shock

the stress that results when employees perceive discrepancies between their pre-employment expectations and on-the-job reality.

Define organizational behavior

the study of what people think, feel and do in and around organizations.

groupthink

the tendency if highly cohesive groups to value consensus at the price of decision quality.

define organizational culture

the values and assumptions shared within an organization.

define tacit

understood or implied without being stated.

Competency perspective of leadership: explain perspective limitations and practical implications.

Limitations: 1. Assumption that all effective leaders have the same personal characteristics that are equally important in all situations.Some competencies may not be important all the time. 2. Alternative combinations of competencies may be equally successful. Two people with different competencies can be equally successful leaders. 3. Competency theory views leadership as something within a person, yet leadership is actually relational. Effective leaders cannot be identified without considering quality of relationships with followers, as followers are what makes leaders effective. 4. Some personal characteristics influence our perception of a person as a leader, not actually the person being a leader. Also if we see self-confidence, extroversion, we may assign other leader traits to a person as our image of a leader is activated. Partical implications: Competency theory does not imply that leadership is a talent acquired at birth, rather than developed throughout life. On the contrary, competencies indicate only leadership potential, not performance. People with somewhat lower leadership competencies may become very effective leaders because they develop and master necessary leadership behaviors.

Which 2 dimensions apply to recognition and which 2 dimensions apply to regulation of emotions?

Recognition: self-awareness of one's own emotions, awareness of others' emotions. Regulation: self-management of one's own emotions, management of others' emotions.

Explain contingency of power: substitutability.

Refers to avaiability of alternatives. Lesser alternatives for a critical resource - more power. For example, you are the only expert - you have more power. Nonsubstutability is strengthened by controlling access to the resource (for examples, only licenced surgeons can perform surgeries). Also occurs when people differentiate their resource from alternatives.

Competency perspective of leadership: explain authentic leadership.

Refers to how effective leaders need to be aware of, feel comfortable with, and act consistently with their values, personality and self-concept. Basically, they need to know themselves and be themselves. They reflect on various situations and personal experiences, and use the feedback from trusted others. They also behave in the ways consistent with their self-concept. To do so they regulate behavior by: (1) developing their own style and place themselves in the positions where that style is most effective. They do need to adapt to environment at times, but they go in the environment best suited for them to begin with. (2) continuously think about and apply personal values to their decisions and behaviors. Self-disciplined to resist temptations. (3) consistent strong, positive core self-evaluation. High self-esteem, high self-efficacy and internal locus of control.

Define values

Relatively stable, evaluative beliefs that guide a person's preferences for outcomes or courses of action in a variety of situations.

Emotions and making choices (3 categories)

f. Emotions and making choices. Rational choice paradigm does not take into account emotions. Emotions have 3 ways of influence: 1. Emotions from early preferences. Only strong logical preference can change our initial emotional markers. Logical analysis also has emotional markers. 2. Emotions change the decision evaluation process. Negative mood may influence paying more attention to details - something is wrong and we need to find it. Good mood - less details, more attention to programmed routine. Anger makes us more prone to using stereotypes and other shortcuts, more optimistic of success of risk. Fear makes us less optimistic. Emotions affect how we evaluate info, not only the outcome. 3. Emotions serve as information when we evaluate alternatives. Basically, some people more so than others, but overall everyone use gut feeling to help make decisions.

What is MARS model?

(Motivation, Ability, Role Perceptions + Situational Factors = Individual and Behavior Results). A model of individual behavior and results. Consists of these individual characteristics: personality, values, self-concept, perceptions, emotions and attitudes, and stress, all leading to motivation, ability, role perceptions with the influence of situational factors to lead to following behavior and results: task performance, organizational citizenship, counterproductive work behaviors, joining/staying with the organization and maintaining attendance.

What are the exceptions to media richness theory?

1. Ability to multi-communicate. Multitasking, such as texting a client and listening to the meeting, amounts to an amount of info transmitted by rich channel, when lean channels are combined. 2. Communication proficiency. Higher proficiency with the communication channel allows for more and faster information to be pushed through the channel. Internet channels may be harder, but face-to-face communication is well-mastered by mostly everyone and perhaps is hardwired naturally. 3. Social presence effects. Channels that have high media richness tend to have more social presence. This presence may distract from the message. For example, focusing on looking good in front of the boss.

Explain 4 approaches to organizational change.

1. Action research. Action research approach sees meaningful change as a combination of action orientation (changing attitudes and behavior, because ultimate goal is to change the workplace: done through diagnosing and interventions), and research orientation (testing theory, as conceptual framework is applied to a real situation: done through collecting data to diagnose problems more effectively and systematically evaluating how well the theory works in practice). Has open-systems view, and because of that is a highly participative process (open systems view requires knowledge and commitment of the members within the system). Employees are both co-researchers and participants. Action research is data-based, problem oriented process that diagnoses the need for change, introduces the intervention, then evaluates and stabilizes desired changes. The 4 main phases of action research: 1. Form client-consultant relationship. Action research usually assumes that the change originates from outside the system (such as consultant). Building relationship with client is the first step. Consultants need to determine the client's readiness for change, including whether people are motivated to participate in the process, are open to meaningful change and possess the abilities to complete the process. 2. Diagnose need for change. Action research is a problem-oriented activity that diagnoses the problem through systematic analysis of the situation. Organizational diagnosis identifies appropriate direction for the change effort by gathering and analyzing data about an ongoing system, such as interviews and surveys of employees and other stakeholders. Also includes employee involvement in agreeing with appropriate change method, the schedule for the actions involved, and expected standards of successful change. 3. Introduce intervention. This stage applies one or more actions to correct the problem. It may include any of the commonly used prescriptions such as building more effective teams, managing conflict, building better organizational structure, or changing corporate culture. An important issue is the speed of changes: (1) incremental change (small steps + fine tuning). Incremental change is risky when organization is seriously misaligned with its environment, facing a threat of survival. (2) quantum change (decisive and quick change). Quantum change is usually traumatic to employees and offers little opportunity for correction. 4. Evaluate and stabilize change. Action research recommends evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention against the standards established in the diagnostic stage. However, even with clear standards, the effectiveness may not be apparent for several years or may be different to separate from other factors. If the desired effect achieved, need to stabiliz (rewards, info systems, team norms etc). Action research approach has been dominating, however some experts are concerned that problem-oriented nature of research, in which something is wrong and must be fixed, focuses on negative rather than positive opportunities and potential. This led to development if a more positive approach called appreciative inquiry. 2. Appreciative inquiry. 3. Large group interventions. 4. Parallel learning structures.

How does goal setting improve employee performance?

1. Amplifies intensity and persistence of effort. 2. Gives employees clearer role perceptions.

List directive leadership style characteristics.

1. Assigning work and clarifying responsibilities. 2. Set goals and deadlines. 3. Evaluate and provide feedback on work quality. 4. Establish well-defined best work procedures. 5. Plan future work activities.

What environment is the best for teams?

1. At least partly rewarding for performance. 2. Being organized around work processes. 3. Leaders who provide support and strategic direction, so members can focus on efficiency and flexibility. 4. The physical layout of workspace.

What are the 4 flaws of 360 degree feedback?

1. Can get expensive and time-consuming. 2. The feedback may also be conflicting. (Too many people providing it). 3. Peers may provide inflated rather than accurate feedback. 4. Employees have a stronger emotional reaction if a feedback is from many people rather than just 1 person.

What are the characteristics of creative people?

1. Cognitive and practical intelligence. Cognitive - see relation between small bits of information. Practical - ability to evaluate the usefullness of ideas. 2. Persistence. Based on higher need for achievement, strong motivation from the task itself and moderate to high degree of self-esteem. 3. Knowledge and experience. Foundation + discovery. Be aware, experience and expertise increase mindless behavior as we stop to question things as we move along. Hiring outsiders may help. Also hiring people new to industry may help. 4. Independent imagination. Consists of high openness to experience (imaginative, curios, sensitive, open-minded, original), moderately low need for affiliation (who gives a **** if i **** up), and strong values around self-direction (creativity and independent throught) and stimulation (excitement and challenge).

4 main influences on effective encoding and decoding.

1. Communication channel proficiency. Skill and motivation to communicate through a channel. (Some people are only skilled at face-to-face). 2. Similar codebooks - dictionaries of symbols, language, gestures, idioms and other tools to convey information. 3. Shared mental models of the communication context. Common understanding of the environment promotes efficiency. 4. Experience encoding the message. Experience teaches right choice of words, structure, e.t.c.

What are the flaws of BSC?

1. Companies set goals that are easy to measure rather than valuable. 2. The goals focus on internal processes, rather than external main functions. 3. People get caught up in measures.

What are four levels of interdependence?

1. Complete independence. 2. Pooled interdependence. This is sharing of common resource (machinery etc). 3. Sequential interdependence (human centipede) 4. Reciprocal interdependence (human centipede back and forward)

Challenges in evaluating decision outcomes.

1. Confirmation bias. We tend to stick with our favorite choice. We get excessively optimistic about our choice and ignore criticism. 2. Escalation of commitment. Basically being stuck in a situation, where it is very costly or effortful to reverse, so we stick with the decision. The causes for escalating commitment: 1. Self-justification. Nobody wants to appear incompetent. This is especially important for people with low self-esteem, with reputation staked on this project and personal identification with the project. 2. Prospect theory effect. We have stronger negative emotions when losing, compared to gaining equal amount. We keep on going because we want to avoid losses associated with stopping the project. 3. Perceptual blinders. Sometimes the problems are not seen fast-enough to protect self-esteem. Serious problems initially look ambiguous and can easily be misinterpreted. 4. Closing costs. There may be significant financial, reputational and other costs. 5. Trying to futher understand ambiguous situation. Putting more money in it moves it somewhere.

4 structures to improve team decision making in team settings.

1. Constructive conflict. Present idea, someone else analyzes it. Encourages critical thinking and analysis. Helps examine logic and assumptions and find flaws. Main challenge: people get defensive when their ideas are questioned, regardless of logical content and politeness. Can degenerate into defensive behavior and personal attacks. 2. Brainstorming. Four rules: 1. Speak freely - describe even the craziest ideas. 2. Don't criticize others or their ideas. 3. Provide as many ideas as possible - the quality of ideas increases with the quantity of ideas. 4. Build on the ideas that others have presented. In sum, it encourages divergent thinking, while minimizing evaluation apprehension and other team dynamics problems. Brainstorming received a lot of criticism: 1. In media in error. 2. Many studies using college and uni students found it ineffective due to production blocking and evaluation apprehension. Both not true. Subsequent work found brainstorming to be effective in real-world setting. Student teams lacked supportive learning orientation norms. Brainstorming needs leadership approaches to reduce production blocking and evaluation apprehension. Also studies evaluated success based on the number of ideas generated, when tre result in reality is more creative ideas, not more ideas. Benefits of brainstorming is cohesion and participant commitment, since no criticism. Another benefit is enthusiasm. Enthusiasm generates more creativity. 3. Electronic brainstorming. Brainstorming through communication technology. 0. Full anonymity. 1. Enter your idea in. 2. Others are encouraged to piggyback. 3. Vote electronically. 4. Usually followed up by face-to-face discussion. Can be very effective due to minimal production blocking, evaluation comprehension and conformity problems. Too structured and technology bound for some executives. Execs may feel threatened by how direct and honest the info transmitted is and limited ability to control the discussion. 4. Nominal group technique. A variation of traditional brainstorming, but trying to combine the benefits of team decision making without problems. Nominal is because the group is formed during 2 out of 3 stages only. Stage 1: After the problem is described, the group members silently and independently document their ideas. Stage 2: Participants collectively describe these ideas to other team members using usually round-robin format. No criticism, but encouragement to ask for clarification of ideas presented. Stage 3: Silent and independent evaluation of the ideas. Benefits: Generates higher number and better quality ideas than traditional interacting and maybe even brainstorming. High degree of structure allows for high task orientation and low potential for conflict. Yet, production blocking and evaluation apprehension still occur to some extent. Also participants require training to apply this structured approach.

What are 5 c's of effective team members?

1. Cooperating. Willing and able to work together. Includes sharing resources and being adaptive, accommodating and flexible. 2. Coordinating. Efficiency and harmoniously. To achieve this the team members need to be familiar with each other's work. 3. Communicating. Free (not hoarding), efficient (best channel and language) and respectful (minimal arousal of negative emotions) communication and active listening. 4. Comforting. Positive and healthy psychological state maintenance through empathy, comfort, encouragement. 5. Conflict resolving. Conflict is inevitable. Team members must have skills (knowing conflict-solving styles and diagnostic skills) and motivation to resolve the conflict.

The importance of communication.

1. Coordination (frequent, timely and accurate communication facilitate synchronization). 2. Organizational learning (knowledge entry into organization and distribution). 3. Decision making. (need info of context, alternatives, outcomes, the extent to which it achieves objectives). 4. To change behavior. Passive or active influence on beliefs and behavior of others. 5. Supports well-being. Conveys knowledge and helps employees to better manage their work environment. Informal communication tips and such. Social interaction reduces risks of some physical and mental illnesses and fulfills the drive to bond, validate self-worth and maintain social identity.

How can ethical behavior be supported?

1. Corporate code of ethics - codes of practice, rules of conduct and philosophy. Not very effective. 2. Ethics training. Ask yourself questions (for example, how would it look n the newspaper). 3. Confidential unethical behavior reporting line. Sometimes audits, yet audits are usually only used to evaluate social responsibility. 4. The most important is a set of shared values that reinforce ethical conduct. Create an ethical culture reinforced by conduct and positive example of leaders.

What are things to consider when deciding on employee involvement?

1. Decision structure. If task is new - yes, pls help. if task is old and there is a set procedure - lets not break what is working. 2. Source of decision knowledge. If employees know more than the leader, then they should be actively involved - front line to customers and all. 3. Decision commitment. Participation increases commitment. 4. Risk of conflict. Two types of conflict: 1. If goals and norms of employee conflict with organizational's stick with low involvement. 2. The degree of involvement should depend on whether the employee agrees on the preferred solution.

Explain 4 elements of transformational leadership.

1. Develop a strategic vision. Strategic vision - realistic and attractive future that bonds employees together and focuses their energy toward a superordinate organizational goal. A "higher purpose", appealing and achievable. Departs from current situation. Can originate from the leader or from the employees, clients and other stakeholders. When embraced by employees - plays a big role in organizational effectiveness. It is as motivationally effective as goal setting, and in addition serves a role of being a source of a common bond. 2. Communicate the vision. Frame messages around a grand purpose with captivating emotional appeal for stakeholders Framing generates positive emotions and motivation and establishes a common mental model. Accomplished through symbols, metaphors, stories and other plain easy-to-understand direct means. Metaphors enrich. 3. Model the vision. "Walk the talk" - enacting the vision through visiting customers, moving their offices closer to employees and holding ceremonies to destroy outdated policy manuals, as well as mundane (lacking excitement, dull) tasks - meeting agenda's, dress codes, executive schedules. Modelling is important as it demonstrates and legitimizes the vision. It builds employee trust. The greater is consistency between leader's words and actions, the bigger the chance that employees will believe in and follow the leader. Leading by example is very if not most important characteristic of a leader. 4. Build commitment toward the vision. Requires employee commitment. Commitment can be built in following ways: 1. Leaders' words, symbols, stories build a contagious enthusiasm that energizes people to adopt vision as their own. 2. Leaders demonstrate a "can do" attitude by enacting their vision and staying on course. 3. Leaders' persistence and consistency portray honesty, trust and integrity. 4. Leaders build commitment by involving employees in the process of shaping the organization's vision.

Explain 2 important processes not listed in 5-stages team model.

1. Developing team identity. The process of changing their view on a team from something foreign to being a part of themselves. 2. Developing team competence. Habitual routines with teammates and forming shared or complementary mental models (visual or relational mental images) that are shared my all team members.

Contingency perspective of leadership: explain 4 path-goal leadership styles.

1. Directive. Consists of clarifying behaviors that provide a psychological structure for employees. Clarifies performance goals, the means to reach those goals, standards against which the performance will be assessed. Use of rewards and disciplinary actions. 2. Supportive. Psychological support for employees. Friendly and approachable, respect, concern for needs, status and well-being, social support. 3. Participative. Encourages and facilitates subordinate involvement in decisions beyond normal work activities. Consults , asks for suggestions that are taken into serious consideration before decision making. Relies on employee ivolvement. 4. Achievement-oriented. Emphathizes behaviors that encourage employees to reach their peak performance. The leader sets challenging goals, expects employees to perform on thier highest level, continuously seeks improvement in employee performance and shows high degree of confidence that employees will assume responsibility and accomplish challenging goals. Goal-setting and positive expectations.

What are 6 components of an evidence-based management organization?

1. Do not treat old ideas as brand new. 2. Be suspicious of "breakthrough" ideas and studies. 3. Celebrate and develop collective brilliance. 4. Emphathize drawbacks as well as virtues. 5. Use success (and failure) stories to illustrate sound practices, but not in place of valid research method. 6. Adopt a neutral stance toward ideologies and theories.

Explain structural approaches to conflict management.

1. Emphasizing superordinate goals. Reduce attention to subordinate goals and emphasize superordinate goals - common goals. Superordinate goals require higher-level aspirations and stimulate people to work out smaller level conflicts. These goals also reduce the problem of differentiation, because they establish feeling of shared social identity. Leaders can reduce conflict though an inspirational vision. 2. Reducing differentiation. Reduce the differences that generate conflict. This encourages people to work out the issue together. One way to reduce differentiation is to create common experiences. For example, get employees to work together on joint projects. 3. Improving communication and mutual understanding. Giving more opportunity to communicate and understand each other. This uses two practices: Johari Window and contact hypothesis. These facilitate mutual understanding. Pitfall: these must be applied when differentiation is low or has been reduced. Otherwise, it may escalate the conflict. This is because when we hate someone, we only see bad things in that person, no matter what. Another pitfall is that people in collectivist and high power distance cultures are uncomfortable with direct and honest communication. 4. Reducing task interdependence. (1) Create buffers. A buffer is any mechanism that loosens the coupling between two or more people or work units. (2) Use integrators. Integrators are employees who coordinate activities of differentiated work units toward a completion of a common task. They reduce the frequency of direct interaction between work units. They rarely have direct authority over units, so they must rely on referent power and persuasion to manage conflict. They must work effectively with each unit and possess knowledge in each area. (3) Combine jobs. For example, working together on making a toaster. Each person contributes a little. We get pooled, rather than sequential task process. 5. Increasing resources. Increase the amount of resources available. Sometimes costs of the increase of resources are lower than dealing with a dysfunctional conflict. 6. Clarifying rules and procedures. To solve conflicts that result from ambiguity.

Describe two types of values in the organization.

1. Espoused values - the values that organizations want others to believe guide the organization's decisions and actions. Usually socially desirable and present a positive public image. However the employees may not act consistently with these values, because some of the employee's personal values may conflict with the organizational values. 2. Enacted values - values that most leaders and employees truly rely on to guide their decisions and behavior.

List and explain 5 stages of team development.

1. Forming. Discover expectations, evaluate value of membership, defer to existing authority, test boundaries of behavior. 2. Storming. Interpersonal conflict, compete for team roles, influence goals and means, establish norms. 3. Norming. Establish roles, agree on team objectives, form team mental models, develop cohesion. 4. Performing. Task oriented, committed, efficient coordination, high cooperation and trust, conflicts are resolved quickly. 5. Adjourning. The team disbands.

Ways to evaluate decision outcomes more effectively.

1. Get other people to evaluate your outcomes. Gotta make sure they are not the same-minded or in love with you. 2. Set a level at which to abandon or re-evaluate. 3. Find a source for systematic and clear feedback. Strong evidence can win over bias. 4. Involve several people in evaluation. They will monitor each other and speak uo faster.

Explain and list components of Jungian and Myers-Briggs type indicator types.

1. Getting energy. Extraversion (talkative, externally-focused, assertive) and introversion (quiet, internally-focused, abstract). 2. Perceiving information. Sensing (concrete, realistic, practical) and intuitive (imaginative, future-focused, abstract). 3. Making decisions. Thinking (logical, objective, impersonal) and feeling (empathetic, caring, emotion-focused). 4. Orienting to the external world. Judging (organized, schedule-oriented, closure-focused) and perceiving (spotaneous, adaptable, opportunity focused).

Making choices more effectively. How to?

1. Higher failure rate when the leaders are decisive rather than contemplative about available options, Leaders that are overly contemplative also may fail, but are at smaller risk than decisive leaders. 2. Must know that emotional processes influence decision making. Sometimes putting things aside for later is better when the situation seems too easy and positive. 3. Scenario planning. Training about what may happen in significantly adverse situation, and how to deal with it most effectively. Helpful as there is no pressure from emotions that happen in real situation.

What are activities that encourage creativity?

1. Hiring ppl with strong creative potential. 2. Providing work environment that supports creativity. 3. Setting task aside, then returning to it. 4. Getting strangers to help. Both their input and your verbalizing of problem and questions may help. 5. Associative play. Creative games or classes. Morphological analysis. Some crazy stuff of looking at elements of different dimensions of the system and then looking over combos of them? (wtf. really need to elaborate). 6. Cross-polination. Get people from different areas of organization or people new to organization to a team. 7. Simply have other people. Don't do it all alone. It helps to have others.

List 6 steps of rational choice decision making process.

1. Identify problem or opportunity. 2. Choose the best decision process.(myself or with help of others? use standard op. proc. or get creative?) 3. Discover/develop alternative solutions. 4. Choose the best alternative. 5. Implement the selected alternative. 6. Evaluate decision outcomes. (gotta make sure the evaluation is objective).

Explain communication barriers (noise).

1. Imperfect perceptual process of both sender and receiver. We don't send or listen as well as we think. We also have hard time seeing perspetives of others, we tend to see our own perspectives and, as the result, overstimate how well the message is encoded or received. 2. Language issues. Different "codebooks". For example, some use expressive language, but others take expressive language literally. Corporate leaders sometimes use ambiguous language to avoid unwanted emotional responses. People rely on ambiguos language when communicating with people who have different values and beliefs to reduce the risk of conlict. Jargon - specialize words and phrases for specific occupations or groups is usually designed to improve communication efficiencty. It becomes communication noice to people who do not have jargon codebook. Excessive jargon can be frustrating for others, who do not posess it. 3. Tendency to filter messages. For example, deleting or delaying negative information, or using less harsh words. Therefore, it is important to have a culture of candor.

Four-drive theory

A motivation theory that is based on the innate drives to acquire, bond, learn and defend, and that incorporates both emotions and rationality.

List and describe the four problems with the email.

1. It is a poor medium for communicating emotions. No facial expressions and body movements, so harder to read emotions. 2. Reduces politeness and respect. Email messages are often less diplomatic. Receivers often exaggerate the negative meaning. The senders are more likely to send derogatory messages over email, than any other communication media. There are two reasons for that. The first reason is that there is not enough time for the emotions to subside. The second reason is that impersonal nature of the email. People are more likely to write things that they would never say in face-to-face conversation. This problem usually decreases as teams progress in their development and firmly establish norms of behavior. 3. Poor medium for ambiguous, complex and novel situations. These situations require face-to-face interaction. 4. Contributes to information overload. Easy to copy messages without much effort.

What organizational conditions support creativity?

1. Learning orientation. Accept that people make mistakes as a part of creative process. 2. Motivation from the job itself. Employyes work better when they believe that their work benefits the organization and/or society. 3. Non-traditional workplaces. 4. Support form leaders and co-workers. 5. Maybe pressure as long as it is not too high.

List 5 sources of power.

1. Legitimate 2. Reward 3. Coersive 4. Expert 5. Referent

List supportive leadership style characteristics (5).

1. Listen to employees. 2. Make the workplace more pleasant. 3. Show interest in others as people. 4. Recognize employees for their work. 5. Be considerate of employee needs.

What do OB theories help with?

1. Make sense of the workplace. 2. Question and rebuild their personal mental models. 3. Get things done in organizations.

List 4 factors that influence ethical conduct in a workplace.

1. Moral intensity. 2. Individual's ethical sensitivity, 3. Situational factors. 4. Mindfulness.

List and explain 4 anchors of organizatonal behavior knowledge.

1. Multidisciplinary anchor. (Organizational behavior should import knowledge form many disciplines). 2. Systematic research anchor. (Organizational behavior should study organizations using systematic research methods). 2. Contingency anchor. (Organizational behavior theory should recognize that the effects of actions often vary with the situation). 3. Multiple levels of analysis anchor. (Organizational behavior knowledge should include three levels of analysis: individual, team, organization).

List 4 components of team effectiveness model and their subcomponents.

1. Organizational and team environment: rewards, communication, org. structure, org. leadership and physical space. This is split into: 3.. Team design: task characteristics, team size, team composition. 4. Team processes: team development, team norms, team cohesion, team trust. Leading to: Team effectiveness: accomplish tasks, satisfy member needs, maintain team survival.

Describe 4 broad categories of artifacts: organizational stories and legends, rituals and ceremonies, organizational language, and physical structures and symbols.

1. Organizational stories and legends. May be about heroic deeds, ridiculing past events that deviated from core values. Serve as prescriptions of how things should be done. Have powerful influence. Add human realism to corporate expectations, individual performance standards and criteria for getting fired. Produce emotions - reinforces memory of the lesson within the story. Stories have the biggest effect when they describe real people, are assumed to be true and are known by employees throughout the organization. They are often prescriptive: advice people what to do or not to do. 2. Rituals and ceremonies. Rituals are programmed routines of daily organizational life that dramatize the organizational culture. You can see rituals in how the visitors are greeted, how often senior executives visit front-line staff, how people communicate with each other, how much time employees take for lunch etc. The rituals are symbolic, predictable events influenced by culture. Ceremonies are more formal artifacts, than rituals. Ceremonies are planned activities conducted specifically for the benefit of an audience. For example, publicly rewarding or punishing employees or celebrating the launch of a new product. 3. Organizational language. How employees talk to each other, describe customers, express anger, greet stakeholders. Language also highlights values held by organizational subcultures. 4. Physical structures and symbols. The size, shape, location and age of buildings might suggest the company's emphasis on teamwork, environmental friendliness, flexibility etc. Even the building doesn't make a statement, inside contents of desks, chairs, office space and wall hangings convey cultural meaning.

People join (and are motivated to join) informal groups for four reasons:

1. People have an innate drive to bond. 2. Group membership is an inherent ingredient in a person's self-concept. 3. Some personal goals are accomplished better in groups. 4. Individuals are comforted in stressful situations by the mere presence of other people.

What are three ways that influence the development of team norms?

1. People need to anticipate or predict how others will act. Example, "Boss likes happy people so approach him with a smile". 2. As team member discover more efficient behaviors. for example, a quick response to email. 3. Experiences and values that members bring to the team. For example, if employees have strong views that life outside work is equally important to work, then they will not be ok with working late hours.

List 3 types of values congruence.

1. Person-organization values congruence. 2. Espoused-enacted values congruence, 3. Organization-community values congruence.

List 5 elements of self-leadership.

1. Personal goal-setting. 2. Constructive thought patterns. 3. Designing natural rewards. 4. Self-monitoring. 5. Self-reinforcement.

Competency perspective of leadership: explain leadership competencies (8)

1. Personality. High extroversion (outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive) making leaders comfortable being influential and conscientiousness (careful, dependable, self-disciplined) making leaders set higher goals for themselves and others and be motivated to pursue those goals. 2. Self-concept. Must be complex, internally consistent, clear. Must have positive self-evaluation including high self-esteem, self-efficacy and internal locus of control. 3. Drive. High need for achievement. Inner motivation to pursue goals and encourage others to move forward with theirs. Drive inspires inquisitiveness, action orientation and boldness. 4. Integrity. Truthfullness and consistency of words and actions, qualities related to honesty and ethical conduct. Have high moral capacity to judge dilemmas using sound values and act accordingly. 5. Leadrship motivation. Motivated to lead others. Strong need for socialized power, which is power is means to accomplish organizational objectives and other good deed, not personalized power - desire to have power for personal gain or thrill. Morivation is also necessary to keep up with the competititon. 6. Knowledge of the business. Tacit and explicit knowledge of the business environment. 7. Cognitive and practical intelligence. Above-average ability to process enormous amounts of information. Superior ability to analyze a variety of complex alternatives and opportunties, as well as practical intelligence. Practical intelligence differs from cognitive in a way that cognitive intelligence is assessed by performance on clearly defined problems and practical intelligence is performans in real-world settings where the problems are poorly define, information is missing, and more than one solution may be available. 8. Emotional intelligence. High level of it: perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in through, understand and reason with emotion and regulate emotion in themselves and others.

How can stress perceptions be changed?

1. Positive self-evaluation. 2. Increase optimism. 3. Improve self-concept so that work challenges no longer seem threatening. 4. Personal goal-setting in new work setting. 5. Self-reinforcement in new work setting 6. Some forms of humor by taking psychological weight away.

What are the features of the definition of power?

1. Power is not an act, but a potential. 2. Power is based on the target's perception that the powerholder controls a valuable resource that can help them achieve their goal. 3. Asymmetric (unequal) dependence of one party on another party. Even though the party A that has control has more power, the party B that depends on party A has countervailing power, such as essential work skills. For example, party A - manager, party B - skilled experienced worker. 4. Power relationship depends on some minimim level of trust.

Explain 3 stages of organizational socialization.

1. Pre-employment socialization. Research about company prior to employment. Downside: the info is indirect and can be distorted. "Mating dance" also distorts info (the employer and employee may exaggerate the good and hide the bad to get into a relationship). Conflicts: (1) employers' need to attract qualified applicant and applicants' need for complete information (2) applicants avoid asking important questions (stating salaries etc), because they don't want to convey unfavorable image to the employer (greedy, overaggressive) (3) impression management (hiding negative info, etc.) (4) employers are reluctant to ask certain questions or use some selection devices in fear to ward of applicants. 2. Encounter. First day on the job. Reality shock - stress from discrepancies in what employees expected and what they got. May happen over weeks and even months, or the first day. Impedes the socialization process, because the employee's energy is directed toward managing the stress rather than learning and accepting organizational knowledge and roles. 3. Role management. Begins during pre-employment socialization, but is most active as employees make transition from newcomers to insiders. Strengthen relationship, learn and practice new role behaviors, adopt attitudes and values consistent with their new positions, resolve time and value conflicts.

Stages of creative process.

1. Preparation. Get info on subject from many angles. 2. Incubation. Reflective thought. Basically, don't think about the problem, let mind wander in the background, revisit the problem occasionally to refresh. Incubation helps with divergent thinking. 3. Illumination. Being suddenly aware of unique idea. Be warned! It is fleeting, you gotta grab it before it gtfos 4. Verification. Detailed logical evaluation and experimentation and further creative insights..

Explain 5 interpersonal conflict handling styles.

1. Problem solving. This is win-win orientation. Finding solution that is beneficial for both parties. Promotes creative thinking. Encourages information sharing. 2. Forcing. This is a win-lose orientation. Belief that both parties are drawing from a fixed resource and the more one party gets, the less the other party gets. 3. Avoiding. Attempts to smooth over or avoid conflict situations alltogether. For example, avoiding seeing the person that makes things uncomfortable. 4. Yielding. Completely giving in to the other side's wishes. Cooperating with little to no attention to your own interests. Not expecting reciprocal help. Unilateral concessions and unconditional promises. 5. Compromising. Looking for a position in which your losses are offset by equally valued gains. Matching the other party's concessions, conditional promises or threats, actively searching for a middle ground.

Explain three paradigms of decision making process.

1. Rational choice paradigm of decision making. Calculative decision making that relies on a. expected outcome value (utility). b. the probability of good or bad outcomes occuring (expectancy). This leads to main principle of subjective expected utility: expectation of satisfaction with different choices. What are the problems? Peeps are not efficient and logical processing machines. They are subject to bias. Emotions influence behavior.

Explain improving the socialization process.

1. Realistic job preview (RJP) - providing applicants with a balance of positive and negative information about the job and work context. RJP scares away some applicants, but reduces turnover and increases job performance. More accurate employment expectations, so less reality shock, increased trust, more belief that the company is concerned about the employee's well-being and respect for psychological contract, and, therefore, loyalty. 2. Socialization agents. Helpful co-workers, bosses, friends helping with work (feedback, reducing workload for newcomers, advise) and helping with building social ties with co-workers. Some organizations implement systems to help with social support. For example, "buddy system", when newcomers are assigned a co-worker for sources of information and social support.

Explain ethical issues in organizational change.

1. Risk of violating individual privacy rights. The action research model is built on collecting information from organizational members, yet this requires employees to share personal information and emotion they may not want to share. 2. Some change activities increase management's power by inducing compliance and conformity from the organization's members. For example, action research is a system-wide activity that requires participation, rather then giving a choice for voluntary participation. 3. Some organizational change interventions undermine individual self-esteem. The unfreezing process requires that participants disconform their current beliefs , sometimes including their own competence at certain tasks or interpersonal relations.

What are three caveats about cross-cultural knowledge?

1. Samples are small and convenient (for example, students). 2. Assumption that each country has one culture. Truth is each country has multiple cultures. 3. Data used in research is from IBM study - outdated.

List and describe 4 dimensions of emotional intelligence.

1. Self-awareness of emotions. Ability to perceive and understand the meaning of your own emotions. 2. Self-management of emotions. Ability to manage your own emotions. 3. Awareness of others' emotions. Ability to perceive and understand the emotions of other people. 4. Management of others' emotions. For example, inspiring, consoling etc.

Explain the Communication Process Model

1. Sender forms message. 2. Sender encodes message into words, gestures, voice intonations etc. 3. The encoded message is transmitted via a communication channel(s). 4. Receiver senses the message. 5. Receiver decodes the message into something meaningful. (not always what coder intended). 6. (Usually) the sender looks for evidence that the receiver got the message and understood it. Formal (i got your message) or indirect evidence. 7. Feedback repeats communication process. Can be hampered by noise - psychological, social, structural. It may distort or break the communication process.

What are benefits of employee involvement?

1. Sensing things better as they are front line to customers. If something is off they will see certain things much quicker and define them more accurately than management. 2. Improve number and quality of solutions generated. 3. Improves the evaluation of alternatives. 4. Strengthens employee commitment to the decision. This helps motivation, satisfaction and turnover. Also increases skill variety, feelings of autonomy and task identity. 5. Good for organizational change as everyone is on the board.

Explain how to gain power (social capital) through social networks.

1. Social capital increases with the number of network ties. However, more ties, less time for strong ties - deeper connections (quicker and more info). Weak ties in diverse networks are more important than stronger ties in close networks. Close networks mean stronger ties already, therefore we may already know all the information. 2. Social network centrality. Who has high centrality? (1) gatekeepers. For example, person A-M talks through person N to people O-Z. (2) the number or percentage of connections you have with others makes you more visible. You serve as the information well for others as you are connected to info holders and being available makes you important. (3) "Closeness" of the relationship. Higher closeness with direct, shorter paths or connection with others. Efficient and high quality communication links. Structural holes - when there is no connection between two groups or people that have valuable resource. A person can link two groups - bridging connection and become a broker. 3. The dark side of social networks. Exclusion. Boys-only golf clubs are a perfect example.

Explain 6 characteristics of effective goal setting.

1. Specific goals. Employees put more effort in specific goals, rather than "do your best goals". 2. Relevant goals. The goal must be relevant to the job and within the employee's control. 3. Challenging goals. Challenging goals increase intensity and persistence of work. 4. Goal commitment. Goals should be challenging, but no so challenging that the employees lose motivation. 5. Goal participation (sometimes). Goals are usually more effective when employees are involved in setting the goals. 6. Goal feedback. Feedback redirects out efforts and may also fulfill our growth needs.

Why are 5 most important characteristics of effective feedback?

1. Specific. Specific metrics. 2. Relevant. Within the employee's control. 3. Timely. This way employees see clear relationship between their actions and consequences. 4. Credible. Employees are more likely to accept feedback from trustworthy and credible sources. 5. Sufficiently frequent. More so for new employees and less for older more experienced employees.

List 4 contingecies of power.

1. Substitutability 2. Centrality 3. Discretion 4. Visibility

What are 4 things for the leaders to set-up in a team?

1. Task characteristics. 2. Team size. 3. Team composition. 4. Team roles.

Team structures to improve decision making.

1. Team members must be confident, but not to a point where they feel invulnerable. This can be accomplished through team norms that encourage critical thinking and diversity. 2. Implement checks and balances to prevent one or two people from dominating the discussion. 3. Team must be large enough to possess sufficient knowledge, but small enough to avoid time loss and restricting individual input. 4. Identify everyone's preferences, have them vigorously debated, create a few plausible options and get the leader to make a final call.

Discuss the anchors on which organizational behavior knowledge is based.

1. The multidisciplinary anchor states that the field should develop from knowledge in other disciplines, not just from its own isolated research base. 2. The systematic research anchor states that OB knowledge should be based on systematic research, which is consistent with evidence-based management. 3. The contingency anchor states that OB theories generally need to consider that there will be different consequences in different situations. 4. The multiple levels of analysis anchor states that OB topics should be viewed from the individual, team, and organization levels of analysis.

Explain the limitations of appreciative inquiry.

1. This approach depends on the participants' ability to let go of the problem-oriented approach, including the "blame game" of determining who may be responsible for past failures. 2. It requires leaders who are willing to accept appreciative inquiry's less structured process. 3. The research has not yet examined the contingencies of this approach. Basically, hasn't determined when this approach is effective and when it is not effective.

Anchoring and adjustment heuristic

A natural tendency for people to be influenced by an initial anchor point such that they do not sufficiently move away from that point as new information is provided.

What are 4 constraints on the team decision making.

1. Time constraints. Teams take longer than individuals to make decisions (need to organize, coordinate, maintain relationships, time to learn about each other and build rapport, roles and rules coordination, only one person can speak at a time (production blocking : 1. must listen to others for good time to speak up - distracts from your own ideas. 2. ideas are fleeting - the longer you listen the more chances for ideas to die out. 3. concentrating on your own ideas distracts attention from listening to others)). 2. Evaluation apprehension. Reluctance for input due to fear of evaluation by others. Creative ideas often sound bizarre or illogical when first presented. 3. Pressure to conform. If opinion contradicts team norm we are more likely to keep it to ourselves. We may get punished or persuaded to comply for expressing opinion that others don't share. Also, we want others we conform to to validate our opinions. If they disagree with us, we start to question if we are in the right mind. 4. Some elements of groupthink. Pitfall of highly cohesive groups to value mutual agreement over quality due wanting to keep harmony. Group think is most likely to occur when 1. the team is isolated from others. 2. the team leader is opinionated. 3. team is under stress. 4. team has experienced recent failures or other decision-making problems 5. team lacks clear guidance from corporate policies or procedures. Groupthink concept is becoming less popular as some factors contributing to it are also involved in success, also evidence for groupthink came from case studies, most of which were apparently flawed. One important negative factor of group think is overconfidence. This gives false sense of invulnerability., reducing the attention to decision making.

What are three reasons why teams exist?

1. To fulfill a purpose. 2. Interdependence and need of collaboration to achieve common goals. 3. Influence each other with different levels of influence between members.

Explain three ethhical principles:

1. Utilitarianism (also called consequential principle). This is a principle of seeking the greatest good for the greatest number of people. The challenge is that it is impossible to evaluate the benefits and costs of many decisions. Another challenge is we do not want to engage in unethical behaviors that lead to ethical outcomes. 2. Individual rights. Everyone is entitled to act in a certain way they prefer. For example, freedom of movement, physical security, freedom of speech. The challenge is that some rights conflict with other rights. 3. Distributive justice. People who are similar to each other should receive similar benefits and burdens, thise who are dissimilar should receive different benefits and burdens proportionate to their dissimilarity.The challenge is to determine who is similar and what factors are relevant.

Explain communication channels.

1. Verbal channel. Verbal uses words and occurs through spoken or written channels. Example: spoken or written channel. Written is much slower, yet with Twitter it is becoming faster. .2. Non-verbal channel. Nonverbal does not use words.

What are three conditions that strengthen the linkage between personal values and behavior?

1. We tend to apply values only when we can think of specific logical reasons for doing so. 2. We tend to aply our values when the situation allows or encourages so, 2. We are more likely to apply values when we actively think about them.

Explain cross-cultural issues in organizational change.

1. Western models assume that change has a beginning and ending in a logical linear sequence (from A to B). In some other cultures change is viewed as cyclical as moon around the sun or as a pendulum swinging back and forth. In other cultures change is viewed as interconnected, where one change leads to another (often unplanned) change and so forth. 2. Western organizational interventions assume at least some conflict is necessary. But this view is incompatible in the cultures that empathize harmony and equilibrium. This suggests a need for contingency-oriented perspective required for organizational change to work effectively in globalized world.

Improving communication throughout the hierarchy: workspace design, web-based communication, direct communication with top management.

1. Workspace design. Attempt to increase collaboration through removing cubicles. Downside: increase noise, distractions and loss of privacy. Another attempt is to create team spaces, but also encourage sufficient interaction with people from other teams. 2. Web-based communication. Employees are skeptical to information screened and packaged by the management. Therefore, there is a new trend to encourage employees to post their own news on internal blogs and wikis. The accuracy of information depends on the quality of participants. However, the errors generally get quickly identified by the other participants. To engage in wikis, the employees need sufficient time and rewards or recognition. 3. Direct communication with top management. Senior executives understand their business better if they meet directly with employees and other stakeholders aka "management my walking around". Another way to communicate directly with employees are roundtable meetings or weekly huddles. These strategies potentially minimize filtering, because executives: (1) listen directly to employees (2) quicker and deeper understanding of internal organizational problems (3) employees may have more empathy fir decisions made further up the corporate hierarchy.

3 reasons explaining production blocking.

1. must listen to others for good time to speak up - distracts from your own ideas. 2. ideas are fleeting - the longer you listen the more chances for ideas to die out. 3. concentrating on your own ideas distracts attention from listening to others)).

Availability heuristic

A natural tendency to assign higher probabilities to objects or events that are easier to recall from memory, even though ease of recall is also affected by nonprobability factors (e.g., emotional response, recent events).

Explain the four-d model of appreciative inquiry.

4 stages: 1. Discovery. Identifying the positive elements of the observed events or organization. May be documenting positive experiences with customers, or may include interviewing members of another company to discover its fundamental strengths. 2. Dreaming stage. Emerges through discussion of findings and envisions what might be possible in an ideal organizations. By pointing out a hypothetical ideal organization or situation, participants feel safer revealing their hopes and aspirations than they would if they were discussing their own organization or predicament. 3. Designing stage. Emerges through making their private thoughts public to the group. Participants listen with selfless receptivity to each other's models and assumptions. and eventually form a collective for thinking withing the team. In effect they create and shape a common image. As the model takes shape, group members shift the focus back to their own situation. 4. Delivering stage (aka destiny). Participants establish specific objectives and direction for their own organization on the basis of their model of what will be. Appreciative inquiry has been gaining popularity, but it is still in its beginnings. Often designed to involve a large group of people., rather than small teams.

Explain appreciative inquiry principles.

5 key principles: 1. The positive principle. 2. The constructionist principle. Based on that conversations do not describe, but shape reality. Questions we ask and language we use explain how we come to understand something, therefore sensitivity and proactive management of words and language, as well as thoughts and feelings. 3. Simultaneity principle. States that inquiry and change are simultaneous not sequential. The moment we ask questions of others, we change them. The questions influence responses, in turn, influencing our actions. Be mindful of how you ask questions. 4. Poetic principle. States that organizations are open books, so we have choices in how they may be perceived, framed, and described. Based on the notion of seeing glass half full or half empty. Actively frames reality in a way that provides constructive value for future development. 5. Anticipatory principle. Empathizes the importance of positive collective vision of the future state. People are motivated and guided by the vision they see and believe in for the future. Mundane and disempowering images will affect current effort and behavior negatively, compared to images that are inspiring and engaging.

Representativeness heuristic

A natural tendency to evaluate probabilities of events or objects by the degree to which they resemble (are representative of) other events or objects rather than on objective probability information.

Cognitive dissonance

A condition that occurs when we perceive an inconsistency between our beliefs, feelings, and behavior.

Define power distance

A cross-cultural value descibing the degree to which people in a culture accept unequal distribution of power in a society.

Achievement-nurturing orientation

A cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture empasize competitive versus cooperative relations with other people.

Define individualism

A cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture empathize independence and personal uniqueness.

Define collectivism

A cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture emphasize duty to groups to which they belong, and to group harmony.

Uncertainty avoidance

A cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people tolerate ambiguity (low uncertainty avoidance) or feel threatened by ambiguity and uncertainty (high uncertainty avoidance).

Define strength-based (appreciative) coaching.

A positive organizational behavior approach to coaching and feedback that focuses on building and leveraging the employee's strengths rather than trying to correct his or her weaknesses. It is potentially motivating as people seek feedback of their strengths, not flaws. However many companies focus feedback on weaknesses rather than strengths.

Implicit favourite

A preferred alternative that the decision maker uses repeatedly as a comparison with other choices.

Team building

A process that consists of formal activities intended to improve the development and functioning of a work team.

Explain team building and its four types.

A process that consists of formal activities intended to improve the development and functioning of a work team. It attempts to speed up team development process. 1. task-focused. It clarifies performance goals, increases team motivation to accomplish these goals, and establishes mechanism for systematic feedback on the team's goal performance. 2. improving problem-solving skills. 3. clarifies and reconstructs each member's perception of his or her role and roles expectations of other team members. 4. improve relations between team members. The members learn about each other, build trust in each other and develop ways to solve conflict within the team.

Empowerment

A psychological concept in which people experience more self-determination, meaning, competence, and impact regarding their role in the organization.

Profit-sharing plans

A reward system hat pays bonuses to employees on the basis of the previous year's level of corporate profits.

Define emotional intelligence.

A set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion in oneself and others.

Emotional intelligence (EI)

A set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others.

Role

A set of behaviors that people are expected to perform because of the positions they hold in a team and organization.

Scenario planning

A systematic process of thinking about alternative futures and what the organization should do to anticipate and react to those environments.

Service profit chain model

A theory explaining how employees' job satisfaction influences company profitability indirectly through service quality, consumer loyalty, and related factors.

Equity theory

A theory explaining how people develop perceptions of fairness in the distributions and exchange of resources.

define implicit leadership theory

A theory stating that people evaluate a leader's effectiveness in terms of how well that person fits preconceived beliefs about the features and behaviors of effective leaders (leadership prototypes), and that people tend to inflate the influence of leaders on organizational events.

Define contact hypothesis.

A theory stating that the more we interact with someone, the less prejusdiced or perceptually biased we will be against that person.

Organizational behavior modification

A theory that explains employee behavior in terms of the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behavior.

Social cognitive theory

A theory that explains how learning and motivation occur by observing and modelling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of behavior.

Social identity theory

A theory that explains that people define themselves by groups to which they belong and have emotional attachment.

Production blocking definition.

A time constraint in team decision making due to the procedural requirement that only one person may speak at a time.

Behavioral perspective of leadership: explain sevant leadership.

A type of supportive leadership.Selfless, egalitarian, humble, nurturing, empathetic ethical coaches. Main objective to help other stakeholders to fulfill their needs and potential. Based on: (1) natural desire to help others (2) maintain a relationship that is humble, egalitarian and accepting. they do not view their position as a position of power. (3) anchor their decisions in ethical principles and practices. Resistance to social pressures. This overlaps with authentic leadership. Adopted largely bu practitioners and religious leaders.

Workaholic

An person who is highly involved in work, feels compelled to work, and has a low enjoyment of work.

Define grapevine.

An unstructured and informal network founded on social relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions.

Stress

An adaptive response to situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to a person's well-being.

Continuance commitment

An employee's calculative attachment to the organization, whereby an employee is motivated to stay only because leaving would be costly.

Define global mindset.

An individual's ability to perceive, appreciate, and empathize with people from other cultures and to process complex cross-cultural information.

Equity sensitivity

An individual's outcome/input preferences and reaction to various outome/input ratios.

Define self-concept.

An individual's self-beliefs and self-evaluation.

Define Myers-Briggs Type (MBTI) indicator

An instrument designed to measure the elements of Jungian personality theory, particularly preferences regarding perceiving and judging information.

Explain large group interventions: future search.

Another large group intervention is called future search (and its variations - search conferences and open-space technology). Future search "puts the entire system in the room". Invites as many people as possible for conferences that are usually held over few days and involve participants in the search for trends or issues that are emerging, then participants are asked to develop strategic solutions for future. These sort of large group meetings minimize resistance to change and assist the quality of the change process. The limitations are: (1) involving too many people limits the opportunity to contribute and increases the risk that few people will dominate the process. (2) these events focus on finding a common ground, and this may prevent the participants from discovering substantive differences that interfere with future progress. (3) these events generate high expectations about an ideal future state that are difficult to satisfy in practice. Employees become even more cynical and resistant to change if they do not see meaningful decisions and actions resulting from these meetings.

Stressors

Any environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on a person.

Explain influence and organizational politics.

Are in the eyes of the beholder. They are perceived as self-serving behaviors at expense of others, and may be contrary to organizational interests. Yet, we may interpret these behaviors differently. Someone may interpret a behavior as organizational politics, but the other person may see it as good for the organization. These politics poorly influence others: lower job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship, task performance, higher levels of stress and motivation to leave the organization. Employees are more likely to get engaged in organizational politics if these conditions: 1. The resources are scarce. (for example, budget cuts). 2. Resource allocations decisions are ambiguous, complex or lack formal rules. Politics can be used to get more resources in this case. This is especially prominent during the organizational change. Employees are more likely to get engaged in organizational politics if these personal characteristics: 1. Strong need for personal, rather than socialized power. Machiavellian values - a belief that some people deserve more than others and screwing others over is tots ok. How to minimize organizational politics? 1. Introduce clear rules and regulations that specify the use of scarce resources. 2. Leaders need to actively manage group norms to curtail self-serving influence activities, also support beneficial activities like altruism and customer focus. One of best strats is to become role models of organizational citizenship, rather than symbols of successful organizational politicians. 3. Giving employees more control over their work. 4. Keeping employees informed of organizational events. Reducing organizational politics promotes less stress, less job dissatisfaction and less absenteeism.

Define stereotyping.

The process of assigning traits to people on the basis of their membership in a social category.

Explain deciphering organizational culture through artifacts.

Artifacts are observable symbols and signs of organization's culture, such as the way the visitors are greeted, the organization's physical layout and how employees are rewarded. They can be viewed as the essence of culture or as indicators of culture. They represent and reinforce an organization's culture. Artifacts provide evidence of a company's culture. Culture is ambiguous and best understood through analysis of various artifacts: observing behavior, written documents and emails, physical structure and settings and interviewing staff about corporate stories.

Explain cross-cultural and gender communication.

As globalization and cultural diversity increase, more cross-cultural communication issues arise. These issues are: 1. Language: limited vocabulary, accent, intonation, volume, speed etc. 2. The style of responses. For example, silence is a sign of respect in Japan, but a sign of being uninterested in Brazil. Talking over people is normal in Brazil, but rude in Canada. 3. Non-verbal communication: gestures, body position etc. Looking in the eyes is a sign of interest in Canada, but First Nations people are taught to look down when talking to authority figures. Some gestures are positive in one culture, but have very negative meaning in another culture.

Define competencies and why are they similar to abilities.

Competencies are characteristics of a person that result in superior performance, which is basically learned skills and knowledge, natural aptitudes, and other personal characteristics (like being hot. jk but yea seriously something like that).

Explain balanced scorecard (BSC).

BSC is organizational-level form of goal setting reward system that translates the organization's vision and mission into specific measurable performance goals related to financial, customer, internal, and learning growth (i.e. human capital) processes.

Explain the essense of contingency perspective of leadership.

Based on the idea that the most appropriate leadership style depends on the situation. Most of its theories assume that the leasers need to be both insightful and flexible. They must adapt their behavior and styles to the situation. This is not easy and takes considerable effort as leaders usually have a preferred style. Also must have high emotional intelligence to diagnose circumstances and match their behavior accordingly.

Explain shared leadership

Basically when people in organization take responsibility and think critically. It isv ery important for the success of the organization. Facilitated by formal leaders willing to delegate power and encourage employees to take initiative and risks without fear of failure. Involves no formal authority, so operates best when employees show enthusiasm, logical analysis and co-worker involvement in their idea or vision.

Explain email communication benefits and problems.

Benefits: Email is preferred medium for coordinating work and for sending well-defined information for decision making. Often increases the volume of communication and alters the flow of that information within groups and throughout organization. Reduces some face-to-face and voice communication, but increases communication with people further up the hierarchy. Social and organizational status differences are less apparent. Stereotype biases are reduced as age, race and other features are hidden, however if we already know the other person's personal characteristics, we increasingly rely on stereotypes. Problems: 1. Poor medium for communicating emotions. No facial expressions. Highlighting, bold font helps, but can't replace facial expressions. 2. Reduces politeness and respect. Disparaging messages or more frequently sent over email and receivers are more likely to react more negatively to negative messages. One reason for sending mean messages is that it is quick process that does not give time for a sober second thought that traditional letters give. Second reason is low social presence (impersonal). However, in teams, where norms and rules are established, this behavior greatly decreases). 3. Poor medium for ambiguous, complex and novel situations. For poorly defined situations, communication channels that transmit a larger volume of information with more rapid feedback are required. 4. Contributes to information overload. Creates glut, as it is effortless to create and copy messages to many people.

Advantages and disadvantages of teams.

Benefits: 1. Under right conditions, teams make better decisions, develop better products and services and create a more engaged workforce, than working alone. 2. Quick information sharing and coordination and less errors, than traditional manager-employee teams. 3. Under right circumstances - more motivation, because 1. we have a need to bond 2. accountability to fellow team members, who monitor performance more closely. 3. Coworkers become benchmarks of comparison.

Define stereotyping

The process of assigning traits to people on the basis of their membership in social category.

Explain improving interpersonal communication.

Comes from both sides: sender and receiver. As a sender: 1. Empathize with the receiver (be sensitive to words that may be ambiguous or trigger wrong emotional response). 2. Repeat the message (rephrase key points a couple of times). 3. Find time when the receiver is less likely to be distracted, as your messages always compete with other messages and noise. 4. If communicating criticism, focus on the problem, not the person. As a listener: 1. Sensing. Process of receiving signals from the sender and paying attention to them. Can be improved in three ways: (1) not form an opinion until speaker has finished (2) avoid interrupting the speaker's conversation (3) remain motivated to listen to the speaker. 2. Evaluating. Understanding the meaning, evaluating and remembering the message. To improve: active listeners must empathize with the speaker - try to understand and be sensitive to speaker's feelings, thoughts and situation, as well as organize the speaker's ideas during the communication. 3. Responding. This is a feedback to the sender, which motivates and directs the speaker's communication. To improve active listeners: maintain sufficient eye contact and send back channel signals ("i see" etc.). This shows interest. They also respond by clarifying the message - rephrase the speaker's ideas at appropriate breaks.

Explain leadership substitutes.

Conditions that either limit a leader's ability to influence employees or make a particular leadership style unnecessary. Directive leadership may be less important when performance-based reward systems keep employees directed toward organizational goals. (Likewise, increasing employee skill and experience may reduce a need for directive leadership). (consistent with path-goal leadership theory). Co-workers substitute for leadership in high-involvement team structures. Co-workers instruct new employees - providing directive leadership. They also provide social support that reduces stress among fellow employees. Teams with norms that support organizational goals may substitue for achievement-oriented leadership through co-worker encouragement and pressure. Self-leadership may be a substitue for directive and achievement oriented leadership. Limited supporting evidence available. Maybe because it is hard to empirically test or maybe because there is not a lot of supportive evidence and leadership is necessary. To sum up, leadership substitutes may reduce a need for leaders, but they do not replace leaders.

What characteristics are associated with effective team members?

Conscientiousness, extroversion and emotional intelligence.

What are the consequences and contingencies of influence tactics?

Consequences: 1. Resistance. Oppose the influence. 2. Compliance. "Ok, i will do it, but with the minimal level of effort and for purely instrumental reasons". 3. Commitment. "I will do it, and i am motivated to do it!". People react better to soft tactics as they increase commitment. Hard tactics provide compliance or resistance. They also undermine trust and that affects future relationships. Contingencies: 1. Using the correct influence style for power style. 2. Is the person being influenced on a higher, lower, or the same level in organization. (can't be too assertive with your boss). Personal, organizational and cultural values affect appropriate influence tactic. For example, people with strong power orientation are comfortable with assertiveness and people who value conformity are more comfortable with upward appeals. Companies with competitive culture may foster information control and coalition formation, when learning orientation companies will encourage influence through persuasion. Also high power distance cultures are less likely to use ingratiation due to bigger distance.

List 4 constraints of the team decision making, and list 4 structures aimed to improve team decision making.

Constraints: 1. Time constraints, 2. Evaluation apprehension. 3. Conformity to peer pressure. 4. Groupthink (specifically overconfidence). Structures to improve decision making: 1. Constructive conflict. 2. Brainstorming. 3. Electronic brainstorming. 4. Nominal group technique.

Can constructive conflict be fully independent from relationship conflict? What are the strategies to separate constructive and relationship conflict?

Constructive conflict cannot be fully independent from relationship conflict. Our drive to defend our ideas, sense of competence and public image gets activated regardless of how diplomatically the conflict is handled. The stronger the debate and the more the issue is tied to our self-concept, the higher the chance for relationship conflict. Three strategies or conditions to minimize level of relationship conflict: 1. Emotional intelligence. High emotional intelligence makes it less likely for the relationship conflict to escalate. Higher emotional intelligence helps with regulating our emotions, which reduces perceptions of interpersonal hostility. High emotional intelligence also helps with seeing a co-worker's emotional reaction as valuable information about person's needs and expectations, rather than a personal attack. 2. Cohesive team. If team is very cohesive the relationship conflict is suppressed. Longer time spent working together, higher trust helps people like each other more, trust each other more and be more ok with negative emotions without being personally butthurt. They also know how others feel and share those feelings. Cohesion also produces stronger social identity with the group and that discourages from conflict escalating. 3. Supportive team norms. When norms encourage openness, they encourage honest dialogues without personally getting butthurt. Norms may discourage from displaying negative emotions toward co-workers. Other norms may encourage tactics to diffuse relationship conflict as it first appears. Humor helps to maintain positive emotions and like each other during conflict.

Contingency perspective of leadership: explain situational leadership theory (SLT).

Created buy Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard. Effective leaders vary their style with the ability and motivation (or commitment) of followers. Most recent version uses four labels: 1. Enthusiastic learner (low ability, high motivation) 2. Disillusioned learner (moderate ability, low motivation) 3? 4? (not listed in the bookie-book) Leaderships styles are distinguished by amount of directive and supportive behavior provided. Four leadership styles: 1. Telling (high task behavior and low supportive behavior). 2. Selling 3. Participating 4. Delegating Four quadrants. Each quadrant shows the leadership style most appropriate under different circumstances. This model lacks empirical support. Only one part of this model works - "telling" when employees lack motivation and ability. This is consistent with path-goal theory.

Define self-directed teams (SDTs).

Cross-functional work groups that are organized around work processes, that complete an entire piece of work requiring several interdependent tasks, and that have substantial autonomy over the execution of these tasks.

Explain content of organizational culture.: cultural content and values difference between organizations and models used to represent cultures benefits and downsides.

Cultural content and values differ between the organizations. Different models represent different categories of cultures. For example, internal vs external focus and flexibility vs control. The models are useful in diagnosing company's culture. The problems are: (1) the models oversimplify the diversity of cultural values, as each employee brings their own culture, so they describe the culture not fully (2) organizational culture includes shared assumptions about the right way to do things, not just shared values, but the models do not include assumptions.(3) Many organizational culture models incorrectly assume that organizations have clear unified culture, easy to decipher. This perspective is called "intergration". It assumes that when the organizational culture changes it moves from one unified condition to another unified condition with only temporary ambiguity. This is incorrect, as organizations consist of many subcultures.

Explain cross-cultural and gender issues in leadership.

Cultural values and practices affect what leaders do. Culture shapes leader's values and norms, in turn influencing behaviours and decisions. Culture shapes the expectations the followers have of leaders. Leaders who deviate from cultural values experience influence to conform to leadership norms and expectations of society. Fits implicit leadership theory. Some features of leadership are universal and some differ between cultures. "Charismatic visionary" (cluster of concepts including visionary, inspirational, performance orientation, integrity and decisiveness) is a universally recognized concept. Participative leadership is perceived as effective in lower power distance cultures, but less effective in high power distance cultures. In high power distance cultures, the employees expect managers to make decisions and apply their authority rather than delegate their power.

Define deep-level diversity

Differences in the psychological characteristics of employees, including personalities, beliefs, values, and attitudes.

Explain virtual teams.

Differences from regular teams: 1. Not co-located. 2. Depend on info technologies to communicate and coordinate. Virtual teams are gaining popularity as: 1. Information technology reliance increases. 2. Work is shifting from production-based to knowledge-based. These (1. and 2.) make them possible. What makes them necessary is: 3. Organizational learning. (encourage employees to share knowledge where direct meetings can't be set-up for geographical reasons) 4. Globalization (geographical reasons). Success depends on: 1. Good communication technology skills. 2. Strong self-leadership skills. (no supervision or peers). 3. Higher emotional intelligence (hard to decipher feelings from emails etc). 4. Good communication toolkit with a freedom to choose channels of communication. Enforcing communication is bad. Communication channels change over time. 5. A lot of structure is needed. (clear operational objectives, documented work processes, agreed upon roles and responsibilities). 6. Initial face-to-face meetings. (creates better bonding and mutual understanding).

Behavioral perspective of leadership: explain directive vs supportive: differences and problems.

Directive and supportive leadership. Directive - assign employees to tasks, set goals, set deadlines, clarify work duties and procedures, define work procedures, plan work activities. Increases job performance. Uni students value this as they want clear objectives and well-structures lectures. Supportive - listeing to emploees for their opinions and ideas, creating a pleasant work environment, showing interest in staff, appreciating and recognizing employees for their effort and showing consideration. Increasing supportive leadership reduces employee absenthism, grievances, turnover and job dissatisfaction. Reduces stress. Problems: 1. Two categories are too broad and mask specific behaviors that are fairly distinct between two styles and have different effect on employee's well-being and performance. 2. Assumption that both levels of each are good in all situations. In reality, it all depends on a situation. Besides all problems, it lays a great foundation.

What causes and increases emotional intelligence?

Emotional intelligence is connected with personality traits as well as with emotional intelligence of parents. Emotional intelligence can also be learned. It also increases with age. Yet there is no objective tool that measures emotional intelligence.

Discuss the dynamics of emotional labour and the role of emotional intelligence in the workplace.

Emotional labour consists of the effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. It is more common in jobs requiring a variety if emotions and more intense emotions, as well as in jobs where interaction with clients is frequent and has a long duration. Cultures also differ regarding the norms of displaying or concealing a person's true emotions. Emotional dissonance occurs when required and true emotions are incompatible with each other. Deep acting can minimize this dissonance, as can the practice of hiring people with a natural tendency to display desired emotions. Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive and express emotions, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others. This concept includes four components arranged in hierarchy: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. Emotional intelligence can be learned to some extent, particularly thhought personal coaching.

Expain how emotions and cognition influence attitudes and behavior.

Emotions are physiological, behavioral, and psychological episodes experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a state of readiness. Emotions differ from attitudes, which respresent a cluster of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, object or event. Beliefs are a person's established perceptions about the attitude object. Feelings are positive or negative evaluations of the attitude object. Behavioral intentions represent a motivation to engage ona particular behavior towards a target. Attitrudes are not purely rational as has been believed, emotions have equal or bigger contribution as rationality. This is especially apparent when we internally experience a conflict between what is logically good or bad and what we emotionally feel is good or bad in a situation. Emotions also affect behavior directly. Behavior sometimes influences our subsequent attitudes through cognitive dissonance.

Define employee engagement.

Employee engagement is defined as an individual's emotional and cognitive (rational motivation), particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposful effort toward work-related goals. It is emotional involvement in, commitment to, and satisfaction with the work, as well as a high level of absorption in the work and sense of self-efficacy about performing the work.

Explain reducing the restraining forces.

Employee resistance should be viewed as a resource, but its underlying causes - the restraining forces - need to be addressed. Each source of resistance needs to be addressed. If feasible, communication, learning, employee involvement, and stress management should be attempted first. In cases when people will clearly lose something from the change and when speed of change is critical, negotiation and coercion are necessary. 1. Communication. This is the highest priority and first strategy required for any organizational change. Communication improves the change process in at least two ways: (1) by generating an urgency to change. Leaders motivate by telling employees about external threats and opportunities that make change important. Whether town hall meetings or direct contact with customers, employees become energized, when they understand and visualize the external forces. (2). illuminating the future and thereby reducing the fear of the unknown. The more corporate leaders communicate their vision, the clearer the vision is communicated, specifying what milestones have already been achieved, the more employees will understand their own roles in the future and how change relates to their jobs and responsibilities. 2. Learning. Important, as employees require new knowledge and skills to fit organization's evolving requirements, as well as adapt their previous behavior pattern to benefit from the new system. Training can be time consuming, but it helps people break routines by learning new role patterns. 3. Employee involvement. Employee involvement is almost essential part of the change process (unless the change must occur quickly or employee interests are highly incompatible with the organization's needs). Employees who participate in change decisions tend to feel more personal responsibility for its successful implementation, rather than being disinterested agents of someone else's decisions. This sense of ownership minimizes problems of saving face and fear of the unknown. Employee ideas are also required due to nowadays complexity of work environments. Employee involvement is so important that special initiatives were developed to allow participation in large groups. 4. Stress management. Organizational change is a stressful experience, because it threatens self-esteem, and created uncertainty about the future. Communication, learning, and employee involvement can reduce some of the stressors. However, companies also need to introduce stress-management tactics. Minimizing stress increases employee motivation to support change process. 5. Negotiation. Negotiation is a form of influence that involves the promise of benefits or resources in exchange for the target person's compliance with the influencer's request. This works if workers otherwise will lose from the change. However, this is compliance, rather than commitment and might not be effective in long term. 6. Coercion. Can consist of persistently reminding people of their obligations, frequently monitoring behavior to ensure compliance, confronting people who do not change their behaviour, and using threats and sanctions to force compliance, in extreme, replacing people who do not support change. Firing people is the least desirable way, but is sometimes necessary, when speed is essential and other tactics are ineffective. This is also a radical form of organizational unlearning, because when execs leave they take knowledge of past routines, opening up space for new opportunities to take hold. Coercion is a risky strat as the survivors may have less trust in corporate leaders and engage in more political tactics to protect own job security.

What feedback sources do employees prefer?

Employees prefer nonsocial feedback sources for goal progression - makes it more legit. Employees prefer nonsocial feedback for negative feedback - makes it less damaging to self-esteem. Employees prefer social feedback for pleasant feedback - feels better than non-social.

Explain resistance to change.

Employees very often resist the change. Can range from stopping of work to continuing in old ways. Subtle resistance is much more common than overt. Can be changing jobs, continuing performing tasks in old ways if the manager was not watching, performing new tasks but not emotionally committing. Subtle resistance can potentially be the worst (death of a thousand cuts). Resistance is a natural response to change. Ways to view resistance as a resource, rather than impediment: 1. Signal that the change was not sufficiently addressed. (1) sometimes due to employee fear of consequences of change, such as loss of status and power. (2) sometimes employees fear the process itself: effort required to break old and build new skills. 2. Form of constructive conflict. However, usually accompanied by dysfunctional relationship conflict. This happens when agents of change see resistance as impediment rather than a resource. They describe people who resist as the problem. Viewing change as constructive conflict may minimize the dysfunctional relationship conflict. 3. Justice and motivation. Resistance is a form of voice so it potentially improves procedural justice. Redirecting initial forms of resistance into constructive conversations increases employee perceptions and feelings of fairness. Motivational: engages people to think about the change strategy and process. Change agents can harness that motivational force to ultimately strengthen commitment to change initiative.

Define empowerment and identidy strategies that support empowerment.

Empowerment is a psychological concept represented by four dimensions: self-determination, meaning, competence and impact regarding the individual's role in the organization. Individual charactersistics seem to have a minor influence on empowerment. Job design is a major influence, particularly autonomy, task identity, task significance, and job feedback. Empowerment is also supported at the organizational level through learning orientation culture, sufficient information and resources, and corporate leaders who trust employees.

Explain Lewin's force field analysis model

Environments are constantly changing (consumer needs, global competition, technology, community expectations, government regulations, environmental standards) and companies must adjust to survive. Force field analysis model remains popular after over 50 years. One side represents driving forces (environmental changes). Sometimes leaders are the driving force ("divine discontent") even when the environmental changes are not apparent. The other side represents restraining forces that maintain the status quo. These forces are commonly called "resistance to change" as they block change process. Stability - equal balance between forces. Change occurs by unfreezing the current situation (disequilibrium - can be achieved through increasing driving forces, reducing restraining forces or a combination of both), moving to a desired condition, then refreezing (support and reinforce new role patters to prevent going back).

Explain contingency of power: visibility.

Even if you control valued resources or knowledge, you will not have power until others are aware of what you got. To increase visibility - start standing out in small groups, then progress further to upper management. Some people use literal things to increase visibility: locate themselves in more visible offices, room positioning, display awards and diplomas, med. people wear white coats, spending more time at work.

Implicit leadership perspective: explain prototypes of effective leaders.

Everyone has leadership prototypes: preconceived beliefs about the features and behaviours of effective leaders. These prototypes develop through socialization in family and society, hereditary personality characteristics. shape expectations and acceptance of others as leaders, in turn, affecting their willingness to be followers and our perception of the leader's effectiveness. The prototype comparison process - we believe that someone is a leader more if they look and act consistently with out prototype of a leader. This occurs because people have a need to evaluate individuals as leaders, yet leadership effectiveness is ambiguous and not apparent for a long time.

Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.

Expentancy theory states that work effort is determined by the perception that that effort will result in a particular level of performance (E-to-P expectancy), the perception that a specific behavior or performance level will lead to specific outcomes (P-to-O expectancy), and the valences that the person feels for those outcomes. The E-to-P expectancy increases by improving the employee's ability and confidence to perform a job. The P-to-O expectancy increases by measuring performance accurately, distributing higher rewards for better performers, and showing employees that rewards are performace-based. Outcomes valences increase by finding out what employees want and using these resources as rewards.

Explain face-to-face communication persuasion and written communication persuasion.

Face-to-face communication is more persuasive than any forms of written communication. This is because (1) face-to-face is often accompanied by non-verbal. People are persuaded more when they receive emotional and logical messages. Non-verbal communication can set and/or amplify the emotional tone of the message. (2) spoken communication offers the sender high quality immediate feedback whether the receiver understands and accepts the message (successfully persuaded). This feedback allows to adjust the content and emotional tone of the message. more quickly than with written communication. (3) people are persuaded more under conditions of high social presence, rather than low social presence. The sender can easily monitor the receiver's listening in face-to-face conversations (high social presence), so listeners are more motivated to pay attention and consider the message. When written communication is used there is a higher degree of anonymity an psychological distance. These conditions reduce the motivation to think about and accept persuasive message. Written communication can persuade to some extent. Written messages present more technical detail, than face-to-face. This data is persuasive when the issue is important to the receiver. Also there is a moderate degree of social presence present in written communication, when communicating of close associates.

Describe five ways to improve reward effectiveness.

Financial rewards have a number of limitations, but reward effectiveness can be improved in several ways. Organizational leaders should ensure that rewards are linked to work performance, rewards are alligned with performance within the employee's control, team rewards are used where jobs are interdependent, rewards are valued by employees, and rewards have no unintended consequences.

Define and explain five-factor model

Five-factor model is the five abstract dimensions representing most personality traits: conscientiousness (careful, dependable, self-disciplined), agreeableness (courteous, good-natured, empathetic, caring), neuroticism (anxious, insecure, self-conscious), openness to experience (imaginative, creative, curious, sensitive) and extroversion (outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive).

Explain legitimate power

Formal descriptions, informal rules of conduct, manager's right to tell employees what tasks to perform, who to work with, what resources they can use etc through mutual agreement and within discussed range. Values in comformity and tradition, high power distance cultures are more obedient to authority. Workers have power over management through legal and adminitrative rights, and informal norms. Norm of reciprocity - if you helped me, i will help you. Control of information power: 1. Info is a resource access to which can be regulated. 2. Selective distrubution of information (filtering).

Explain why employees resist change: foundations and specific reasons.

Foundations: 1. Personality and values conflict. 2. Lack of motivation and commitment to change, when they believe that the change will fail, is costly to them personally or is the wrong action for the situation. 3. Inability to change due to inadequate skills and knowledge. 3. Lack of role clarity about change. This happens when people misunderstand or magnify what is expected of them in the future. Specific reasons: 1. Direct costs. If personal cost-benefit analysis calculation is negative rather than positive. Some pain, but little gain. 2. Saving face. Employees attack changes that did not originate from them. They inflate problems to "prove" that the ideas not originating from them were not superior to their own. 3. Fear of the unknown. All change has some uncertainty. Knowledge and skills may become obsolete, social relationships might be disrupted or removed. People resist change out of worry that they cannot adjust to the new work environments or that they will produce unknown costs. Uncertainty is considered less desirable than the relative certainty of the status quo. 4. Breaking routines. People tend to resist initiatives that force them out of their comfort zones and require them to invest time and energy in learning new role patterns. Even when we want to change and do change, we relax and return to our comfort zone. 5. Incongruent (incompatible) team dynamics. Teams develop and enforce conformity to a set of norms that guide behaviour. Conformity to existing team norms may discourage employees from accepting organizational change. 6. Incongruent organizational systems. Rewards, information systems, patterns of authority, career paths, selection criteria, and other systems and structures when properly aligned reinforce desired behaviours, when misaligned they pull people back into their old attitudes and behavior. Even enthusiastic employees lose momentum after failing to overcome the structural confines of the past.

Explain contingency of power: discretion.

Freedom to exercise judgement. To make decisions without referring to a specific rule or receiving permission from someone.

Debate the organizational opportunities and challenges of globalization, workforce diversity, and emerging employment relationships.

Globalization, which refers to various forms of connectivity with people in other arts of the world has several economic and social benefits, but it may also be responsible for work intensification, reduced job security and work-life balance. Workforce diversity is apparent at both the surface-level (obsevable demographic and other overt differences in people) and deep-level (differences in personalities, beliefs, values and attitudes). There is some evidence of deep level diversity between generational cohorts. It can provide competitive advantage in complex tasks, but it also create slower team performance and interpersonal conflict. One emerging relationship trend is the call for more work-life balance (minimizing conflict between work and nonwork demands). another employment trend is virtual work, particularly working from home. Working form home potentially increases employee productivity and reduces employee stress, but it may also lead to social isolation, reduced promotion opportunities and tension in family relations.

Has goal-setting theory been proven? How is feedback beneficial? What are the benefits and downsides of goal setting?

Goal setting is a major proven theory in organizational behavior. Feedback in partnership with performance increases motivation and performance. The problems with goal-setting are: 1. Goal setting focuses on measurable performance indicators, ignoring difficult to measure aspects of performance. 2. When achievement has rewards, employees tend to set easy goals while making them look difficult. 3. Setting performance goals is effective in established jobs, but interferes with learning process in new complex jobs.

Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.

Goal setting is the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives. Goals are more effective when they are specific, relevant and challenging; have employee commitment, and are accompanied by meaningful feedback. Participative goal setting is important in some situations. Effective feedback is specific, relevant, timely, credible and sufficiently frequent. Strength-based coaching (also known as appreciative coaching) maximizes employee potential by focusing on strengths rather than weaknesses. Employees usually prefer nonsocial feedback sources to learn about their progress toward goal accomplishment.

Explain communication through the grapevine.

Grapevine is unstructured and informal network founded on social relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions. Almost all employees use grapevine, but very few prefer this source of information. Only 1/3 of employees believe that grapevine information is credible. Employees turn to grapevine only when they have no other options. Grapevine transmits information rapidly in all directions. Usually a few people transmit a lot of info to others. The messages usually have some truth in them. Yet, it really distorts information by deleting fine details and exaggerating. Grapevine is more active where the employees are similar in backgrounds and are able to communicate easily. Water cool gossip talk is changed to email, social networking sites and tweets. Facebook has pages dedicated for people to write about their companies. Internet facilitated the globalization of these grapevine networks. Benefits of grapevine: 1. Employees rely on it when there is not information available through formal channels. 2. Main channel for organizational culture to be communicated. 3. Social interaction relieves anxiety. 4. Fulfills a drive to bond. Being a recipient of gossip is a sign of inclusion. Grapevine fulfills a drive for social interaction. Limitations of grapevine: 1. Information sometimes is so distorted that it escalates instead of reduces anxiety. 2. If management is slower than grapevine in communicating the information, the employees develop more negative views toward the organization. What action should be done about grapevine? 1. Listen to grapevine as a signal of employee anxiety, then correct the cause of that anxiety. 2. Listen to grapevine and step in, if needed, to correct blatant errors and fabrications. 3. Corporate leaders are to view grapevine as a competitor and directly inform employees of news, before they spread through a grapevine.

Explain high-performance work practices perspective and its components (4)

HPWP - high performance work practices. This is abundle of systems and structures to use workforce potential most effectively. The components are: 1. Employee involvement. 2. Job autonomy. 3. Developing employee competencies 4. Peformance/ skill-based rewards.

List and explain hard influence tactics.

Hard influence tactics - change behavior through position power (legitimate, reward, coersion): 1. Silent authority. Complying because of the person has legitimate power and matches your role expectations. this is the highest form of persuasion in high power distance cultures. 2. Assertiveness. "Vocal authority". Legitimate and coersive power. Includes persistent remind of obligations, checking work, confronting, threats amd sanctions to enforce compliance. Consequence for non-compliance are typically punishment threats or application. Extreme form: blackmail. 3. Information control. Selective information distribution. 4. Coalition formation. A group of people to support proposed change. Benefits: (1) pools resources of many people. (2). itself just being highlights that the issue is important. (3) taps into social identity process. 5. Upward appeal. Refer to higher authority hypothetically: Boss will like this. Let's do it! This implies boss approves and it is consistent with company's norms.

Drives

Hardwired characteristics of the brain that correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium by producing emotions to energize individuals.

Team trust and its three foundations

High level of trust occurs when others affect you in the situations where you are at risk and you believe they will not harm you. It includes beliefs and conscious feelings towards team members. Foundations: 1. Calculus-based trust. Weakest one. You expect team members to act appropriately otherwise they will face sanctions. 2. Knowledge-based trust. How much we observed the person acts the same way in the same situations. 3. Identification-based trust. Based on mutual understanding and emotional bond. Think, act and feel like each other. High-performance teams have this kind of trust. Any misbehavior is usually fast forgotten, as everyone feels like their goals, beliefs etc. are very similar. People are more reluctant to acknowledge the violation of this kind of trust as it strikes their social identity. Employees usually join teams with a moderate to high, but not low level of trust in co-workers. The initial trust is called swift trust. Occurs because we have knowledge-based trust and want to fulfill our social identity. This trust is fragile, because it is based on assumptions. Trust decreases rather than increases over time.

What are the consequences of team cohesion?

In highly cohesive teams, the members want to maintain their membership and help team achieve mutual objectives. High cohesion teams spend more time together, share information, are more satisfied with each other, provide social support in stressful situations, more sensitive to each other's needs, develop better interpersonal relationships, reducing the conflict and having swift and effective conflict resolution, better co-operation and higher conformity to norms. All these factors increase the performance of highly cohesive teams. Good team performance is a predictor of cohesion. Moreover it has stronger effect on cohesion, than cohesion has on team performance. Team cohesion increases team performance only when team's norms are compatible with organizational values and objectives. This is because cohesion motivates people to perform on a level consistent with team norms. So if the norm is to procrastinate, the performance will decrease even if the cohesion is high.

Employee engagement

Individual's emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focus, intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work-related goals.

Define stakeholders

Individuals, organizations, and other entities who affect, or are affected by, the organization's objectives and actions.

Multisource (360-degree) feedback

Information about an employee's performance collected form a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers.

Explain Multisource (360 degree) feedback.

Information about employee's performance is collected from a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors and customers. This gives a more complete and accurate picture. This is especially useful if the supervisor cannot directly observe the employee's performance over time.

When are internal attributions made? When are external attributions made?

Internal: 1. High consistency. 2. Low distinctiveness. 3. Low consensus. Extenal: 1. Low consistency. 2. High distictiveness. 3. High consensus.

Intuition and making choices.

Intuition subconsciously analyzes similar experiences and brings up emotions strong enough to bring our attention to it. Not all emotional signals are intuition thus may represent themselves as gut feelings, when they are not. Also sometimes a new employee will compare his gut feelings to experience at the other company - similar, but not the same. Action scripts - routines that see the pattern and jump to solution quickly to minimize effort and time. Yet, they are generic, so we need to be careful.

Evaluate the transformational leadership perspective.

It does make a difference. Employees are more satisfied, have higher affective organizational commitment, perform jobs better, engage in more organizational citizenship, make better or more creative decisions. Currently is the most popular leadership perspective. Challenges: 1. Circular logic. Define and measure the leadership by how well the leader inspires and engages employees, rather than leader's engagement in transformational behavior. 2. Usually described as universal instead of contingency. (1) However, it depends on the situation. Transformational leaders are better in the situations where organizations need to adapt, rather than in stable environments. (2) Also, differs between cultures. The way visions are formed and communicated, etc may be different between North American and other cultures.

Explain third-party conflict resolution and its three kinds.

It is an attempt by any relatively neutral person to help conflicting parties to resolve their differences. 3 kinds: 1. Arbitration. High control over final decision, but low control over the process. Involves listening to arguments, then making decision. Go-to strat with unionized employees and is becoming more common in non-unionized conflicts. 2. Inquisition (not Spanish!). High process control - choose which info to examine and how to examine and generally how conflict resolution process will be handled, as well as take care of making final decision. 3. Mediation. High process control, but let parties make final decision. Little or no control over final decision. People in positions of authority (managers) are more likely to adopt an inquisitional approach, because it is consistent with decision-making nature of managerial jobs, gives them control over conflict process and outcome and tends to resolve disputes efficiently. However it is usually least effective, because the leaders collect limited information about the problem, and employees view inquisitional procedures and outcomes as unfair, because they have little control over this approach. For disagreement between two employees, the mediation approach is usually the best, because it gives employees more responsibility in resolving their own shit. Mediation offers highest level of employee satisfaction. If mediation doesn't work, next best step is arbitration, as predetermined rules create a higher sense of procedural fairness. Arbitration is also preferred where the organization's goals should take priority over individual goals.

Explain natural style versus the situation in leadership.

Leaders mainly rely on one style that is most consistent with their personality and values. Leaders can't change their style very easily to fit the situation.Leaders may be able to alter their style temporarily, but they tend to rely mainly on one style that is most consistent with their personality and values. It is more effective to change the situation to fit leader's style, rather than get leader to change their style. For example, placing appropriate leader to appropriate situations. Leaders with high agreeableness and benevolence (well-meaning, kind) prefer supportive relationship. High conscientiousness and achievement values prefer directive leadership.

Explain self-monitoring.

Regularly keeping track of goals through naturally occurring feedback.

Is team cohesion an emotional experience, and what influences team cohesion? List and explain individual factors.

It is emotional experience and is influenced by member similarity, smaller team size, member interaction, difficult entry, team success, external competitions and challenges. This is a reflection of member social identity with the group and belief of how being a part of the team will fulfill personal needs. 1. Member similarity. Teams have higher cohesion when members are similar. Similarity effect: people with similar values are more attracted to and are more comfortable with each other. Diversity usually makes cohesion harder, but it depends on the type of diversity. 2. Teams size. Smaller teams have more cohesion than larger teams. Easier to agree and coordinate. Yet, when there are not enough members to perform work, smaller teams have less cohesion. 3. Member interaction, Regular interaction promotes cohesion. This happens when task is highly interdependent and the members work in the same area. 4. Somewhat difficult entry. Prestige increases value of being a team member. Severe initiations can weaken team cohesion, because of the humiliation endured. 5. Team success. Cohesion is both emotional and instrumental. People feel more cohesion when their needs and goals are fulfilled. Cohesion increases proportionately to team's success. Also people wants to socially identify with successful teams. 6. External competition and challenges. Cohesion increases when faced with external competition.

List the advantage and disadvantages of job specialization.

Job design is the process of assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependence of those tasks with other jobs. Job specialization subdivides task into separate jobs for different people. This increases work efficiency because employees master the tasks quickly, spend less time changing tasks, require less training, and can be matched more closely with the jobs best suited to their skills. However, job specialization may reduce work motivation, create mental health problems, lower product and service quality, and increase costs through discontentment, absenteeism, and turnover.

Summarize the consequence of job dissatisfaction as well as strategies to increase organizational (affective) commitment.

Job satisfaction represents a person's evaluation of his or her job and work context. Four types of job dissatisfaction consequences are quitting or otherwise getting away from dissatisfying situation (exit), attempting to change the dissatisfying situation (voice), patiently waiting for the problem to sort itself out (loyalty), and reducing work effort and performance (neglect). Job satisfaction has a moderate relationship with job performance and with customer satisfaction. Affective organizational commitment (loyalty) is the employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in a particular organization. This contrasts with continuance commitment, which is a calculative bond with the organization. Companies build loyalty through justice and support, shared values, trust, organizational comprehension and employee involvement.

Explain self-directed teams and what makes them successful.

Key points: 1. Work tightly together - better communication, speed, coordination. 2. Autonomy over scheduling, goals, performance, planning, execution. 3. Perform an entire chunk of work that has interdependent small specialized tasks. 4. Popular in manufacturing, services and government jobs. 5. Increase productivity and job satisfaction. Success depends on: 1. Must be responsible for the entire work process: making entire product or providing work service. This provides independence from other teams and interdependence in a team. 2. Sufficient autonomy. This allows speed and effectiveness of response to demands. This also motivates through feeling of empowerment. 3. Work site and technology must support coordination and communication and increase job enrichment. Team can't be a team if technology and space separates workers from each other.

Define structural capital

Knowledge embedded in an organization's systems and structures.

define force field analysis

Kurt Lewin's model if system-wide change that helps change agents diagnose the forces that drive and restrain proposed organizational change

Contingency perspective of leadership: explain Fiedler's contingency model.

Leader effectiveness depends on whether the person's natural leadership style is appropriately matched to the situation. The theory covers two leadership styles that are largely consistent with supportive and directive styles. Relies on a questionnaire that does not measure either leadership style very well. Suggests that the best style depends on a level of situational control - the degree of power and influence that the leader possesses in a particular situation. Situational control is affected by three factors in the order if least to most important: 1. leader-member relations (relates to how much employees trust and respect the leader and are willing to follow his or her guidance.) 2. task structure (refers to clarity or ambiguity of operating procedures) 3. position power (the extent to which the leader possesses legitimate, reward and coercive power over subordinates). The three contingencies above form the eight possible combinations of situation favourableness from the leader's viewpoint. The most favourable: good leader-member relations, high task structure, and strong position power. Criticisms: 1. No scientific justification for putting situational control factors in hierarchy. 2. Leader-member relations is an indicator of leader effectiveness rather than a situational factor. 3. The theory considers only two leadership styles. Other models represent a more complex and realistic array of behavior options. 4. Overall limited empirical support.

What are the benefits of informal groups?

Minimize stress though social-emotional support. This improves employee well-being, making the organization more effective. Informal networks increase power and influence through better information and preferential treatment and make their talent more visible.

Self-reinforcent

Reinforcement that occurs when an employee has control over a reinforcer but doesn't 'take' it until completing a self-set goal.

define transactional leadership

Leadership that helps organizations achieve their current objectives more efficiently, such as by linking job performance to value rewards and ensuring that employees have the resources needed to get the job done.

Explain gender differences in communication.

Males: 1. Report talk - giving advice, assert power. 2. Give advice directly. 3. Dominate conversation style. 4. Apologize less often. 5. Less sensitive to nonverbal cues. Females: 1. Rapport talk- relationship building. 2. Give advice indirectly. 3. Flexible conversation style. 4. Apologize more often. 5. More sensitive to nonverbal cues. Some conflict may arise. For example, males give direct advice, rather than support, when women describe problems, which upsets women. Men, in turn, get upset, because their advice is rejected.

Identify five ways to manage workplace stress.

Many interventions are available to manage work-related stress, including removing the stressor, withdrawing from the stressor, changing stress perceptions, controlling stress consequences and receiving social support.

Summarize Maslow's needs hierarchy, McLelland's learned needs theory, and four-drive theory and discuss their impications for employee motivation.

Maslow's needs hierachy groups needs into hierarchy of five levels and states that the lowers needs are initially most important but higher needs become more important as the lower ones are satisfied. Although very popular, the theory lacks research support because it wrongly assumes that everyone has the same hierarchy. The emerging evidence suggests that needs hierarchies vary from one person to next according to their personal values. McClelland's learned needs theory argues that needs can be strengthened through learning. The three needs studied in this respect are need for achievement, need for power and need for affiliation. Four-drive theory states that everyone has four innate drives - the drive to acquire, bond, learn and defend. These drives activate emotions that people regulate through a skill set that considers social norms, past experiences, and personal values. The main recommendation from four-drive theory is to ensure that individual jobs and workplaces provide a balanced opportunity to fulfill the four drives.

Employee involvement in decision making. Good or bad? What are main levels.

May be good, may be bad. Levels from lowest to highest: 1. Decide alone. **** everyone. 2. Receive information from individuals. Notice: ask for info only, not recommendations. 3. Consult with individuals. Both info and recommendations. 4. Consult with the team. Ask a team to conjure up ideas and recommendations, but you make the decision. 5. Facilitate the team's decision. You only serve as facilitator. Team comes up with solutions, chooses the best one, and implement it.

Explain merging organizational values: in general, audit and strategies for merging different organizational cultures.

Mergers often create big problems corporate culture-wise. The companies often get so engaged in the financial and marketing logistics that they do not test if their culture are compatible. Bicultural audit diagnoses cultural relations between the companies and determines the extent to which cultural clashes are likely to occur. The steps to the audit are: identifying cultural differences between the merging companies, then the data is analyzed to find which values are common ground for building culture after the merger and which values may cause conflict, then the strategies and action plans are developed to bridge the two organizational cultures. Strategies for merging different organizational cultures: 1. Assimilation. When employees at the acquired company willingly embrace the cultural values of the acquiring organization. This strategy typically works best when the acquired company has a weak, dysfunctional culture and the acquiring company's culture is strong and aligned with external environment.. The risk for cultural clash is low, because the employees of acquired company have weak culture and are looking for better alternatives. Assimilation is rare. 2. Deculturation. Employees usually resist change, especially when they are asked to discard personal and cultural values. Deculturation is imposing dominant cultures values and and business practices on the acquired organization. Artifacts and rewards systems that support old culture are stripped. People who cannot accept new values usually lose their jobs. Deculturation may be necessary when the acquired company's culture doesn't work, even when the employees in the acquired company aren't convinced of this. Hard to implement, as employees resist, delaying or undermining the merger process. 3. Integration. Combines two or more cultures into a new composite culture that preserves the best features of the previous cultures. Slow and risky as there are many forces preserving existing cultures. Best strategy when companies have weak cultures or when their cultures have several overlapping values, and especially when people realize that their cultures are ineffective and are motivated to change. 4. Separation. Occurs when the merging companies agree to remain distinct entities with minimal exchange of culture or organizational practices. This strategy is most appropriate when the two merging companies are in unrelated industries or operate in different countries, because cultural values tend to differ by industry and national culture. However, the executive in acquiring companies usually have hard time keeping their hands of the companies.

Discuss the meaning of money and identify several individual, team, and organizational-level performance-based rewards.

Money (and other financial rewards) is a fundamental part of the employment relationship, but it also related to our needs, our emotions, and our self-concept. It is viewed as a symbol of status and prestige, as a source of security, as a source of evil, or as a source of anxiety or feelings of inadequacy. Money is both a "tool" (instrument for acquiring other things) and a "drug" (addictive value in itself). People have a string "money ethic" when they believe that money is not evil; that it is a symbol of achievement, respect, and power, and that it should be budgeted carefully. The meaning and value of money also varies between men and women and across cultures. Organizations reward employees for their membership and seniority, job status, competencies, and performance. Membership-based rewards may attract job applicants and seniority-based rewards reduce turnover, but these reward objectives tend to discourage turnover among those with the lowest performance. Rewards based on job status try to maintain internal equity and motivate employees to compete for promotions. However, they tend to encourage a bureaucratic hierarchy, support status differences and motivate employees to compete and hoard resources. Competency-based rewards are becoming increasingly popular because they improve workforce flexibility and are consistent with the emerging idea of employability. However, they tend to be subjectively measured and can result in higher costs as employees spend more time learning new skills. Awards and bonuses, commissions, and other individual performance-based rewards have existed for centuries and are widely used, Many companies are shifting to team-based rewards such as gainsharing plans and to organizational rewards such as employee share ownership plans (ESOPs), share options and profit sharing. ESOPs and share options create an ownership culture, but employees often perceive a weak connection between individual performance and the organizational reward.

Explain the importance of organizational culture and 3 ways that it makes organizations with stronger cultures more effective.

Most successful companies have strong organizational cultures and are almost cult-like, but not actually cults. The strength of the organizational culture refers to how widely and deeply the employees hold the companies dominant beliefs. Values and assumptions are reinforced through well-established artifacts, making it hard to change them. Strong cultures tend to be long-lasting, some can be traced back to the company's founder. Companies have weak cultures, when dominant values are held mainly by a few people on top of the organization, are barely observable/distinguished and continuously changing. How are companies with stronger cultures more effective? 1. Control system. Organizational culture is a deeply embedded for of social control that influence employee's decisions and behavior.. Culture is pervasive and operates unconsciously (autopilot). 2. Social glue. Bonds people together. Fulfills employees' need for social identity. Important as a way to attract new staff and retain top performers. It also creates a common bond between employees that maintains and reinforces the culture. 3. Sense making, Helps employees to understand what is going on and why things happen in the company; makes it easier to understand what is expected of them and to talk to other employees, who believe in the culture.

Explain the role of human drives and emotions in employee motivation and behavior.

Motivation consists of the forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity, and persistance of voluntary behavior in the workplace. Drives (also called primary needs) are neural states that energize individuals to correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium. They are the "prime movers" of behavior, activating emotions that put us in a state if readiness to act. Need-goal-directed forces that people experience-are shaped by the individual's self-concept (including personality and values), social norms, and past experience.

Explain gender and leadership.

No substantial difference was found in levels of male and female directive or supportive leadership. This may be explained by real-world jobs requiring similar behavior from male and female leaders. However. women adopt participant leadership style more readily, than males. One possible explanation is that girls are raised to be more egalitarian and less status-oriented, which is consistent with being participative. Second explanation is that women have somewhat better interpersonal skills. Third explanation is that employees, due to their own gender stereotypes, expect female leaders to be more participative. Women are rated higher than men on the emerging leadership qualities of coaching, teamwork, and empowering employees. If women try to use more directive and autocratic leadership styles they get evaluated negatively. This creates limitations due to gender stereotypes and follower-held prototypes of leaders. Both male and female leaders are sensitive to the follower's expectations of how the leader's should act and leaders who deviate from expectations may get evaluated negatively.

Explain nonverbal communication.

Nonverbal communication includes facial gestures, voice intonation, physical distance and even silence. Necessary when can't do verbal communication and there is a need for immediate feedback. Even in face-to-face meetings nonverbal cues may reinforce interest or amplifying the meaning. Non-verbal communication is less rule-bound. Nonverbal cues are usually more ambiguous and are subjected to misinterpretation due to the lack of formal education on how to interpret them. Verbal communication is usually conscious, when non-verbal communication is usually automatic and non-conscious. Often translate well across cultures. (hardwired non-conscious responses to human emotions).

Team norms and teams. General info, why they form and how to prevent and change dysfunctional norms.

Norms apply only to behavior, not to private thoughts and feelings and apply to behaviors important to the team only. Team members usually comply with the norms without putting up a fight because they identify with the group and want to fit their behavior to group norms. The more individuals social identity is connected with the group, the more he or she is motivated to use norms to avoid negative sanctions. Norms form, because they are needed to: 1. help anticipate or predict how others will act. 2. as team members discover behaviors that facilitate efficiency. 3. experiences and values members bring to the team. Norms become deeply anchored, therefore must be established and enforced in the beginning of team development. One way to do that is to clearly state norms when the team starts to develop. Another way is to select people with appropriate values. If norms are faulty in an already established team, leaders can alter norms by active coaching or voicing the norms, alternatively, team-based rewards can be effective, or, as last resort, disband the team and replace with people with more favorable norms.

Explain netiquette

Norms of behavior established for communicating online.

Briefly describe two main elements of organizational culture

Organizational culture consists of shared values and assumptions. Values are conscious stable evaluative beliefs guiding our behavior. In organizational culture they are called shared values: values that people within the organization or work unit have in common. Shared assumptions are unconscious, taken-for-granted perceptions or ideal prototypes of behavior that are considered the correct way to think and act towards problems. Deeply ingrained and not aware of. Can be made aware of by observation, analysis of decisions and debriefing.

Discuss three ways to improve perceptions, with specific applications to organizational situations.

One way to minimize perceptual biases is to become more aware of their existence. Awareness of these biases makes people more mindful of their thoughts and actions, but this training sometimes reinforces rather than reduces reliance on stereotypes and tends to be ineffective for people with deeply held prejudices. A second strategy is to become more aware of biases in our own decisions and behavior. Self-awareness increases though formal tests such as AIT and by applying the Johari Window, which is a process in which others provide feedback to you about your behavior and you offer them disclosure about yourself. The third strategy is meaningful interaction, which applies the contact hypothesis that people who interact with each other will be less prejudiced or perceptually biased against each other. Meaningful interaction is strongest when people work closely and frequently with each other in relatively equal status on a shared meaningful task that requires cooperation and reliance on each other. Meaningful interaction helps to improve empathy, which is a person's understanding and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of others.

Expain open systems perspective

Open systems perspective - organizations are complex organisms living within external environment. They depend on external environments for resources, use organizational subsystems to transform these resources into outputs that are returned to the environment. Feedback from the external enviornment helps maintain a good fit. Fit occurs by adapting to the environemnt, managing the environment or moving to another environment.

Define corporate social responsibility (CSR)

Organizational activities intended to benefit society and the environment beyond the firm's immediate financial interests or legal obligations.

Outline organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) and social cognitive theory and explain theory relevance to employee motivation.

Organizational behavior modification states that the environment teaches people to alter their behavior so that they maximize positive consequences and minimize adverse consequences. Antecedents are environmental stimuli that provoke (not necessarily cause) behavior. Consequences are events following behavior that influence its future occurrence. Consequences include positive reinforcement, punishment, negative reinforcement, and extinction. The schedules of reinforcement also influence behavior. Social cognitive theory states that much learning and motivation occurs by observing and modelling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behavior. It suggests that people typically infer (rather than only directly experience) cause-effect relationships, anticipate the consequences of their actions, develop self-efficacy in demonstrating behavior, exercise personal control over theory behavior and reflect on their direct experiences. The theory emphasizes self-regulation of individual behavior, including self-reinforcement, which is the tendency of people to reward and punish themselves as a consequence of their actions.

Explain organizational culture and business ethics.

Organizational culture influences ethical conduct of its employees. This makes sense because good behavior is driven by ethical values, and ethical values can become embedded into the organizational's dormant culture.

Explain and strengthening organizational culture: attracting, selecting and socializing employees.

Organizational culture is strengthened by attracting and hiring people who already embrace the cultural values. This process, along with weeding out people who don't fit the culture is explained by attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory. ASA theory states that organizations have a natural tendency to attract, select and retain people with values and personality characteristics that are consistent with organization's culture. Attraction. Job applicants engage in self-selection by avoiding employment in the companies whose values seem incompatible with their own. Companies try to describe their culture, as well as applicants look for artifacts when visiting the company. Selection. How well a person fits in with the company culture. Interviews, other selection tests. Attrition. If the environment is a poor fit, the people leave. Work environment supports social identity and minimizes internal role conflict. Even if employees aren't forced out, many quit when values incongruence is sufficiently high.

Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.

Organizational justice consists of distributive justice (perceived fairness in the outcomes we receive relative to our contributions and the outcomes and contributions of others) and procedural justice (fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources). Equity theory has four elements: outcome/input ratio, comparison other, equity evaluation, and consequences of inequity. The theory also explains what people are motivated to do when they feel inequitably treated, Companies need to consider not only equity of the distribution of resources but also fairness in the process of making resource allocation decisions.

Explain organizational learning perspective

Organizational learning perspective - organizations are effective if they can acquire, share, use and store valuable knowledge. Ability to acquire and store depends on organization's absorptive capacity. Intellectual capital consists of human capital, structural capital, and relationship capital. Knowledge is retained in the organizational memory. Companies can selectively unlearn.

Explain organizational socialization.

Organizational socialization is the process by which individuals learn values, expected behaviors, and social knowledge necessary to assume their roles in the organization. It can change employees values to become more aligned with the company's culture, however, it is a difficult process. It also helps newcomers adjust to coworkers, work procedures, and other corporate realities. Effective socialization increases performance, job satisfactions and length of employment with the company. Organizational socialization is a process of learning and adjustment. Learning: learning organization's performance expectations, power dynamics, corporate culture, history and jargon; forming relationships with coworkers, this creating a cognitive map of physical, social, strategic and cultural dynamics of the organization without info overload. Adjustment: adapting to new work environment. Discovery of work roles that reconfigure social identity, adopt new team norms and practice new behaviours; is a rapid process; newcomers with diverse work experience seem to adjust better (larger toolkit of knowledge and skills).

Explain expert power and three types of expertise.

Originates from within the powerholder, not their position. Influence from knowledge ans skills valued by others. Helps with predictability that facilitates effectiveness of the company. 3 types of expertise: 1. Prevention. Prevent environmental changes from occurring (strategies). 2. Forecasting. Predict environmental changes (consumer preferences etc). 3. Absorption. Neutralizing the impact of environmental changes (maintenance crews etc). Expertise power is similar to the power of authority - people tend to blindly follow it.

Explain refreezing the desired conditions.

People are creatures of habit and bounce back to old habits easily. Leaders refreeze by realigning organizational systems and team dynamics with the desired changes. The desired pattern can be "nailed down" by changing physical structure and situational conditions. Organizational rewards are also powerful in refreezing behaviours. Feedback also helps through helping employees learn how well they are moving toward the desired objectives and provide permanent architecture to support new behavior patterns in long-term. Employees concentrate on new priorities, when the feedback on goal achievement is continuous.

What are informal groups? Why do they exist?

People assembled together, but they don't need to be interdependent or focus on the same objective. They exist because: 1. we have innate drive to socialize. 2. we define ourselves by groups we belong to, because they shape and reinforce our self-concept (social identity theory). 3. for tasks that we can't do on our own. 4. we are comforted by presence of other people.

Explain mindfulness and ethical behavior.

People engage in unethical behavior because they engage in mindless behavior. They don't consciously think that their actions maybe unethical. This is due to tendency to engage in automatic behavior coupled with values influencing behavior only if person consciously thinks about them. Another contributing factors are low moral intensity and assuming that managers have strong ethics.

Explain choosing the best conflict handling style.

People gravitate towards one or two styles that match their personality, personal and cultural values, and past experience. The best style depends on the situation. Problem-solving is preferred style where possible, because it calls for dialogue and clever thinking, helping parties come to win-win. It also improves long-term relationships, reduces stress, minimizes emotional defensiveness and other indicators to relationship conflict. Problem solving doesn't work if the conflict is simple and perfectly opposing, meaning both parties want a chunk of a fixed resource. There can't be win-win in that situation. Problem solving approach doesn't work if there is no high degree of trust. This approach implies information sharing and without trust there is a risk that this information will be used against you. The perception of mistrust can be amplified by strong feelings associated with conflict. Conflict avoidance style is generally ineffective. However, avoiding is best strategy where conflict has become emotionally charged or where conflict resolution will cost more than its benefits. Forcing style is generally inappropriate as it quickly and intensely generates relationship conflict. It may be necessary when you know that you are correct (the other party's position is unethical or based on flawed logic) and the other party is trying to **** you over. Yielding style may be appropriate when another party has substantially more power, the issue is not as important to you as it is to another party and you aren't confident that your position has superior logical and ethical justification. Pitfall - the other party may expect this kind of behavior from you in the future, so it may produce more conflict when you get tired of getting ****ed. Compromising style is the best when there is little hope for mutual gains through problem solving, both parties have equal power and both are under time pressure to settle their differences. Compromising occurs when parties have perfectly opposing interests. Entering conflict with compromising style may be bad, because the parties have not tied to share enough information and creatively look for a win-win solution.

Explain why social networks are powerful and explain 3 points of how social networks increase power.

People have a drive to bond. Depends on cultures. For example, more prominent in Chinese culture, as being tightly knit with family and friends reinforces self-concept. Social networks sort people by common interests, status, expertice. Social networks generate power through social capital (knowledge and resources shared by the members of social network). Social networks generate trust, support. sympathy, forgiveness etc. and that facilitates goodwill to share resources. How do social networks increase power: 1. Knowledge travels faster and more easily, becaue of goodwill. 2. Increased visibility. People remember you when asked to recommend someone. 3. Referent power. Greater trust and identification with network members. Reciprocity increases as members become more affiliated with the network. Social networks are not corporate regulated, but can be used for corporate advantage (knowledge, connections etc).

Procedural justice

Perceived fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources.

Outline the perceptual process and discuss the effects of categorical thinking and mental models in that process.

Perception involves selecting, organizing, and interpreting information to make sense of the world around us. Perceptual organization engages categorical thinking - the mostly nonconscious process of organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our long-term memory. Mental models - internal representations of the external world - also help us to make sense of incoming stimuli.

Explain reward power

Person's ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and remove negative sanctions (negative reinforcement). Managers have reward power though pay, promotions, time off, vacations schedules etc. Employees have powe through feedback and ratings in 360-degree feedback systems that affect supervisors' promotions and other rewards.

What are two kinds of identity? Explain.

Personal (internal self-concept) and social (external self-concept). Personal identity is internal self-concept. What makes you different form others in your social group. Social identity is external self-concept. It is a drive to belong in a social group. Sorted in hierarchy by importance. 1. Important usually is: gender, age, ethnicity. 2. Your minority status in the group. 3. Group's status. 4. Employment (prestigious or not). People with emphasis on social identity are less resistant to peer pressure and are more motivated to abide by team norms. Opposite for personal identity.

What type influence do people with expertise tend to use?

Persuasion.

Emotions

Physiological, behavioral, and psyhological episodes experienced toward an object, person, or even that create a state of readiness.

What are positive and negative effects of team diversity on team's performance?

Positive: 1. Ability to see the problem from different angles. (Different mental models). 2. Broader pool of technical competencies. 3. Better representation of organizations constituents. Negative: 1. Takes longer to become a high-performing team. Partially because it takes longer to bond. Another reason is people may segregate each other based on group characteristics. This reduces motivation to communicate and coordinate. With minimal diversity members have higher satisfaction, less conflict and better interpersonal relations; better on tasks that require a high degree of co-operation and coordination.

Psychological harassment

Repeated and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal comments, actions, or gestures that affect an employee's dignity or psychological or physical intergrity and that result in a harmful work environment for an employee.

Satisficing

Selecting an alternative that is satisfactory or "good enough", rather than alternative with the higher value (maximization).

What is the lowest and what is the highest item on hierarchy of emotional intelligence?

Self-awareness is the lowest. Management of others' emotions is the highest.

Describe the five elements of self-leadership and identify specific personal and work environment influences on self-leadership.

Self-leadership is the process of influencing oneself to establish the self-direction and self-motivation needed to perform a task. This includes personal goal setting, constructive thought patterns, designing natural rewards, self-monitoring, and self-reinforcement. Constructive through patterns include self-talk and mental imagery. Self-talk occurs in any situation in which a person talks to himself or herself about his or her own thoughts and actions. Mental imagery involves mentally practising a task and imagining successfully performing it beforehand. People with higher level conscientiousness, extroversion, and a positive self-concept are more likely to apply self-leadership strategies. It also increase in workplaces that support empowerment and have high trust between employees and management.

List and explain soft influence tactics.

Soft influence tactics - change behavior through personal source of power (referent, expert): 1. Persuasion. Ability to use facts, logical arguments and emotional appeals to change other person's beliefs and attitudes. The effectiveness depends on: characteristics of persuader, message content, communication medium and audience being persuaded. Best when listeners believe persuader has credibility and expertise, does not profit from persuasion, and when persuader states a few points against, acknowledges several points to prevent audience from feeling cornered, uses emotional appeals with logical arguments. Inoculation effect warns listeners that they can be screwed over and decreases persuasion effectiveness. Works best in face-to-face conversations by increasing credibility of persuader, allows for faster feedback. People with high self-esteem and intelligence, and self-concept strongly tied to apposing viewpoint are harder to persuade. 2. Ingratiation/impression management. trying to make others like you. Too much flattering can have the opposing effect. However, moderate amount stimulates promotions etc. Ingratiation is a part of a larger concept called impression management, which is the process of active shaping of our public images. "Branding" yourself. Some criminals use impression management to get ahead by lying about achievements and credentials. 3. Exchange. Essentially negotiation. "I will work on Sunday if you give me day off on Christmas".

Contingency perspective of leadership: explain contingencies of path-goal theory.

Some leadership styles are effective in some situations, but not the others. Two variables moderate the relationship between style and effectiveness: 1. employee characteristics 2. characteristics of the employee's work environment. 4 main contingencies: 1. Skills and experience. A combo of directive and supportive leadership is best for unskilled and inexperienced: directive gives info on how to accomplish the task, supportive helps cope with the uncertainties of unfamiliar work situations. Directive leadership is detrimental to experienced employees as too much supervisory control. 2. Locus of control. Internal locus of control - belief that they have control over their work environment. These employees prefer participative and achievement-oriented leadership styles. External locus of control - belief in luck or fate. These people prefer directive and supportive leadership. 3. Task structure. Leaders should adopt a directive style when task is nonroutine, as it minimizes ambiguity, especially for inexperienced employees. Ineffective with routine and simple tasks as serves no purpose and may be viewed as excessive control. Jobs consisting of repeating routine and easy tasks are better handled by supportive leadership, to help cope with tedious and psychologically difficult nature of the job. Participative leadership is preferred for employees performing nonroutine tasks because lack of rules gives them more discretion to achieve challenging goals. Not effective for routine tasks as employees lack discretion over their work. 4. Team dynamics. Cohesive teams with performance-oriented norms act as a substitute for most leader interventions. High team cohesion substitutes for supportive leadership. Performance oriented team norms substitue for directive and achievement-oriented leadership. Where team cohesion is low, the leaders should use the supportive style. Leaders should apply a directive style to counteract team norms that oppose the team's formal objective. (for example "take it easy norm"). Some contingencies such as task structure have limited research support. Other contingencies and leadership styles have not been investigated at all. The model may be too complex for practical use (hard to remember). Despite all that, it is a pretty robust model.

Define selective attention

The process of attending to some information received by our senses and ignoring other information.

Discuss how stereotyping, attribution, self-fulfilling prophecy, halo, false-consensus, primacy, and recency influence the perceptual process.

Stereotyping occurs when people assign traits to others based on their membership in social category. This economizes mental effort, fills in missing information, and enhances our self-concept, but it also lays a foundation for prejudice and systematic discrimination. The attribution process involves deciding whether an observed behavior or event is caused mainly by the person (internal factors) or environment (external factors). Attributions are decided by perceptions of the consistency, distinctiveness and consensus of the behavior. This process is a subject to fundamental attribution error and self-serving bias. Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when our expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations. This effect is stronger when employees first join the work unit, when several people hold these expectations, and when the employee has a history of low achievement. Four other perceptual errors commonly noted in organizations are the halo effect, false-consensus effect, primacy effect and recency effect.

Describe the stress experience and review three major stressors at work.

Stress is an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to a person's well-being. The stress experience, called the general adaptation syndrome, involves moving through three stages: alarm, resistance and exhaustion. Stressors are the causes of stress and include any environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on a person. Three stressors that have received considerable attention are harassment and incivility, work overload, and low task control.

Define absorptive capacity

The ability to recognize the value of new information, assimilate it, and use it for value-added activities.

Emotional dissonance

The conflict between required and true emotions.

Decision making

The conscious process of making choices among alternatives with the intention of moving forward some desired state of affairs.

Team cohesion

The degree of attraction people feel toward the team and their motivation to remain members.

Autonomy

The degree to which a job gives employees the freedom, interdependence, and discretion to schedule their work and to determine the procedures used in completing it.

Task significance

The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the organization and/or larger society.

Task identity

The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole or an identifiable piece of work.

Define work-life balance

The degree to which a person minimizes conflict between work and nonwork demands.

Define and explain moral intensity

The degree to which an issue demands application of ethical principles.

Employee involvement

The degree to which employees influence how their work is organized and carried out.

Emotional labour

The effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.

Organizational (affective) commitment

The employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, an involvement in a particular organization.

Describe motivation and its 3 components.

The forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior. The three super lame components of motivation are: 1. Direction. It is goal-oriented, not random. 2. Intensity. The amount of effort you dimwit are willing to put into a goal. 3. Persistence. How long you lamo are willing to go until you give up.

How does task interdependence and need to work in teams scale to and affect each other?

The greater the task interdependence, the higher the need to organize it teams, because of better coordination due to better communication, also motivates. However, task goals must be the same. When goals are different, but the members are interdependent, conflict occurs and supervision is required.

Define communication.

The process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people.

Explain the difference between individual, group and organizational components of multiple levels of analysis.

The individual level is the characteristics and behaviors of employees as well as the thought processes attributed to them such as motivation, perceptions, personalities, attitudes and values. The team level of analysis looks at the way people interact. This includes team dynamics, team decisions, power, organizational politics, conflict and leadership. At the organizational level, we focus on how people structure their working relationships and on how organizations interact with their environments.

Norms

The informal rules and shared expectations that groups establish to regulate the behavior of their members.

Diagram the job characteristics model and describe three ways to improve employee motivation through job design.

The job characteristics model is a template for job redesign that specifies core job dimensions, psychological states, and individual differences. The five core job dimensions are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and job feedback. Contemporary job design strategies try to motivate employees through job rotation, job enlargement, and job enrichment. Organizations introduce job rotation to reduce job boredom, develop more flexible workforce, and reduce the incidence of repetitive strain injuries. Job enlargement involves increasing the number of tasks within a job. Two ways to enrich jobs are clustering tasks into natural groups and establishing client relationships.

Job design

The process of assigning tasks to a job, including the inderdependency of those tasks with other jobs.

Explain if conflict is good or bad.

The most dominant view has been that the conflict is dysfunctional. However, this perspective is too simplistic. Negatives: 1. Distracts, as it is stressful. 2. Consumes energy, as it is stressful. 3. Discourages people from sharing resources. 4. Discourages people from coordinating with others. 5. Increases turnover by reducing job satisfaction. 6. Reduces customer service by reducing job satisfaction. 7. Fuels organizational politics that bring an array of negative outcomes. 8. Decision making suffers as nobody is communicating. 9. Undermines team cohesion. 10. Conflict escalates as people are not communicating. Benefits: 1. Motivational: (1). Energizes people to debate issues. (2). Energizes people to evaluate alternatives more thoroughly. (3). Encourages people to re-examine basic assumptions about the problems and their solutions. (4). Prevents individuals and groups from making inferior decisions. (5). Learn underlying issues that need to be addressed. (6). Learn about each other. (7). Helps develop more creative solutions that reflect the needs of MULTIPLE stakeholders. (8). Overall improves creativity by generating active thinking. 2. Prevents organizations from stagnating and becoming less nonresponsive to the external environment through conflict persuading employees to constantly question current practices and becoming more sensitive to dissatisfaction from stakeholders. 3. If conflict is bases on a dispute or competition with external resources, it represents external challenge which increases cohesion inside the team.

Explain transformational leadership's essense.

The most popular to perspective of leadership. Views leaders as the effective leaders as the agents of change, unlike contingency and behavioral perspectives than examine how leaders improve employee performance and well-being.

Define and explain ability and its two subtypes.

The natural aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task. Aptitudes - natural talents that help employees learn specific tasks more quickly and perform them better. Learned capabilities - you learned skills and knowledge. Learned capabilities tend to wane over time if not used.

Define emotional contagion.

The nonconscious process of "catching" or sharing another person's emotions by mimicking that person's facial expressions and other nonverbal behavior.

Define surface-level diversity

The obsevable demographic or physiological differences in people, such as their race, ethnicisty, gender, age, and physical capabilities.

Scientific management

The practice of systematically partitioning work into its smallest elements and standardizing tasks to achieve maximum efficiency.

Brook's law

The principle that adding more people to a late software project only makes it later. Also called the mythical man-month.

Subjective expected utility

The probability (expectation) of satisfaction (utility) resulting from choosing a specific alternative in a decision.

Define personality

The relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics.

Why are virtual teams gaining popularity? Why are they possible and why are they necessary? Differentiate.

The spread of information technology is responsible for popularity. Information technology increase and an increase of knowledge-based work makes them possible. They are necessary due to organizational learning and globalization. Organizational learning is good for people in distant geographic areas, so they can collaborate and learn online, since they can't do it in person. Globalization - doing business all over the world encourages people to co-operate over distance.

Define ethics

The study of moral principles or values that determine whether actions are right or wrong and outcomes are goof or bad.

Define self-serving bias.

The tendency to attribute our favourable outcomes to internal factors and our failures to external factors.

Define relationship capital

The value derived from an organization's relationships with customers, suppliers, and others who provide added mutual value for the organization.

Define espoused values.

The values we say we believe in.

Rational choice paradigm

The view in decision making that people should-and typically do-use logic and all available information to choose the alternative with the highest value.

Bounded rationality

The view that people are bounded in their decision-making capabilities, including access to limited information, limited information processing, and tendency toward satisficing rather than maximizing when making choices.

Define servant leadership.

The view that the leaders serve followers, rather than vice versa; leaders help employees fulfill their needs and are coaches, stewards, and facilitators of employee performance.

Explain contingencies of organizational culture and effectiveness.

There is only a modest positive relationship between culture strength and organizational effectiveness. Strong culture increases organizational effectiveness only when under these specific conditions: 1. Culture content alignment with environment. Organization's culture content (its dominant values and assumptions) fits the external environment. (the values held by external environment are similar to the organizational culture). 2. Avoiding a corporate cult. The degree of cultural strength must be moderate, rather than very strong. The reasons are: (1) corporate cult may undermine effectiveness by locking people into mental models, blinding them to new opportunities and unique problems. Small misalignments between the organizational activities and environment get dismissed. (2) suppresses dissenting values. Leaders must not only reinforce main culture, but also encourage cultural diversity. Subcultures encourage constructive conflict, which improves creative thinking and offers some level of ethical watch over the dormant culture. The emergent values may become dominant values as the environment changes. Corporate cults suppress subcultures. 3. Culture is an adaptive culture. Adaptive culture is when employees are receptive to change. They assume that the organization needs to constantly adapt to external environment and they need to flexibly adapt to the external environment. Companies with the adaptive culture embrace an open-system perspective, where organizational survival and success depends on continuously changing external environment. In adaptive environment receptivity to change extents to internal processes and roles. Constant improvement of work processes and role flexibility. Never say "that is not my job". Strong learning orientation, as being receptive to change also means that company supports action-oriented discovery. Learning orientation helps with new learning opportunities, ideas and practices, viewing reasonable mistakes as a part of a natural learning process, and continuously question past practices.

Are team-building activities beneficial? What are the problems?

They are popular, but work for general problems only. Better approach is assess the team's health, the address with specific interventions. Also team-building is often used as one-shot inoculation, when it should be an ongoing activity.

Explain constructive thought patterns and their two components.

Thinking positively (and always constructively) before and while performing a task. Two components are positive self-talk and mental imagery. Positive self-talk is talking to ourselves with can-do belief. This increases motivation and reduces anxiety. (Negative self-talk undermines confidence). Mental imagery - walking ourselves thought the task. This help identify and find a solution for potential obstacles. Also motivates for achieving reward when we visualize it.

Explain creating an urgency for change: difficulties and approaches.

This can occur by informing employees about competitors, changing consumer trends, impending government regulations and other driving forces in the external environment. These changes push people out of comfort zones, energizing them to face the risks that change creates. However in some organizations, the employees are so buffered from the external environment that these driving forces are barely felt by anyone, but top executive team. Creates misunderstanding: employees don't understand why they need to change and leaders are surprised that their change initiative does not have much effects. How to create urgency to change: 1. Customer-driven change. Put employees in direct contact with customers. Dissatisfied customers threaten company's survival, also their human element energizes employees. 2. Creating an urgency for change without external forces. Begin change process before problems arise. Creating urgency to change while the company is successful requires rare persuasive ability that helps employees visualize future competitive threats and environmental shifts. However, employees may not like the "burning platform perspective" and experience cynicism about change and distrust the change agent. Urgency for change does not need to originate from problems or threats to the company. It can develop though a vision of more appealing future. By creating a future vision of a better organization, the leaders effectively make current situation less appealing. When it appeals to employee's values and needs, it can be motivating force for change even when external problems are not strong.

Implicit leadership perspective: explain romance of leadership.

This is when followers distort their perception of how much influence the leaders have on the environment. "Romance of leadership" effect exists because in most cultures people want to believe that leaders make a difference. There are two basic reasons why people inflate their perceptions of leader's influence: 1. Leadership is a useful way to simplify life events. It is easier to explain organizational successes and failures in terms of leader's ability rather than analyzing a complex array of other forces. 2. Strong tendency in Canada and other Western cultures to believe that we control situations rather than nature. We tend to believe the events result from rational actions of leaders and actively look for evidence to support our viewpoint. 3. Fundamental attribution error. We tend to not see external forces. Leaders reinforce this belief by taking credit for organizational successes. Provides valuable perspective that leadership is a perspective of followers as much as the actual behaviors and formal roles (see the romance of leadership). Potential leaders must take that into account (understand what followers expect). Not making an effort to fit leadership prototype may result in more difficulty bringing about necessary organizational change.

Team development and its stages.

Tl:dr: know and trust each other, understand and agree on their respective roles, discover appropriate and inappropriate behavior and learn to coordinate. Stages: 1. Forming. Testing and orientation. Learn about each other, rewards, costs. Act polite, respect others, find out what is wanted from them. 2. Storming. Conflict as competition, establishing norms of behavior and performance standards. 3. Norming. Roles are established, consensus reached of objectives and mental model. 4. Performing. Coordination and conflict resolution are well-established. In high-performance teams, the members are highly cooperative, have high level of trust in each other, committed to group objectives and identify with the team. 5. Adjourning. Disbanding stage. Focus goes from task to relationship. Some teams spend more time than others in some of the stages 2 extra stages not mentioned in the 5-step model above: 1. Developing team identity. Internalizing the team. Shifting focus from "them" to "us". 2. Developing team competence. Forming shared or complementary mental models (Mental images of how things should go: workflow, the results etc.). Teams are more effective when they share common mental models.

Team roles and team development process.

To develop roles in a team they need to be formed and reinforced. Purpose can be to achieve goals or maintain relationships within the team. Can be formal and informal. Informal can be supporting others or generating new ideas. Informal roles can be shared but usually end up associating with one or two members of the team.

Explain emotional contagion.

To some degree our brain causes us to act as the person that we are watching. Non-conscious behavior - we mimic and synchronize our noverbal behaviors with other people. Emotional contagion serves three purposes: 1. Mimicry provides continuous feedback, communicating that we understand and empathize with the sender. 2. A way of receiving emotional meaning from others. Mimicking helps you experience the other person's emotion(s) more fully. Aids in receiving meaning along with words. 3. Fulfill the drive to bond. Mimicking signals that we share the same emotions as the other person feels. This strengthens relations among team members as well as between leaders and followers.

Contrast transformational versus transactional and managerial leadership.

Transactional leaders: use of rewards and penalties, negotiating services from employees. Apparently overlaps with other styles and is hard and confusing to define. Managerial leadership: helping employees to become more proficient and satisfied with current situation. Contingency and behavioral leadership theories refer to managerial leadership, because they focus on te manager to improve employee performance. Example to clearly distinguish transformational vs managerial leadership: "Managers are people who do things right and leaders are people who do the right thing". Organizations require both transformational and managerial leadership. Managing increases efficiency. Transformational leadership steers companies into better course of action. This leadership is especially important for companies that require a lot of external environment interaction. One pitfall is getting too involved into managerial day-to-day tasks and forgetting about external influence, which leads to stagnation.

Explain diffusion of change: pilot projects.

Transformation process of often tested by change agents through a pilot project, then diffuse what has been learned to the other parts of the organization. Strategies to diffuse pilot project to other parts of the organization: 1. Motivation. (1) this occurs when employees see that the pilot project is successful and people in pilot project receive recognition and rewards for changing their previous work practices. (2) managers support and reinforce desired behaviors. (3) minimizing sources of resistance to change. 2. Ability. This is required skill and knowledge to adopt practices introduced in the pilot project. People adopt these ideas more readily when they have an opportunity to interact with and learn from others who have already applied the new practices. Thus pilot projects get diffused when employees in the original pilot are dispersed to other work units as role models and knowledge sources. 3. Role perceptions. Pilot projects get diffused when employees have clear role perceptions, when they understand how the practices in a pilot project apply to them even though they are in a completely different functional area. The challenge here is to provide guidance that is not too specific, as it may not seem relevant to other departments. At the same time it should not be explained too broadly or abstractly, because this makes the information and role model too vague. 4. Situational factors Must be supportive. Must have resources and time necessary to adopt the practices demonstrated in the pilot project.

Contrast transformational versus charismatic leadership.

Transformational and charismatic relationship are often thought to go hand in hand. Emerging view is that charisma is distinct from transformational leadership. Charisma is a personal trait that provides referent power. Transformational leadership motivates through behaviors that persuade and earn trust. Charismatic leadership can add to that influence through referent power. Charismatic may be good or bad. Bad: (1) becoming too full of yourself and focus on self-interest, rather than a goal. This makes them inflexible, unable to change, convinced of infallibility. (2) tends to produce dependent followers (transformational leadership in contrast builds follower empowerment which reduces dependence on a leader). (3) has negative effect on follower's self-efficacy, further increasing dependence on a leader.

Explain the role of change agents and strategic visions.

Transformational leaders are agents of change because they develop an appealing vision of the desired future state, communicate that vision in ways that are meaningful to others, make decisions and act in ways that are consistent with their vision and build commitment to that vision. Change agents are different and often are more than one person, but transformational leaders are most often the primary agents of change. Key element of leading change is strategic vision. Leader's vision provides sense of direction and establishes critical success factors against which the real changes are evaluated. A vision also provides emotional foundation to the change, because it links individual values and self-concept.to the desired change. Minimizes employee fear of the unknown and provides a better understanding of what behaviours employees must learn for the desired future.

Explain appreciative inquiry approach in general.

Tries to break-out if problem-solving mentality by reframing the relationships around the positive and possible. It searches for organizational strengths and capabilities, then applies that knowledge for further success and well-being. Is grounded in emerging philosophy of positive organizational behavior, which suggests that focusing on positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational success and individual well-being. Building strengths rather than correcting problems. Typically examines successful events, organizations and work units. Behavioral modelling and redirecting attention away from problems. Especially useful when the participants suffer from negativity and are aware of their problems. Refocuses on what is possible, take attention away from negativity.

Choosing the best communication channel

Two important sets of factors to consider: 1. Social acceptance. Refers to: a. How well the communication medium is approved and supported by the organization, teams and individuals. This is expressed through team norms. b. Individual preferences for specific communication channels. These preferences are due to personality traits as well as previous experiences and reinforcement with particular channels. c. Symbolic meaning of the channel. Some communication channels are viewed as personal and some as impersonal; professional or social; succinct or long-winded. 2. Media richness. Volume and variety of information that can be transmitted during a specific time. High richness - ability to convey multiple cues (verbal and non-verbal information), allows timely feedback from receiver to sender, allows sender to customize the message to the receiver, makes use of complex symbols (words and phrases with multiple meanings). Face-to-face communication is on top of media richness and date-only reports are on the bottom. Rich media is better than lean when the communication situation is nonroutine and ambiguous. When the situation is routine, people have the same mental model, using rich media is a waste of time. When the situation is not routine, using rich medium helps quickly transmit large volumes of information. Using lean media would lead to misunderstandings and longer information processing.

Team size

Two pizza rule. 5-7 employees. This is too simplified. Large enough to provide necessary competencies to perform work. Small enough to have good coordination and member involvement. We want to avoid process loss and slow communication; lack of influencing, cohesion and motivation in big teams.

Briefly explain the benefits and shortcomings of unfreezing,changing and refreezing.

Unfreezing: 1. The first option is to increase the driving forces, motivating employees to change through fear and threats. This barely works, as this increases restraining forces (tension and conflict within the organization). Sorta like pushing the mattress coils. 2. The second option is to weaken or remove retraining forces. The problem with this strategy is that it provides no motivation to change. Sorta like clearing and obstruction on the road. It allows people to travel through, but does not motivate them to travel through. 3. Increase driving forces (creates urgency to change) and reduce or remove the restraining forces (lessens motivation to oppose the change and removes obstacles such as lack of ability and situational constraints.

Sexual harassment

Unwelcome conduct of sexual nature that detrimentally affects the work environement or leads to adverse job-related consequences for its victims.

What are success factors in virtual teams (6)?

Virtual teams face the same challenges as regular teams with the complications of distance and time, especially with missing the deadlines. 1. Must have good communication technology skills. 2. Strong self-leadership skills to motivate and guide their behaviors without peers and bosses nearby 3. Higher emotional intelligence to decipher the feelings from the emails. 4. Must have a toolkit of communication channels with the freedom to choose the channels they work the best for them. Imposing technology is bad. Also different channels lose or gain importance over time and it is important to adjust accordingly. 5. Virtual teams need a plenty of structure. Many of successful team's principles rely on the structure. For example, clear operational objectives, documented work processes, agreed upon roles and responsibilities 6. Meet face to face early in the team development process.

Define mental models.

Visual or relational images in our mind that represent the external world.

Define counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs)

Voluntary behaviours that have the potential to directly or indirectly harm the organization.

Explain information overload and how deal with it.

We have information processing capacity - amount of info we can process in a fixed unit of time. Jobs have varying information load. Too much information exceeds the person's capacity to process it. Information overload creates noise, as information gets overlooked or misinterpreted, when people can't process it fast enough. This also results in poorer quality decisions and higher stress. We can combat information overload by increasing information processing capacity or/and reducing the job's information load. Information-processing capacity can be increased through: 1. temporarily reading faster. 2. scanning though documents more efficiently. 3. removing distractions that slow information processing speed. 4. time management. If the overload is temporary, the employee can increase working hours. Information load can be reduced by: 1. buffering. Having incoming information filtered, usually by assistant. 2. ommitting. When we decide to overlook messages, such as using software rules to sort emails in fodlers that we never look at. 3. summarizing. For example,reading executive summaries, rather than the whole report.

Explain self-reinforcement.

When an employee has control over reinforcement and implements it only when a self-set goal is complete. Such reinforcement may be taking a break.

Low moral intensity

When an individual is located away from the situation where their decision makes an impact.

Explain organizational subcultures (distinguish main culture) and their two important functions.

When discussing organizational culture we refer to dominant culture. This culture is values and assumptions that are shared most consistently and widely by the organizational members, and usually are supported by senior management. Subcultures. Some enhance the dominant culture by espousing parallel assumptions and values, some differ, but do not oppose, some are countercultures that directly oppose. Some organizations operate with subcultures only and no dominant culture at all. Sometimes they clash. Subcultures serve two important functions: 1. maintain organization's standards of behavior and performance. Employees from counterculture are important source of surveillance and critical review. They encourage constructive conflict and creative thinking. This prevents others from blindly following main values. 2. being spawning grounds for emerging values that keep the firm aligned with the needs of customers, suppliers, society and other stakeholders. Companies eventually need to replace their dominant values as the environment changes. 2.

What makes a team effective?

When it benefits the organization, members and it's survival: 1. Achievement of objectives. 2. Member satisfaction and well-being. 3. Ability to survive.

Explain the conquences of power.

When people feel empowered (high self-determination, meaning, competence and impact) they feel that they have power over themselves and freedom from being influenced by others. This increases mtoivation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance. Pitfall: also increases automatic thinking, rather than mindful thinking. They rely on stereotypes more, less empathy and less accurate perceptions. Legitimate, reward and coercive power is accompanied by the sense of responsibility for people under theie power and people who engage in this power are more mindful of their actions and engage in less stereotyping.

Define virtual work

Work performed away from the traditional physical workplace by means of information technology.

Can one team member not performing well significantly negatively affect the entire team's performance?

Yes.

norm of reciprocity

a felt obligation and social expectation of helping or otherwise giving something of value to someone who has already helped or given something to you

electronic brainstorming

a form of brainstorming that relies on networked computers for submitting and sharing creative ideas

brainstorming

a freewheeling, face-to-face meeting where team members aren't allowed to criticize, but are encouraged to speak freely, generate as many ideas as possible, and build on the ideas of others.

define contingency

a future event or circumstance that is possible but cannot be predicted with certainty.

upward appeal

a type of influence on which someone with higher authority or expertise is called on (in reality or symbolically) to support the influencer's postition

nominal group technique

a variation of brainstorming consisting of three stages: participants (1) silently and independently document their ideas (2) collectively describe these ideas to the other team members without critique, and (3) silently and independently evaluate the ideas presented.

What are the problems with rational choice decision making process and how to improve them?

a. Problem identification problems: 1.. Stakeholder framing. Willing or unwilling (bias, abiguity of info) reframing the events. 2. Mental models. Preconceived models. Discard ideas that don't fit the model. 3. Decisive leadership. Misconception that leaders must be decisive influences leaders and they make decisions too fast, without taking everything into account. 4. Solution-based questions. Avoid solution based questions, as they are rephrasements of solutions to ill-defined problems. People with strong need for cognitive closure are particularly prone to it. 5. Perceptual defence. Blocking out bad news may be a coping mechanism. Less control over the situation - more likely to disregard danger signs. A solution is to: 1. Recognize through awareness of potential problems. 2. Willpower to resist the temptation. 3. Norm of divine "discontent". Basically never reach a level where you think you are great and start autopiloting. b. Problems with goals. Goals are often conflicting and ambiguous. c. Problems with information processing. 1. Sequential evaluation. Things to compare arrive at different times and are compared to implicit favorite. Implicit favorite distorts thinking as we tend to ignore its flaws and exaggerate its goodness. 2. Biased decision heuristics. a. Anchoring and adjustment. We don't move far away from initial information. b. Availability heuristic. We have easier time recalling emotional and recent events. c. Representativeness heuristic. Probability and clustering illusion (seeing sequence of events when there is no sequence). 3. Problems with maximization. We believe we go for the highest trade-off. In reality we go for satisfying outcome - the first acceptable thing. One explanation is that alternatives are often available over time, not all at once. Also we compare things to our personal favorite choice. Also lack of capacity and motivation to process a large number of alternatives. This also is cognitively and emotionally draining. Large number of alternatives influences people to eliminate alternatives based on easily identifiable factors. Large number of choices also influences us to not do anything at all.

define appreciative inquiry

an organizational change strategy that directs the group's attention away from its own problems and focuses participants on the group's potential and positive elements.

define adaptive culture

an organizational culture in which employees are receptive to change, including the ongoing alignment of the organization to its environment and continuous improvement of internal processes.

define third-party conflict resolution

any attempt by a relatively neutral person to help conflicting parties resolve their differences.

influence

any behavior that attempts to alter someone's attitudes or behavior

organizational politics

behaviours that others perceive as self-serving tactics for personal gain at the expense of other people and possibly the organization

ceremonies

planned displays of organizational culture conducted specifically for the benefit of the audience

define BATNA (best alternative to a negotiated agreement)

the best outcome you might achieve through some other course of action if you abandon the current negotiation.

countervailing power

the capacity of a person, team or organization to keep a more powerful person or group in the exchange relationship

define power

the capacity of a person, team, or orgaanization to influence others

referent power

the capacity to influence others on the basis of an identification with and respect for the powerholder

define unfreezing

the first part if the organizational change process, in which the change agent produces disequilibrium between the driving and restraining forces

trust

the positive expectations one person has toward another person or group in situations involving risk.

impression management

the practice of actively shaping our public images

define organizational socialization

the process by which individuals learn the values, expected behaviours, and social knowledge necessary to assume their roles in the organization.

rituals

the programmed routines of daily organizational life that dramatize the organization's culture

Candor

the quality of being open and honest in expression.

persuasion

the use of facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person's belief and attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing the person's behavior.

define authentic leadership

the view that effective leaders need to be aware of, feel comfortable with, and act consistently with their values, personality and self-concept.

define servant leadership

the view that leaders serve followers, rather than vice versa; leaders help employees fulfill their needs and are coaches, stewards, and facilitators of employee performance.

define shared leadership

the view that leadership is broadly distributed, rather than assigned to one person, such that people within team and organization lead each other.