*****ORIGINAL**** 4512 Exam 1, Kin 4512 Exam 1, chapter 9 development of manipulative skills, Chapter 8 development of ballistic skills, Chapter 7 development of human locomotion,
_______ out of the possible 27 combinations of the trunk, humerus, and forearm components of the overarm throw were observed in a research study conducted by Langendorfer and Roberton (2002).
14
b. False
14. In order to develop properly, an infant should crawl before he or she walks. a. True b. False
a. True
14. Research demonstrates that older adults can maintain their coincidence-anticipation performance, and even improve it, with practice. a. True b. False
b. False
14. Research on the golf swing demonstrates that most older adults are less accurate than young adult golfers. a. True b. False
a. True
14. The coupling of sensory information to the appropriate motor response is probably the rate-controlling factor in infant posture and balance, not visual perception of self-motion. a. True b. False
a. True
14. The heart follows the sigmoid pattern of whole-body growth, and the growth of the blood vessels surrounding the heart is proportional to that of the heart; therefore, the size of the heart is not a limiting factor for exercise in children. a. True b. False
a. True
15. Adults sometimes use light touch of a surface to aid balance. Infants do the same but only after they have acquired some walking experience. a. True b. False
b. False
15. Because not all muscle fibers are differentiated to a specific type of fiber, such as type I or type IIb, we know that infants' early activities influence the proportion of fiber types in later life. a. True b. False
b. False
15. In overarm striking, the upper arm (humerus) lags behind the trunk, but the racket proceeds the forearm at ball contact. a. True b. False
a. True
15. There are two developmental trends in catching: improvement in adjusting the body to the oncoming ball and improvement in adjusting hand position. Children tend to improve in adjusting their bodies to the oncoming ball before they improve in adjusting hand position. a. True b. False
flight period
15. Unlike walking, running has a ____________.
a. true
16. After the adolescent growth spurt, gender differences in muscle mass result more from differences in arm musculature than leg musculature. a. True b. False
a. True
16. Assuming the sequential movements are well timed, upper arm and forearm lag allows momentum to be transferred from proximal body parts to successively more distal body parts, increasing the speed of movement in the more distal body parts. a. True b. False
b. False
16. Infants rely more on visual information to balance than on proprioceptive and vestibular information because the latter are not used for balance until the second year. a. True b. False
b. False
16. Research demonstrates that older adults decline in both attentional aspects and manipulative aspects of automobile driving tasks. a. True b. False
a. True
17. A long contralateral step facilitates trunk rotation. a. True b. False
b. False
17. In infancy, childhood, and adolescence, muscle growth is by both hyperplasia and hypertrophy. a. True b. False
a. True
17. In rapid aiming movements older adults need to make more adjustments at the end of the aiming movement than do young adults. a. True b. False
b. False
17. Infants are not sensitive to optical flow until they begin to creep or crawl. a. True b. False
a. True
18. Bone composition changes over the life span, becoming more inorganic in composition and therefore more brittle in older adulthood. a. True b. False
b. False
18. For an infant's arm movement to be considered a prereach, the infant must knock into or contact the object. a. True b. False
b. False
18. Recent research has shown that children can be at the most advanced levels of upper arm and forearm action before they routinely use trunk rotation. a. True b. False
Moro
18. The ____________ reflex has this response: arms and legs extend, fingers spread, then arms and legs flex.
prehension
19. Another word for grasping is ____________.
a. True
19. One of the differences between development of throwing and development of overarm striking is the elbow action. a. True b. False
Title IX, which required equal opportunity for girls and women in sport, was passed in __________.
1972
d. balance control
2. All of the following are considered environmental constraints on motor development except a. social expectations b. cultural norms c. early stimulation or deprivation d. balance control e. none of the above
c. arm action
2. Very young children's throws tend to consist of what type of action? a. foot action b. trunk action c. arm action d. all of the above
b. 4 to 7 months of age
2. Visually guided reaching is the predominant reaching behavior around what age range?
d. all of the above
2. Which of the following is characteristic of new walking? a. The arms are held in high guard. b. Short individual steps are taken. c. Feet are wide apart. d. all of the above e. two of the above
invariance
20. From the perception-action perspective, the characteristic of the person-environment system in which patterns in the environment remain constant is called ____________.
b. False
20. Racket lag and trunk rotation less than 90 degrees are characteristic of proficient overarm striking. a. True b. False
about 4 months
20. The approximate age at which the parachute response appears is ____________.
A loss of 1% of bone mass occurs each year, starting as early as the mid-
20s
a loss of 1% of bone mass occurs each year, starting as early as the mid-_____________.
20s
a. True
21. Longitudinal study of older adult throws over a period of 7 years shows that the development level is relatively stable. a. True b. False
b. False
22. An individual's given developmental level in the sequences for overarm throwing is so stable that we can compare performance with different task constraints, such as distance, type of ball, and so on. a. True b. False
b. False
23. A valid and reliable way to gauge the development of throwing is to record the accuracy with which children and adolescents can hit a target of a specified size from a short distance away. a. True b. False
infants begin to purposefully use objects as tools in complementary activities by _______________ of age
24 months
Infants begin to purposefully use objects as tools by _______________ of age.
24 months 36 months
a. True
24. In very young children, early attempts at overarm throwing, sidearm striking, and overarm striking all tend to look the same. a. True b. False
In the United States, about _______ of children and adolescents are obese, an increase of 54% in children and 39% in adolescents over 20 years
25%
a. True
25. Early postnatal experiences influence the number of synapses formed among neurons of the nervous system in rats. a. True b. False
b. False
25. In proficient kicking, the swing (kicking) leg moves through a shortened, compact range of motion at the hip. a. True b. False
Arthritis and associated joint pain affect approximately 1 out of every ______ children in the United States
250
in the prenatal period, neurons proliferate at a rate of ________ per minute
250,000
a. True
26. The developmental transition for trunk action in sidearm striking is (1) block rotation followed by (2) differentiated rotation. a. True b. False
b. False
27. The developmental transition for arm action in the punt is (1) no use of the arms, (2) arm movement in opposition to the legs, to (3) bilateral arm movement. a. True b. False
a. True
28. The developmental transition for the nonpunting leg in punting is (1) a short step, (2) a long step, to (3) a leap. a. True b. False
a. True
29. A very young child's early attempts at sidearm striking often resemble early attempts at throwing overhand. a. True b. False
thyroid
29. The ____________ hormones in particular play a role in promoting skeletal growth.
- Continuous - Sequential - Age Related
3 characteristics of motor development involving changes in movement behavior?
When does Palmar Mandibular Reflex disappear?
3 months
Defining Development Issues
3 questions that can be used to determine if something is a developmental issue or topic: 1. Are we interested in what behavior is like now and why it is the way it is? ( no star because more of a motor control/behavior question) 2. *Are we interested in what the behavior was like before and why? 3. *Are we interested in how the current behavior is going to change in the future and why?
a longitudinal study by Thelen and colleagues (1993) reveals that infants transitioned from prereaching to reaching at ____________ months of age.
3-4
e. reflexive
3. An infant moves involuntarily when you touch the bottom of his feet. Such a movement is a. uncoordinated b. random c. habituated d. long latency e. reflexive
b. visually guided reaching
3. An infant wearing prisms over the eyes that displace the apparent location of an object would still be able to grasp the object immediately at what stage? a. prereaching b. visually guided reaching c. visually elicited reaching d. infant would never be able to grasp it
d. coordination
3. What is the primary rate limiter for skipping? a. strength b. balance c. body proportions or size d. coordination e. more than one of the above
e. a and b
3. Which of the following is characteristic of proficient overarm throwing? a. differentiated trunk rotation b. lag of the upper arm behind upper trunk rotation c. a short step of the foot opposite the throwing arm d. all of the above e. a and b
b. False
30. In general, research has found that older adults perform at the lower levels in the developmental sequences when executing overarm throws. a. True b. False
behind
31. In a proficient overarm throw, at the time the shoulder rotates to the front-facing position, the upper arm (humerus) should be swinging forward ____________ (behind, even with, or ahead of) the shoulders.
appositional
31. The increase in girth in the long bones is called ____________ growth.
myelin
32. The conduction speed of nerve impulses is aided by the development of ____________ cells that wrap themselves around the axons.
block
33. In the development of throwing, trunk rotation wherein the lower trunk and upper trunk rotate together, as a unit, is called ____________ rotation.
gonadal and androgen
33. The ____________ hormones in particular play a role in fusion of the epiphyseal growth plates, thus bringing skeletal growth to an end.
c. visually elicited reaching
4. The initial phase of an infant's reach becomes very accurate and needs few if any corrections at what stage?
a. toe extension
4. The response associated with the Babinski reflex is a. toe extension b. toe flexion c. toe contraction around object d. leg extension and toe flexion e. none of the above
a. strength
4. What is the primary rate limiter for running? a. strength b. balance c. body proportions or size d. coordination e. more than one of the above
b. a circular, downward backswing
4. Which of the following is the most advanced developmental step in the backswing component of the overarm throw? a. an upward backswing b. a circular, downward backswing c. flexion of the arm at the shoulder and the elbow
e. a and c
5. Gender differences among children and adolescents have been documented in which body components for overarm throwing? a. trunk action c. arm action
b. the last half of the first year
5. When are infants first able to select a unimanual reach or a bilateral reach, depending on the size, shape, and weight of the object to be grasped?
b. environmental sociocultural
5. You are assessing a group of 3- to 5-year-olds on locomotor skills. One 3-year-old boy can't gallop while participating in your assessment. However, when you see him later in the day on the playground, he is galloping. What constraint is most likely influencing the motor behavior of this child? a. individual structural b. environmental sociocultural c. environmental physical d. task (equipment) e. task (rules)
a. Yes, because she should not have this reflex at 18 months.
5. You are working in a child development center. You notice that one of your kids, an 18-month-old girl, seems to be exhibiting the asymmetric tonic neck reflex. Is this a concern?
walking is defined by a ______% phasing relationship between the legs, indicating that individuals alternate the left and right legs at a consistent point in time.
50
Running
50% phasing of the legs and flight phase followed by single support
Walking
50% phasing of the legs and period of double support followed by period of single support
muscle mass increases rapidly in boys up to about age 17 and ultimately accounts for _______% of men's body weight.
56
Research has shown that boys and girls as young as ___________ years old can increase their strength with a variety of resistance training methods.
6
How long does the Symmetrical tonic neck reflex last?
6 months to 7 months
When does running begin in children?
6 to 7 months after walking starts
c. both gender and childhood and young adult experiences
6. Gender differences among older adults in overarm throwing have been associated with which of the following?
d. coordination
6. What is the primary rate limiter for galloping? a. strength b. balance c. body proportions or size d. coordination e. more than one of the above
e. a and c
6. What period shows the most rapid increase in adipose tissue? a. during the first 6 postnatal months in both boys and girls b. in preadolescence and adolescence in boys c. in preadolescence and adolescence in girls d. all of the above e. a and c
d. a and b
6. When placed in an infant walker, an infant will often be able to walk or move from place to place using a walking pattern. What rate limiter does an infant walker overcome or adjust for? a. balance b. strength c. stepping reflex d. a and b e. none of the above
b. catching the ball in the hands
6. Which of the following is NOT characteristic of children's early attempts to catch? a. making the arms and hands rigid b. catching the ball in the hands c. closing the eyes in anticipation
Women can typically produce ____ to ____ of the force that men can exert, although most of these differences can be attributed to differences in arm and shoulder strength rather than in trunk or leg strength
60% to 80%
e. a and c
7. A proficient walker has which of the following characteristics? a. oppositional movement of the upper and lower body XXXXXXb. out-toeing of feet and wide base of support c. double knee-lock pattern
b. leg action
7. Action in which of the following body components is characteristic of early kicking? a. trunk action b. leg action c. arm action d. a and b e. b and c
a. True
7. Active older adults add less fat weight than their sedentary peers with aging. a. True b. False
e. a and b
7. Which of the following is characteristic of motor milestones? a. They represent an intertask sequence. b. They are specific achievements leading to general achievements. c. They occur within a predetermined sequential order. d. all of the above e. a and b
d. a and c
7. Which of the following is characteristic of proficient catching? a.* pointing the fingers upward to catch a high ball* c.* letting the shoulders and elbows move to "give" with contact of the ball*
the fetal stage occurs in which of the following time periods?
8 weeks to birth
Fetal Stage
8 weeks to birth Continued growth by hyperplasia (cell number) and hypertrophy (cell size)
a. True
8. Body fat redistributes with aging, and both men and women typically experience an increase in internal fat as they move through middle adulthood and into older adulthood. a. True b. False
b. strength
8. Which of the following could be considered an individual constraint (rate limiter) for hopping on one foot? a. posture b. strength c. gym floor surface d. all of the above e. a and b
d. all of the above
8. Which of the following is characteristic of early punting attempts? a. holding the knee bent as the ball is kicked b. tossing the ball up rather than just dropping it c. kicking with the toes d. all of the above e. b and c
a. II only
8. Which of the following is the most probable order of motor milestones? I. Lifts head in prone, gets on hands and knees, rolls over, walks alone; II. Lifts shoulders, lifts head in prone, gets on hands and knees, cruises furniture; III. Sits unsupported, gets on hands and knees, lifts head in prone, lifts sholders. a. II only b. I and III c. I, II, and III d. none of the above
b. varying the speed of the ball to be caught as opposed to keeping the speed constant
8. Which of the following task constraints makes catching more difficult for young children?
d. all of the above
9. From the perception-action perspective, which of the following might be used to help us catch balls? a. the expanding optic array b. keeping a ratio based on the angle of gaze at or near zero c. keeping the acceleration of the ball in the vertical direction close to zero d. all of the above e. a and b
a. True
9. Functional individual constraints, such as fear, can be as equally important rate controllers in walking as structural constraints are in older adults. a. True b. False
b. False
9. In the typical adult, fat weight increases from the 20s to age 50 and decreases thereafter. a. True b. False
e. more than one of the above
9. Several theories have been proposed to explain why reflexes exist. These theories suggest that a. reflexes exist to aid the fetus in the birth process b. reflexes allow the infant to survive while it is weak and vulnerable c. reflexes provide for prenatal fetal movement d. reflexes have remained over the process of evolution e. more than one of the above
a. using the arms in opposition to the legs after the ball is dropped
9. Which of the following is characteristic of proficient punting? a. using the arms in opposition to the legs after the ball is dropped b. a short step onto the supporting leg immediately before the punting leg swings forward c. keeping a slight bend in the knee at ball contact d. all of the above e. b and c
cohort
A ____________ is a group whose members share a common characteristic, such as age or experience.
d
Which of the following is a component of the definition of development? a. Development is a continuous process. b. Development is related to (but not dependent on age). c. Development is a discrete process. d. a and b e. a, b, and c
legs
Which of the following is the fastest growing in infancy and childhood?
The major blood vessels around the heart lose elasticity.
Which of the following occurs in the typical older adult?
gravity
Which of the following terms is NOT associated with Newton's second law of motion?
d
Which type(s) of constraint is (are) external to the body? a. task b. environmental c. structural d. a and b e. a, b, and c
Describe how the growth patterns of boys and girls differ from birth to age 18
While the pattern of growth is the same for boys/girls, girls demonstrate a change in the pattern (growth spurts) at a younger chronological age than boys do
which of the following is a component of the developmental sequence of punting that a skilled punter would likely demonstrate regarding the ball-release phase?
an early drop from chest height
Moment of Inertia
an object's ability to offer a resistance to angular motions. I=M(radius of rotation)2
Placenta
an organ that develops in the mother's uterus during pregnancy
Which of the following are guidelines to the improvement of observing motor skills?
analysis b. planning c. positioning
which of the following are guidelines to the improvement of observing motor skills?
analysis, planning, and positioning
Nevel's Constraint Model
any kind of changes in motor behavior taking place throughout your lifespan due to your environmental, task, and individual components working together.
infant reflexes serve many roles. For example, reflexes serve as the basis of human movement that leads to voluntary movement. This is an _______________ explanation of the purpose of reflexes.
applied
nfant reflexes serve many roles. For example, reflexes serve as the basis of human movement that leads to voluntary movement. This is a(n) _______________ explanation of the purpose of reflexes
applied
A _____________ is a type of instructional approach that is student centered. Select one: a. regimented learning climate b. performance-oriented climate c. mastery motivational climate d. structured learning climate e. direct learning climate
c
Arnold Gesell, a proponent of the maturational perspective, explained maturation as a process controlled by ____________ rather than ____________ factors. c. internal; external
c
*Hyperplasia* is Select one: a. an increase in the relative size of an individual cell b. the direction of growth proceeding from the body toward the extremities c. the direction of growth beginning at the head and extending toward the lower body d. an increase in the absolute number of cells
d.an increase in the absolute number of cells
in young adulthood, the proportion of lean body weight often ____________ as a result of _____________ in fat weight.
decreases, increases
regarding the prenatal period and development, which of the following statements is true?
genetic factors and extrinsic factors individually influence and interact to influence development
What are the two possible sources of abnormal development?
genetic or extrinsic factos
Cohort
group whose member share a common characteristic (age or experience)
Cephalocaudal
head to toe
Leg swing in hopping
held rigidly in front of the body
Postural reactions
help maintain posture in a changing environment
arms: early walking
high guard
_________ proportions of lean body mass show a positive link to working capacity, and __________ proportions of fat tissue show a negative link
higher;higher
A characteristic of an unskilled thrower includes which of the following
homolateral step
a characteristic of an unskilled thrower includes which of the following?
homolateral step
You are coaching an athlete with high self-esteem. After losing a game, he attributes the loss to
how he played during the game lack of ability on his part
an increase in the absolute number of cells
hyperplasia
Which of the following does research suggest is a likely component of an intervention to reduce weight in children
improved diet c. family involvement increased physical activity
myelination of axons _______ the speed and frequency of firing of nerve impulses.
improves
walking patterns in adulthood tend to change mainly as a result of which type of constraint?
individual
Variability
individual differences exist
Variability:
individual variation in development
Universality
individuals in a species show great similarity in development, follow same trend
refers to an object's resistance to motion and is related to the mass of an object.
inertia
Motor Milestone: 3 months
infant lift shoulders and turn head
Motor Milestone: 2 months
infant lifts head in prone position
Motor Milestone:5 months
infants rolls
manual performance has been studied in which of the following age groups?
infants, middle-aged adults, and elderly adults
A researcher who explains the onset of a new motor skill as the reinforcement of stimulus-response bonds uses which of the following theoretical perspectives
information processing
motor development and early movement experiences lead to which of the following?
integrating sensory information and exploring the environment
Arnold Gesell, a proponent of the maturational perspective, explained maturation as a process controlled by ____________ rather than ____________ factors.
internal factors, external factors
Individual contraints (2 types)
internal to the body -structural: related to the body's physical structure (mass, height, weight, wingspan, blindness, deafness, CNS issues) -functional: related to behavioral function (can't quantify (measure/test) as well, change quickly; attentional focus, motivation, fears or past experiences)
What does this tells us about the nature of reflexes?
involuntary
What causes a mutation of gene during egg formation?
irraidation and hazardous environmental chemicals
refers to an increase in size or body mass resulting from an increase in complete, already formed body parts.
physical growth
regarding embryonic development, the 40-week time point is associated with the appearance of which of the following in the fetus?
pink and smooth skin and at least moderate head hair
Thelen and colleagues (1993) believed infant reaching develops due to ________________
practic and experience
_______________ refers to the area(s) in in the midportion of the shafts of long bones where bone cells are formed so that the cartilage-model bones of the fetal skeleton begin ossifying, from the center outward, to form bone shafts.
primary ossification centers
Which type of reflex is exhibited by newborns but loses strength over time until disappearing around the fourth month?
primitive
which type of reflex is exhibited by newborns but loses strength over time until disappearing around the fourth month?
primitive
Aging
process occurring with passage of time, leading to loss of adaptability or full function and eventually to death
the normative descriptive period emphasized the ________ of development rather than the developmental ____________ of movement.
products; processes
Androgen
promote growth of muscle mass
Estrogen
promotes accumulation of fat
What can a deficiency in insulin cause?
protein synthesis
the direction of growth proceeding from the body toward the extremities
proximodistal
Growth tends to proceed in what direction(s)
proximodistal and cephalocaudal
Physical Growth
quantitative increase in size or body mass (easily measured)
Base of support:Proficient Walking
reduced out-toeing and restrict force
Motor Learning
refers to relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability associated with the practice or experience; how do you learn and what is the best way to learn
Primitive, postural, and locomotor are all types of infantile ____________ movements
reflex
primitive, postural, and locomotor are all types of infantile ____________ movements.
reflex
_________ movements are involuntary movements that an individual makes in response to specific stimuli
reflexive
____________ movements are involuntary movements that an individual makes in response to specific stimuli.
reflexive
motor learning
relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability associated with practice or experience
Which of the following leads to slowing in older adults?
requiring responses that are not compatible with stimulus signals b. increasing the number of signals to which they must respond
Describe movement in proficient galloping, sliding, and skipping.
rhythmic
How is the movement of supine kicking and walking characterized?
rhythmic
Linear Velocity
rotational velocity * radius of rotation
__________________ refers to the area(s) near the ends of long bones where new bone cells are formed and deposited so that the bones grow in length.
secondary ossification centers
Why would a researcher use a cross-sectional design to study a motor development?
shorter amount of time with a broader view of motor development
which type of curve is associated with growth curves that indicate rapid growth after birth, followed by gradual but steady growth during childhood, then by rapid growth during adolescence, and finally leveling off?
sigmoid
The most common test of flexibility is the
sit-and-reach
Out of galloping, sliding, and skipping which is the last to emerge?
skipping
According to the Maturational perspective the environment has a ______ influence on motor development
small
The ____________ process is that by which one learns a social role within groups with certain values, morals, and rules.
socialization
Plasticity in older adults?
some neurons change their functionality over the life span
which of the following affects the ability to intercept a moving object?
speed, trajectory, ball size, and environmental and task constraints
movements that are performed by infants without any apparent stimulation include which type(s) of movements?
spontaneous
an individual's _______________ is the ability to resist movement or disruption. For example, individuals are essential to participating in the sports of powerlifting and golf.
stability
What increases the number of synaptic connections?
stimulation of learning
What type of constraint is gaining weight?
structural
What type of constraints is an increase in height?
structural
physical growth and maturation are an example of which type of constraint of Newell's model?
structural constraint
Which type of constraint(s) will influence the development of prehension and grasping of infants?
structural, functional, task, environmental
the observation that many children perform many of the same motor skills while demonstrating individual differences highlights which two concepts in motor development?
universality vs. variability
Early Jumping
vertical or horizontal (standing long) jump
What is the first form of upright, bipedal locomotion?
walking
Developmental issue or not: A 7-year old girl throws a ball 20 yards; 9 months later, she throws a ball 30 years.
yes
Developmental issue or not: A 9-month-old girl pulls to stand on the couch; within a month, she walks.
yes
newton's first law
you must apply force to a stationary object to move it and to a moving object to change its movement
e. more than one of the above
1. What is the primary rate limiter for walking? a. strength b. balance c. body proportions or size d. coordination e. more than one of the above
d. the last half of the second year
1. When are infants first able to use the arms in complementary roles, such as holding a box lid open with one hand while the other removes an object from the box?
e. b and c
1. Which of the following is characteristic of proficient kicking? *b. on the forward kick, the thigh rotates forward then the knee straightens* *c. arms move in opposition to the legs*
Long lasting beliefs from Maturation theory (4)
1. basic motor skills emerge automatically 2. there is no need for special training 3. mild deprivation does not arrest development 4. the nervous system is most important
d. all of the above
10. Which of the following is characteristic of proficient sidearm striking? a. a step into the hit, toward the oncoming ball b. differentiated trunk rotation c. arm extension before contact d. all of the above e. a and c
a. True
11. A characteristic of early walking is arms in high-guard position. a. True b. False
b. False
11. During the first year of life, infants make a transition from precision grips to power grips when grasping an object. a. True b. False
a. True
11. In changing from a throw for distance to a throw for accuracy, the most likely change observed would be a transition to lower steps in the developmental sequences. a. True b. False
b. False
11. It is a deficiency rather than an excess of hormones that disturbs the normal process of growth and development. a. True b. False
b. either flexing or extending the infant's head and neck
11. The stimulus for the symmetric tonic neck reflex is a. stretching the infant's neck muscles by turning the head to one side b. either flexing or extending the infant's head and neck c. laying the infant on its back and lifting it to the sitting position d. linearly accelerating the baby sideways e. none of the above
b. False
12. A newborn's spontaneous kicking is exactly the same as an adult's voluntary walking. a. True b. False
a. True
12. More recent research that has considered task and environmental constraints in grasping demonstrates that infants use a larger variety of grips than earlier researchers such as H.M. Halverson thought they used. a. True b. False
a. True
12. One problem with using the throw for distance as a gauge of throwing development is that the score reflects body size and strength as well as skill. a. True b. False
b. False
12. The temporal coordination pattern (phasing of legs) is very different in running than in walking. a. True b. False
a. True
12. Until age 50 years, the loss of muscle mass is slight (approximately 10% of muscle mass). a. True b. False
b. False
13. Galloping, an asymmetric gait, is a more difficult skill to learn than skipping, a symmetric gait. a. True b. False
b. False
13. If you stimulate an infantile reflex enough times, the infant will learn to inhibit it. a. True b. False
a. True
13. Posture can affect the reaching behavior observed in infants. a. True b. False
a. True
13. Research on the tennis serve in older adults demonstrates little change in the coordination of the serve during the older adult years. a. True b. False
a. True
13. The growth, thyroid, and gonadal hormones all promote growth by stimulating protein anabolism. a. True b. False
What are the two ways to assess prenatal growth?
Ultrasounds and 3D images
What are the different forms of overarm throwing?
Underhand, sidearm, and overarm
Why is the study of physical growth important to us?
Understand link between physical size and motor skill acquisition and motor performance
How do infants move?
Undirected, random and without purposes. Spontaneous movements without any stimulation Specific movement every time when touched in certain place
Paradoxes in Development (2)
Universality vs. Variability
What is the paradox in development?
Universality vs. Variability -Everybody within a species is the same but individuals differ -Everyone kind of follows the same developmental path, but may happen in different ways or at different times
True
Until age 50 years, the loss of muscle mass is slight (approximately 10% of muscle mass).
Force Generation aided by planar movements
Use force in the plane of motion where you want to move yourself or an object. Avoid rotational movements that reduce force in the desired plane.
Leg Swing in Proficient Hopping
Leads hips, moves through full range of motion
What type of constraint is getting anxious/nervous?
functional
What type of constraint is getting experience?
functional
attentional focus is an example of what type of constraint?
functional constraint
Axon
-developed by neurons - Carries signals to neurons, glands, organs, and muscles
Cross-Sectional Study
-individuals or groups of different ages are observed at one point in time -change is inferred, not actually observed
The normative descriptive period emphasized the ________ of development rather than the developmental ____________ of movement.
-products - processes
a. True
10. Older adults with no pathological conditions do not tend to walk differently than young adults. a. True b. False
How does the Ecological Perspective differ from the other two?
- Ecological Perspective considers motor development of multiple systems rather than only one CNS as considered by mutational -There is a direct perception of environment and based on those information, muscles will self-assemble into groups and execute a motor skill, reducing the number of decisions required of the higher brain centers.
Ecological Perspective
- Nevel's constraint model
Sequential Study
- aka mixed longitudinal - Mini-longitudinal studies with overlapping ages
Palmar Mandibular Reflex
- an example of primitive reflex -makes the eyes close, the mouth open, and the head tilt forward - aka babkin reflex - stimulus is pressured to both palms
Determine typical growth patterns
- deviation from normal trajectory may be the first indicator of problems- physical,psychological etc - Determines constraints on motor development and performance
Reflexive Movements
- infantile reflexes - stereotypical responses elicited by specific external stimuli
3 characteristics of Motor Development
-Continuous = continuously changing process -Sequential = often a sequence that is moved through (ex: development of gait) -Age-related = related to chronological age but doesn't mean everyone does everything at the same time
How do we identify something as a development issue?
-Interested in what a behavior looks like now and why -Interested in what a behavior used to look like and why has it changed
Research study designs (3)
-Longitudinal Research Study -Cross-Secitonal Study -Sequential or Mixed-Longitudinal
Longitudinal Research Study
-an individual or group is observed over time -can require lengthy observation
derotative righting
. ____________ is the postural reaction that has this response: trunk and head follow rotation or body follows head in rotation.
Which of the following affects the ability to intercept a moving object
. ball size b. speed c. trajectory d. environmental and task constraints
he observation that many children perform many of the same motor skills while demonstrating individual differences highlights which two concepts in motor development?
. universality vs variability
c. gravity
1. All of the following could be considered individual constraints, or rate limiters, on early motor development except a. posture b. strength c. gravity d. coordination e. none of the above
Discuss 2 genetic causes of abnormal prenatal development.
1. inherited genetic abnormalities (dominant or recessive) 2. new mutations of a gene during formation of the egg/sperm cell
d. asymmetric tonic neck reflex
10. Derotative righting is a postural reaction. The stimulus for this reaction is turning the head to the side. What reflex must disappear in order for derotative righting to occur? a. Moro reflex b. labyrinthine righting reflex c. symmetric tonic neck reflex d. asymmetric tonic neck reflex e. none of the above
b. False
10. From the perception-action perspective, the best strategy in teaching children to catch is having them practice with little variation of task constraints. a. True b. False
a. True
10. In infancy, childhood, and adolescence, adipose tissue growth is by both hyperplasia and hypertrophy. a. True b. False
What is the dynamical systems approach?
A branch of the ecological perspective this system suggests that coordinated behavior is softly assembled rather than hardwired, meaning that the interacting constraints in your body act together as a functional unit. Example: As an adult you can move around in many different ways (crawl, scoot, squirm) but because of the design of your hip your body encourages -constrains- you to walk.
oppositional
A characteristic of skilled locomotor movements is a familiar pattern known as ____________ arm and leg movement
e
A constraint: a. limits or permits movement b. discourages or encourages movement c. can be positive or negative d. a and b e. a, b, and c
d
A longitudinal research study involves observing the same individual or group a. for at least 1 month b. for at least 1 year c. at only one point in time d. on numerous occasions over a long period
individual constraints
A person's or organism's unique physical and mental characteristics
mobility
A proficient runner eliminates out-toeing and narrows his base of support. This results in greater ____________.
information processing
A researcher who explains the onset of a new motor skill as the reinforcement of stimulus-response bonds uses which of the following theoretical perspectives?
Rate-Limiting or Rate Controlling System
A system that develops last during the growth period limits development A system that declines first during aging accelerates change
True
Active older adults add less fat weight than their sedentary peers with aging.
Why?
Adaptations of the neuromuscular system that moderates the force of landing. Due, at least in part, to an interaction of individual constraints in the body and within the framework of the principles of motion
What types of constraints can be applied to a 21 year old healthy runner not being motivated to run outside because of the hot weather condition?
Functional and Environmental
Maturation
Functional changes Organization changes in the function of the organs
Define strength as a rate controller in early hopping.
Ability to generate force and absorb force. Generate enough force to lift the body with one limb, recover, and quickly generate enough force to hop again
False
About one-third of preadolescents begin their growth spurt within a year of the average age for their sex.
False
According to a dynamical systems perspective, the most important factor in the motor development of an infant is physical growth.
self-organization
According to the dynamical systems approach, behavior emerges from the cooperation of subsystems within a context. This is called
What is the "information processing perspective"?
According to this perspective, the brain acts like a computer, taking in information, processing it, and outputting movement. The process of motor learning and development, then, is described in terms of computer-like operations that occur as a result of some external or environmental input.
Boys increase in shoulder breadth during the growth spurt.
Adult men and adult women tend to have different shoulder-to-hip breadth proportions. Why does this occur?
____ training yields _______ improvements in preadolescents but ___________ improvements after puberty.
Aerobic; small; significant
is (are) the actions or behaviors for or permitted to an actor by the places, objects, and events in and of an environment.
Affordances
What is an example of universality?
After a certain age, a young baby starts creeping, tries to stand using support and slowly will build the locomotive ability
True
After age 50 years, both the number of and diameter of muscle fibers decrease in the average older adult.
True
After the adolescent growth spurt, sex differences in muscle mass result more from differences in arm musculature than leg musculature.
True
After the age of 3 years, individuals tend to maintain their percentile position in comparison with group norms (i.e., if they are at the 40th percentile for height at age 3, they tend to remain around the 40th percentile throughout childhood and adolescence).
Motor Development
Age related changes/functionality
What are the characteristics of motor development which leads to changes in motor behavior?
Age, Sequential, Continous
Myrtle McGraw
Also used twins to examine the influence of enhanced experiment on motor development Emergence of new skills is a resultant of the developed (matured) nervous system Johnny and Jimmy (McGraw): watch corresponding video
What can an insufficiency of TH result in?
An acceleration of aging systems
Sucking Reflex
An example of primitive reflex Occurs pre- and post-natally Stimulated by touching the lips Reflex through 3 months of infancy then voluntary
c
An increase in weight is an example of: A. Motor Development B. Constraints C. Physical Growth D. Maturation
Newton's First Law
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion until acted upon by a force To move something you must apply a force
__________ is the rate at which a person's body can meet the demand for short-term, intense activity
Anaerobic power
Define teratogen. Explain the significance of teratogens to the mother and fetus.
Any drug or chemical agent that causes abnormal development in a fetus upon exposure. May be harmful to the development of the fetus without being harmful to the mother, or it may be harmful to both
False
Any given type of constraint is often considered negative with regard to movement
Longitudinal Study
Any individual or group is observed over time Study can require lengthy observation
Maturational Perspective
Any kind of changes in your motor behavior or developmental process is reliant of maturation of neurological/biological system Environmental effects are non-existent, can only speed up or slow down the process Developmental changes as function of neural maturation any kind of emergence of new motor skills is taking place due to your maturation of the biological system. Happens automatically
Direction in Proficient Jumping
Appropriately directed force and movements.
What are the three questions asked to determine if something is a developmental issue or topic?
Are we interested in what behavior is like now and why it is the way it is? Are we interested in what the behavior was like before and why? Are we interested in how the current behavior is going to change in the future and why?
What is the infant response during the Moro Reflex?
Arms and legs extend, fingers spread, then arms and legs flex
What is the infant response during the Symmetrical tonic reflex?
Arms extend legs flex; arms flex, legs extend
Describe arm movement in proficient skipping.
Arms swing in opposition to legs, and provide momentum
Describe movement in early galloping, sliding, and skipping.
Arrhythmic and stiff
What type of gait patterns are galloping and sliding?
Asymmetric
When do the secondary sex characteristics appear?
At a younger age in early matures than in late maturers
True
Athletes need to understand the principles of force absorption because if athletes cannot control their ankles, knees, and hips when they land, an injury will likely occur.
Functional Constraint
Attentional focus Motivation Fear of past experience
structural constraints
Individual constraints related to the body's structure that are quantitative.
Variability
Individual differences exist
d
Functional constraints relate to behavioral function. Which of the following is an example of a functional constraint? a. vision acuity b. leg strength c. arm length d. attentional focus
Motor Control
Functionality Study of how our neuromuscular system functions to activate the coordinate the muscles and limbs involved in the performance of motor skills
affordances
Gibson described the phenomenon of direct perception and the perception-action link. As an example of this link, he used the term
Rate Controllers
Balance and strength
Reciprocal Patterns
Balance, posture, and strength
is the amount of energy needed to sustain the body's vital functions in the waking state.
Basal metabolic rate
variability
Individual in a species show differences in development.
False
Because not all muscle fibers are differentiated to a specific type of fiber, such as type I or type IIb, we know that infants' early activities influence the proportion of fiber types in later life.
Why?
Because she has been practicing
True
Because the brain attains 80% of its adult size in the first few postnatal years, it is particularly susceptible to extrinsic factors such as poor nutrition or a physical blow during this time.
When does early jumping occur in development?
Before age 2.
What is the treatment for Spontaneous Behaviors?
Behavior therapy
Gender vs. Sex
Biological vs. Cultural
How long does stepping last?
Birth to 5 months
Timing of sports and steady periods can vary between what?
Individuals and sexes The universality and specificity principles.
True
Body fat redistributes with aging, and both men and women typically experience an increase in internal fat as they move through middle adulthood and into older adulthood.
True
Bone composition changes over the life span, becoming more inorganic in composition and therefore more brittle in older adulthood.
Takeoff or landing in Proficient Jumping
Both feet at the same time
Why does early matures tend to be shorter in stature than later maturers?
Both, Androgens and Estrogens accelerates epiphyseal growth plate closure and promote skeletal maturation at the expense of linear growth
Adult men and adult women tend to have different shoulder-to-hip breadth proportions. Why does this occur?
Boys increase in shoulder breadth during the growth spurt
What is suggested by one theory of aging?
Breaks in neural network links cause detours and slowing
What are the three components of fundamental motor skills?
Building blocks, cumulative, and sequential
What are the two ways to gain experience?
By strengthening some connections (that have been activated most frequently) and weakening (pruning*) others if the connections are not used.
False
Gibson, the creator of the perception-action approach, proposed that the CNS is responsible for the infinite calculations that estimate and determine the speed and direction of both people and objects with regard to movement.
Universality
Individuals in a species show great similarity in development
universality
Individuals in a species show great similarity in development.
Maturational Perspective believes motor development is driven by development of the
CNS
How do constraints contribute to our understanding of motor development?
Can encourage or discourage and limit or permit movements, can be positive or negative and shape movement
True
Girls begin their adolescent growth spurt approximately 2 years before boys begin their adolescent growth spurt, on the average.
In what two directions can fetal growth go into?
Cephalocaudal Proximodistal
Motor Learning
Changes Study of the acquisition/reacquisition of motor skills Performance enhancement of learned or highly experienced motor skills
How is spontaneous movement characterized?
Characterized by patterned, stereotyped, highly intrinsic, and involuntary movements of the body
Swimming
Characterized by the baby's swimming like movements when held in a horizontal position
Cross-sectional Study
Individuals or groups of different ages are observed. Change is inferred, not actually observed.
Embryonic Stage
Conception to 8 weeks Differentiation of cells to form specific tissues and organs Limbs formed at 4 weeks Human form noticeable at 8 weeks
What are anomalies present at birth called?
Congenital defects
What can a long term increase of TH result in?
Congestive Heart Failure
What is the interaction of constraints?
Constant interactions between the constraints
environmental constraints
Constraints related to the world around us
What are the characteristics of motor development?
Continuous,, age-related, sequential process whereby movement behavior changes
Describe the coordination of supine kicking and walking.
Coordination resembles but not identical to the positioning and timing of an adult walking step
What does stepping resemble?
Crude form of walking
What is an example of a recessive disorder?
Cystic fibrosis
Arm movement in early jumping
Inefficient Used for balance instead of to help propel the body forward
True or False? Arnold Gesell believed that motor development was greatly influenced by the environment.
False. Gesell explained maturation as a process controlled by internal factors rather than external. He believed the environment would affect motor development only temporarily because hereditary factors were ultimately in control of development.
What two things are used to describe the current state of the object and both concepts are related to the mass of the object?
Inertia and momentum
False
Inertia is Newton's fourth law of motion.
True or False? Rate limiters or controllers are constraints that encourage motor development.
False. Rate limiters or controllers are individual constraints or system that holds back or slows down the emergence of a new motor skill. Example: A infants muscles must reach a certain threshold before they can begin to walk. The muscular system is a rate limiter because it slows down the emergence of walking.
Motor Milestone: 10 months
Infant can stand alone
Why would a researcher use a cross-sectional designs to study motor development?
Faster and easier in time, inferring developmental changes
What are the developmental changes in Hopping?
Few children under 3 can hop repeatedly.
False
Deficiencies of hormones rather than excesses of hormones disturb the normal process of growth and development.
Motor Milestone: 8 months
Infant creeps on hands and knees
postural reactions
Derotative righting, labyrinthine righting, and parachute are all examples of ____________.
No
Developmental or Not? A 15 year old soccor player practices penalty kicks every day for 3 weeks then scores a penalty kick in a game.
Yes
Developmental or Not? A 9 month old girl pulls to stand on the couch, within a month she walks.
Motor Milestone: 9 months
Infant pulls to stand and cruises furniture
Motor Milestone: 7 months
Infant rolls over and sits unsupported
Motor Milestone: 12 months
Infant walks alone
The process wherein cells become specialized, forming specific tissues and organs, is called __________.
Differentiation
Constraints and Atypical Development
Disabilities Must consider all interacting constraints May result in delayed, different motor development
Gonadal Hormones
Influence on growth, sexual maturation (sex organs, secondary sex characteristics)
Which of the following are the 2 branches of the ecological perspective? Select one:
Dynamic systems & Perception-Action
Prenatal Development
Early development is controlled by genes Typical development and inherited atypical development
Goal
Educators and therapists can make tasks developmentally appropriate based on individual constraints. abilities/disabilities
Prenatal Development is divided into which 2 categories?
Embryonic Fetus
What is the stimulus for Symmetrical tonic neck?
Extend head and neck; flex head and neck
Support Leg Movement in Proficient Hopping
Extends fully at hip at takeoff; flexed on landing
Double knee lock pattern: Proficient Walking
Extension of heel-strike and push-off. Increases their range of motion for children
False
Environmental constraints are changed when an individual's body grows and matures, leading to further development of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems.
outside, global, physical, sociocultural
Environmental constraints are: _________the body, __________, __________ and ______________.
The normal growth curve is S-shaped, meaning which of the following?
Every member of the species has the same pattern of growth, featuring two periods of rapid growth
The normal growth curve is S-shaped, meaning which of the following?
Every member of the species has the same pattern of growth, featuring two periods of rapid growth.
Task
Every task has an optimal distance and magnitude of force for the best result There are personal limits to force magnitude and distance (range of motion stability-balance etc.) Individual constraints, injury or disability
Describe the changes in stepping?
Excessive coactivation Reciprocal patterns
What promotes improved cognitive function?
Exercise
What do recent evidence,suggest about exercise?
Exercise may have some neuroprotective and immunological benefits
Extrinsic Factors
Exert influence, especially in the formation of synaptic connections
What might play a significant role in increasing synaptic connection?
Experience
False
Extrinsic factors are those influences that have only a negative effect on growth and development.
What is the infant response during the Doll Eye Reflex?
Eyes look up
Any given type of constraint is often considered negative with regard to movement.
FALSE
As people become older, they tend to participate in physical activities more often.
FALSE
If you have high self-esteem in one domain or area, it is likely you will have high self-esteem in most domains.
FALSE
Self-esteem is based on your objective evaluation of your worthiness.
FALSE
T/F: About 1/3 of preadolescents begin their growth spurt within a year of the average age for their sex
False
T/F: Extrinsic factors are those influences that have only a negative effect on growth and development
False
T/F: Genetic abnormalities are always inherited
False
T/F: Maturity can be accurately inferred from age and size
False
T/F: Peak height velocity and peak weight velocity occur at the same age in both boys and girls
False
What is the stimulus for Doll-Eye Reflex?
Flex head
What substances (food) environments or situations are pregnant women encouraged to avoid?
Foods high in mercury, smoking, alcohol, stress, caffeine
What are the two factors that make the perception-action approach ecologically valid?
For the perception-action approach to be valid the study of perception cannot be independent of movement. This means that development of perception and the development of movement must be studied together. Example: The term affordance is used to describe the function of an environmental object provides to an individual. A human can sit on a horizontal surface, but not a vertical surface. Hence, the relationship between individual and environment is so intertwined that one's characteristics define objects' meanings, which implies that people assess environmental properties in relation to themselves, not according to an objective standard.
decrease; increase; increase
Force absorption is another principle of motion. This principle states that to _______________ the impact of a reaction force, you must either _______________ the amount of time in which the impact occurs or __________________ the area over which the impact occurs.
Horizontal Movement in Proficient Jumping
Force directed down and back; knee flexed during flight (longer distance)
Vertical Movement in Proficient Jumping
Force directed downward Body extended for height
Newton's Second Law
Force is the product of mass and acceleration (F= ma) Acceleration of an object is proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to its mass (a=F/m) Force = (mass) (Vf -Vi)/time F=ma
Describe stride length/movement in proficient galloping, sliding, and skipping.
Forefoot or heel-to-forefoot landings. Knees flex at landing, extend at take off.
Galloping
Forward step on one foot, and leaping on the other
Out of galloping, sliding, and skipping which is the first to emerge?
Galloping
Socio-Cultural Constraints
Gender vs. Sex Cultural Norms Crowd Support
Oppositional Arm Movement in Proficient Hopping
Generates force
False
Genetic abnormalities are always inherited.
Growth and aging change individual constraints
Genetic and extrinsic factors combine to influence growth and aging
True
Gonadal hormone replacement therapy tends to counteract many of the effects of aging.
What is an example of motor development?
Grasping pattern
Physical Constraint
Gravity Friction Temperature
Stride Length: Proficient Walking
Greater force and leg extension
What are the characteristics of proficient running?
Greater force in stride length, lower base level of support, pelvis rotates, arms and legs move in an oppositional movement, planar movements, and trunk leans slightly forward
What does running require?
Greater generation of force and ability to balance.
For which hormone, is insulin required for it to be full functioning?
Growth
D. a and b
Growth tends to proceed in what direction(s)?
What is the infant response during Palmar Grasping?
Hands closes tightly around the object
Reflex Loop
Help developing nervous system map specific activation of muscles
Why are they useful?
Helps maintain balance
Newell's Model of Constraints
Helps to better understand motor development He has based his model considering the concepts of constraints that affect movement throughout life
Describe arm movement in early galloping, sliding, and skipping.
High guard or out to side to aid balance
What questions do we ask about motor development?
How do we understand and organize changes so they can be explained and used to predict future development?
What is an example of a dominant disorder?
Huntington's
Growth in the fetal stage is by hyperplasia, an increase in the absolute number of cells, and by ________, an increase in the relative size of an individual cell.
Hypertrophy
maturational
If a parent or teacher believes an infant cannot walk before the step reflex disappears, then she follows which theoretical viewpoint?
dynamical systems
If a researcher says that walking emerges from the individual, her surroundings, and the goal she is trying to achieve, rather than is driven by a genetic prescription, the researcher would most likely agree with what theory?
What does this mean for a moving object?
If both have same acceleration. The object with the greater mass will have the greater force.
behaviors emerge as a result of self-organization
If you follow the dynamical systems perspective, you believe that
False
In childhood and adolescence, neurological system growth is predominantly by hyperplasia of the neurons, glial cells, and myelin rather than synaptic formation.
False
In graphing a change in motor behavior over time, the behavior measurement is traditionally placed on the vertical axis, and the better or more advanced scores are lower on the scale.
True
In infancy, childhood, and adolescence, adipose tissue growth is by both hyperplasia and hypertrophy.
False
In infancy, childhood, and adolescence, muscle growth is by both hyperplasia and hypertrophy
optimal
In most movement skills a(n) __________________ relationship exists between force and distance.
greater
In running, the lower body twists one way and the upper body twists the opposite way. This movement pattern creates a(n) ____________ amount of force.
False
In the typical adult, fat weight increases from the 20s to age 50 and decreases thereafter
Arm movement in hopping
Inactive and at a high guard position
task constraints
Include: -Goals of a particular movement or activity -Rule structure surrounding that movement or activity -Equipment
How do we move an object Farther or Faster?
Increase force applied Increase distance over which force is applied How is this incorporated into mature movement patterns?
What three things are reflected by rapid early growth?
Increase in size of neurons,branching to form synapses, and increase in glial cells and myelin
Which of the following statements is true regarding older adults
Increase in strength is partly due to an increase in muscle mass. b. Training intensity should be over 85% to increase the rate of force development.
How do you decrease the impact of a reaction force?
Increase the amount of time in which the impact occurs. Increase the area of contact over which the impact occur
What do you have to do in order to make an object move?
Increase the force application and/or the time over which the force is applied
What do you have to do in order to make an object stop?
Increase time over which a given force is applied
How does imbalances affect older individuals?
Increases the risk of disease
functional constraints
Individual constraints related to behavioral function
Which hormone is vital for carbohydrate metabolism?
Insulin
What is the history of the maturational perspective?
Invariable, genetically determined sequence of development Individuals can have unique timing
What skills are involved in galloping, sliding, and skipping?
Involves combination of stepping, hopping, and leaping
Inertia
Is resistance to motion related to mass (inertial mass) More mass= greater resistance to motion, higher force must be applied to move the object
Momentum
Is the product of mass and velocity p=mv/FT More mass=larger prolonged force to move and to stop
strength is the exertion of force at a constant limb velocity through the range of motion at a joint.
Isokinetic
Describe vertical lift in early galloping, sliding and skipping.
It is exaggerated
13%
It is important that researchers study motor development across the life span, especially into the later stages of an individual's life, because it is estimated that by the year 2030, ______ of the population in the United States, China, Russia, Australia, Canada, and the majority of the European Union countries will be aged 65 years and older.
What is the original theory regarding spontaneous movement?
It was extraneous and had no purpose
Relative to genetic factors, extrinsic factors play a _______ role as one moves from conception to older adulthood.
Larger
Does hopping start earlier or later than jumping?
Later
Which of the following is the fastest growing in infancy and childhood?
Legs
Leg Support in Hopping
Legs are lifted rather than used to project the body
Stepping Response
Legs move in walking patterm
Constraints
Limit or discourage certain movements Permit of encourage other movements "Shape" movement
Preparatory Movements in Early Jumping
Limited or absent
constraints
Limits or discourages certain movements Permits or encourages other movements "shapes" movement
What type of reflex is swimming?
Locomoter
What type of reflex is stepping?
Locomotor reflex
What things are a decreased gonadal hormone level associated with>
Loss of bone and muscle tissue
According to the ecological perspective, how do need skills emerge?
Many constraints change over time, thus influencing motor development: as a result motor development is considered as a life-span process
What four things can be related to the pattern of skill acquisition ?
Maturation of CNS, development of muscular strength and endurance, development of posture and balance, and improvement of sensory processing
How does the Maturational Perspective differ from Ecological Perspective?
Maturational believes that once your system mature no developmental changes occur, but ecological believes that developmental process goes across the lifespan.
According to maturationalists what is the cause of developmental change in the body?
Maturationalist believe that the central nervous system dictates or controls motor development. According to the assumptions of this theory, motor development is an internal or innate process driven by a biological or genetic time clock.
True
Maximal performance of motor skills often requires performers to minimize stability to increase mobility.
Faulty Migration
May cause epilepsy autism, dyslexia, and lower IQ etc.
Biomechanics
Mechanics of muscle activity Mechanical methods used to study structure and function of biological systems
What two things might be disturbed due to the presence of teratogens?
Migration and Branching
Sequential/ mixed longitudinal
Mini longitudinal studies with overlapping ages
What is the characteristics of early overarm throwing?
Mostly arm action, elbow pointed up, throw executed by elbow extension alone, trunk flexion (no rotation), and no stepping
change, underlying processes
Motor Development - involves ______ in movement behavior - depends on ________ _______
Dynamical System Approach
Motor control and coordination
movement behavior
Motor development involves a change in ________ _________.
True
Motor development uses such research designs in which several age groups are observed repetitively over a shorter time span, permitting observation of an age span that is longer than the observation period.
What two things require force?
Move an object Move ourselves
Locomotion
Moving from place to place. Moving on one, two, or four limbs. A complete task involving many interactions systems and constraints.
Base of support in hopping
Narrow
What type of problems may occur due to persistence of reflexes?
Neurological
What limits the rate at which these skills are acquired?
Neuromuscular system
What three happens during the process of prenatal neural development?
Neuron formation, differentiation, and migration
False
New bone stops forming and bone remodeling ends in older adulthood.
second
Newton's ____________ law of motion states that the acceleration of a person or object is proportional to the force applied to it and inversely proportional to its mass.
True
Newton's first law of motion states that an object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion until acted upon by a force.
True
Newton's laws of motion are ALWAYS important to consider with regard to the development of motor development.
True
Newton's third law of motion states that to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
Developmental issue or not: A 15-year old soccer player practices penalty kicks every day for 3 weeks, the scores a penalty kick in a game.
No
How do we assess locomotion?
Observe, create records, and compare movement to norms
When do reflexive movements occur?
Occurs quickly after onset of stimuli
What does the force applied to an object depend on?
On the momentum of your limb and the time over which the contact occurs
What does motor development depend on?
On the underlying processes
What is the most common form of throwing in sports?
One hand overarm
Arms/legs:Proficient Walking
Oppositional Movement
Motor Milestone
Ordered and predictable in typically developing infants in case of any substantial delay in achievement of milestones, it might indicate a developmental problem.
What increases in the walking patterns of older adults?
Out-toeing
What organs secrete estrogen?
Ovaries and andrenal gland
Postnatal Development
Overall growth follows sigmoid pattern Two periods of rapid growth
Which of the following crosses the placental barrier?
Oxygen
Later Running
Patterns helps increase stability and balance.
which researcher led the biomechanical descriptive period?
Ruth Glasslow
False
Peak height velocity and peak weight velocity occur at the same age in both boys and girls.
Perception-Action Approach
Perception
Ballistic Skills
Performer applies force to an object in order to project
Motor stereotypy disorders
Persist past infancy Each child has a specific behavior and circumstances of when it occurs, may be alone in in conjunction with another disorder
What are the warning signs associate with the Asymmetrical tonic neck reflex?
Persistence after 6 months
What are the warning signs associated with Doll-Eye reflex?
Persistence after the first days of life
What are the warning signs associated with Palmar Grasping?
Persistence after the first year; asymmetrical reflex
d
Physical growth and maturation are an example of which type of constraint of Newell's model? a. task b. environmental c. functional d. structural
a
Physiological ________________ is a qualitative advance in biological makeup that often makes it difficult to tell the differences in individuals from observation alone. a. maturation b. physical growth c. constraints d. motor development
Aging
Physiological changes Process of growing older
What is the stimulus for stepping?
Place soles of feet on flat surface
Define balance as a rate controller in early hopping.
Postural systems ability to balance the body on one limb for a succession of hops
How long does the Doll Eye Reflex last?
Prenatal to 2 weeks
How long does the Moro Reflex last?
Prenatal to 3 months
How long does the Asymmetrical tonic neck reflex last?
Prenatal to 4 months
How long does the Palmar Grasping Reflex last?
Prenatal to 4 months
Babinski reflex
Presence after 2 years of age indicated upper motor neuron lesion
What are the warning signs associated with Moro reflex?
Presence after 6 months; asymmetrical reflex
Congenital Defects
Present at birth Can derive from genetic or extrinsic factors
What are some examples of harmful environmental factors?
Pressure Temperature X and gamma rays Oxygen-deficient atmospheres pollutants
refers to the area(s) in in the midportion of the shafts of long bones where bone cells are formed so that the cartilage-model bones of the fetal skeleton begin ossifying, from the center outward, to form bone shafts.
Primary ossification centers
Leap
Propel off ground: one foot Landing: opposite foot
Hop
Propel off ground: one foot Landing: same foot
Jump
Propel off ground: one or two feet Landing: on two feet
What are the main role in infantile reflexes?
Protection, Nutrition, and survival
Locomotor Reflexes
Provide automatic movement that is "practice" for future voluntary movement
What is the role of the placenta?
Provides oxygen and nutrients to growing baby Removes waste products from baby's blood (acts as a filter) Prevents mixing of blood of mother and baby . Baby blood as foreign entity Poor maternal health status can affect fetus
Early Running
Qualitative changes in running patterns, combined with physical growth and maturation, generally results in improved quantitative measures of running
Process Measures
Qualitative that is concerned with how the skill is performed (movement pattern) Developmental Sequences
Product Measures
Quantitative based on the outcome of the skill performance Measures accuracy, distance, and ball velocity
Which of the following types of knowledge can be generalized across topics
Strategic
categorical
Which of the following is NOT a type of constraint commonly discussed with regard to motor development theories and models?
Reflexes and the environment
Reflexes allow "dialogue" with the environment
Postural reflexes
Reflexes provide building blocks for future movement
Task Constraints
Related specifically to tasks or skills Goals of the task Rules guiding task performance Equipment Goal, rules, and equipment
According to information processing perspective, how do new skills emerge?
Relied on experience and help from the brain
Young children generally do not compare themselves with others but depend on parental appraisals to determine their physical competence
TRUE
systematic; controlled observation
Research involves two main components: __________________ and __________________.
c
Research participants are asked to throw darts to a target to measure accuracy. The participants throw from three distances: 5 feet, 10 feet, and 15 feet. The distance of the throw is an example of what kind of constraint? a. functional b. structural c. task d. individual
What occurs when you have more inertia?
Resistance to move More force application is required Large force, or application of same force over a long period of time When force acts in the same direction as velocity, you get a speeding up
Pelvis:Proficient Walking
Rotates and have a full range of leg motion
dynamic
Select the best word to describe Newell's model of constraints.
chemistry
Select the scientific dicipline that does NOT typically contribute to theories of motor development.
What does reflex movements result in?
Sensory consequences aka adaptation
What is the stimulus for Moro Reflex?
Shake head as by tapping pillow.
Describe stride, step length in early galloping, sliding, and skipping.
Short and flat-footed landing
Describe trunk rotation in early galloping, sliding, and skipping.
Short and flat-footed landing
Why would a researcher use a longitudinal design to study motor development?
Takes longer but you have a definitive developmental changes
Skipping
alternating step-hops on one foot, then on the other, Complicated and need more coordination
Sliding
Sideways step on one foot, and leaping on other
What are some common stereotypies?
Single leg kick , Two-leg kick, Alternate leg kick, Arm wave Arm wave with object, Arm banging against a surface, Finger flexion
What is involved in reflexes?
Single muscle or specific group of muscles (not whole body)
False
Skilled athletes always extend their limbs as much as possible during movement in order to achieve the greatest velocity.
What is an example of differential characteristics?
Some babies will start walking early as they have development of neuromuscular system
maturational
Someone who tries to relate the onset of a new motor skill with maturation of the nervous system, skeletal system, or muscular system has which theoretical perspective?
Environmental Constraint
Something related to something external to your body Global, not task specific
Individual Constraint
Something related to your body
Structural Constraint
Something related to your body Changes in weight, muscle mass, or height
What does this mean?
Something related to your neuromuscular, nervous, and skeletal system
We observe two patterns in human growth and aging: common patterns and relationships, which we term universality, and individual variation, which we call ________.
Specifically/Variability
The decrease in height that can occur in older adulthood results mainly from change in what body area?
Spine
According to Dynamical System Approach, how does movement behavior emerge?
Spontaneous, self-organization of many cooperating body systems-flexible Nature of the performer's environment The demands of the task How do new skills emerge?
What are the characteristics of early running?
Stability over mobility, arms are at a high guard, wide base of support, limited range of motion, short stride length, and very little pelvic rotation
What things do you increase when attempting to adding a distance to a kick?
Step length (linear distance) Work= force * distance Range of motion (rotational distance)
What are examples of locomotor reflexes?
Stepping reflex, crawling, and swimming
What decreases in walking ability of older adults?
Stride length, pelvic rotation, speed.
What characteristics decreases in later running?
Stride length, range of motion, number of strides, and speeds.
What are the two types of individual constraints?
Structural and Functional
Physical Growth
Structural changes Increase in physical size
How does reflexive occur?
Subcortically
What is the starting position for Asymmetrical tonic neck?
Supine
What is the starting position for Moro Reflex?
Supine
What is the stimulus for Asymmetrical tonic neck?
Supported sitting
Arm movements in Proficient Jumping
Swing utilized efficiently during jump, planar movement
What form of gait pattern is skipping?
Symmetric
Sociocultural constraints often interact with functional individual constraints to allow certain motor behaviors to emerge
TRUE
Describe early walking patterns.
Tend to maximize stability and balance
Malformation-producing agents that cross the placenta are called ________
Teratogens
What organs secretes androgens?
Testes and Adrenal Glands
aging
The change process occurring with the passage of time and leading to loss of adaptability or full function is called ____________.
True or False? Another feature of the dynamical systems approach is that it allows for the study of development across the life span.
True. While the maturationalist approach only looks at changes until maturation the dynamical systems approach accounts for changes in older adults as well as advancements in youth. Example: When an individual's systems decline to a critical point, a change in behavior might occur which would be considered a rate controller.
spine
The decrease in height that can occur in older adulthood results mainly from change in what body area?
False
The dynamical systems approach and the maturational perspective are often in agreement with each other regarding topics in motor development.
False
The dynamical systems approach suggests that coordinated behavior is "hard wired."
b and c
The epiphyseal, or growth, plates close at relatively younger ages in which of the following groups?
e. b and c
The epiphyseal, or growth, plates close at relatively younger ages in which of the following groups? a. boys b. girls c. early maturers d. a and c e. b and c
True
The growth, thyroid, and gonadal hormones all promote growth by stimulating protein anabolism.
True
The heart follows the sigmoid pattern of whole-body growth, and the growth of the blood vessels surrounding the heart is proportional to that of the heart; therefore, the size of the heart is not a limiting factor for exercise in children.
True
The loss of weight in older adulthood results mainly from loss of muscle tissue
True
The neural network model of aging holds that links in the network of neurons break at random, thus slowing the responses made by older adults.
Motor Skills
Trying to fulfill a task that requires coordinated movement of multiple body parts
a
The observation that many children perform many of the same motor skills while demonstrating individual differences highlights which two concepts in motor development? a. universality versus variability b. individual versus structural constraints c. motor development versus motor control
False
The ossification of the skeleton begins postnatally.
False
The prevalence of disorders associated with hormone balance tends to decrease with aging.
Aging
The process accruing with passage of time, leading to loss of adaptability or full suction and eventually death.
What is "body scaling"?
The process of changing the dimensions of the environment or an environmental object in relation to the structural constraints of a performer. Example: A comfortable step height for an adult is not the same as that for a toddler. Each individual must look at each step height in relation to the climber's body size.
physical maturation
The qualitative advance in biological makeup and may refer to cell, organ, or system advancement in biochemical composition.
physical growth
The quantitative increase in size or body mass
motor development
The study of motor behavior changes as a continuous age-related process is called ____________.
motor learning
The study of motor behavior in terms of relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability as a result of practice or experience is called ____________.
Developmental biomechanics
The study of the effects of forces (biomechanics) on the musculoskeletal system during the entire life-span.
True
The terms rate limiter and controller are interchangable
What is the infant response during the Asymmetrical Tonic Reflex?
Turn head to one side
What is the stimulus for Asymmetrical tonic neck?
Turn head to one side
The embryo or fetus is sensitive to extrinsic factors
These can be either positive or negative effects
What is the "ecological perspective"?
This is similar to Newell's Model of Change. It looks at the interrelationships between the individual, the environment, and the task.
Why
This statements does not include the word practice. So there is a neuromuscular development going on within her body allowing her to throw the ball an extra 10 yards.
Tissue and harmful effects
Tissue undergoing rapid development at time of exposure are most vulnerable
Why would a researcher use a longitudinal design to study a motor development?
To answer the research question: what are the changes in a specific individual in a span of time?
What would a researcher in motor development strive to compare?
To compare the elderly with young teenagers in terms of ability to react while catching a ball and walking simutlaenously
Newton's Third Law
To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Law of action-reaction When you push on something, it pushes back on you What does this mean to us as we move around our environment? Directional force Oppositional arm and leg movements
Where can some teratogenic effects result from?
Too much of a substance Some from too little
What is the stimulus for Palmar Grasping?
Touch palm with finger or object
What happens if the myelin sheath is broken down?
Tremors Loss of coordination Paralysis
T/F: After the age of 3 years, individuals tend to maintain their percentile position in comparison with group norms (i.e., if they are at the 40th percentile for height at age 3, they tend to remain around the 40th percentile throughout childhood and adolescence).
True
T/F: Changes in body size during adulthood are more and more variable among individuals as we consider increasingly older age groups
True
T/F: Girls begin their adolescent growth spurt approximately 2 years before boys begin their adolescent growth spurt, on the average
True
T/F: The loss of weight in older adulthood results mainly form loss of muscle tissue
True
Direction of Early Jumping
Vertical
What substances or supplements are women encouraged to take during pregnancy?
Vitamins, foods high in folic acid
congenital defects
What are anomalies present at birth called?
cross-sectional
What is the research study design in which researchers measure individuals or groups at selected ages and observe them all within a relatively short period of time?
-individual structural -task -individual functional -environmental
What kind of constraint is each of the following? -sprained foot -crutches -lack motivation -rain/slick ground make it hard to use crutches
a and c
What period shows the most rapid increase in adipose tissue?
in preadolescence, from 6 to 7 years until 12 to 13 years in both boys and girls
What period shows the most rapid increase in subcutaneous adipose tissue?
b. in preadolescence, from 6 to 7 years until 12 to 13 years in both boys and girls
What period shows the most rapid increase in subcutaneous adipose tissue? a. during childhood, until age 6 or 7 years in both boys and girls b. in preadolescence, from 6 to 7 years until 12 to 13 years in both boys and girls c. in adolescence in both boys and girls d. a and b e. b and c
at a younger age in early maturers than in late maturers
When do the secondary sex characteristics appear?
midshaft
Where does the ossification of long bones begin?
a. mid shaft
Where does the ossification of long bones begin? a. mid shaft b. end (epiphysis) c. a and b
oxygen
Which of the following crosses the placental barrier?
all of the above
Which of the following factors contributes to bone loss with aging in women?
d. all of the above
Which of the following factors contributes to bone loss with aging in women? a. level of exercise b. level of calcium in the diet c. level of estrogen hormones d. all of the above e. b and c
all of the above
Which of the following factors determines how much catch-up growth takes place when a positive environment is restored after negative extrinsic factors have retarded growth?
elbow and humeral flexion
With regard to the relationship between rotating limbs and projected objects, which of the following does NOT contribute to optimal performance of throwing a baseball (maximum velocity and maximum distance thrown)?
Developmental issue or not: An older man no longer walks to the store; he report that he no longer feels "up to it."
Yes and no
Increase the amount of time he practices the skill and reward good skips.
You follow the information processing theory of development. You are teaching your preschool class locomotor skills, and a smaller boy is having difficulty skipping. Based on your theoretical perspective, what should you do?
power
Young children often use a ____________ grip to hold the implement used in a striking task, thus tending to undercut the ball.
True
Youths can experience irritations of traction epiphyses during their growth years
Longitudinal
__________ research study includes the same individual or group being observed performing the same tasks or behaviors on numerous occasions over a long period of time.
Cross sectional
___________ research study is when developmental change is implied by observing individuals or groups of varying ages at one point in time.
labyrinthine righting reflex
____________ is the postural reaction that has this stimulus: supported, tilt infant upright.
body scaling
_________________ involves using a particular individual's body proportions (an internal reference system of constraints) when making movement decisions (picking equipment, selecting a gait pattern).
physical growth
__________________ refers to an increase in size or body mass resulting from an increase in complete, already formed body parts.
A cultural phenomenon in the United States that may act as a constraint for girls' motor behavior is Select one: a. enforcement of Title IX by schools b. playing with peer groups on the playground c. a and b
a
In which of the following tasks do older adults decline in performance? Select one: a. memory tasks b. simple actions c. single, discrete actions that can be planned in advance d. continuous actions e. repetitive actions
a
It is likely that participation in an exercise intervention has a ____ and _____ effect on memory performance. Select one: a. small; positive b. large; positive c. moderate; positive d. large; negative e. small; negative
a
Constraints (3 types)
a characteristic of the individual environment, or task that limits or permits movement, discourages or encourages movement, can be positive or negative -individual -environmental -task
Physical Maturation
a qualitative advance in biological makeup (cell, organ, or system) advancement in biochemical composition; how systems are working together (not easily measured)
The skill of striking includes which of the following movements
a volleyball serve b. a tennis serve c. a golf swing
the skill of striking includes which of the following movements?
a volleyball serve, a tennis serve, or a golf swing
*Which of the following is a component of the definition of development?*
a. Development is a continuous process. b. Development is related to (but not dependent on age).
Constraints and Atypical Development
a. Disabilities: difference in structural, functional, individual constraints b. Must consider ALL interacting constraints: may need to take different approach to complete task (do on land before in water) c. May result in delayed, different motor development: can influence cognitive development
The dynamic systems approach differs from the maturational perspective in which of the following ways?
a. Dynamic systems focuses on many systems that contribute to development, while the maturational perspective focuses on only one (role of the central nervous system). b. Dynamic systems allows for the study of development across the life span, while the maturational perspective does not.
overall growth, from conception through adulthood, is _____________ a result of the interaction of genetic and extrinsic factors.
always
The ecological perspective emphasizes the ______________ between the individual, the environment, and the task.
a. interaction b. interrelatedness c. interrelationships
A constraint Select one: a. limits or permits movement
a. limits or permits movement b. discourages or encourages movement c. can be positive or negative
Growth tends to proceed in what directions?
a. proximodistal b. cephalocaudal c. caudalocephal *d. a and b e. a and c
Which type(s) of constraint is (are) external to the body?
a. task b. environmental
*Differentiation* is
a. the process wherein cells become specialized, forming specific tissues and organs
Which of the following factors determines how much catch-up growth takes place when a positive environment is restored after negative extrinsic factors have retarded growth?
a. timing of the negative influence b. duration of the negative influence c. severity of the negative influence *d. all of the above
Define strength as a rate controller in early jumping.
ability to generate force (to project body off the ground)
Describe coordination in skipping.
ability to perform two tasks with one leg. most difficult, last to be measured
a teratogen is any drug or chemical agent that causes ____________ development in a fetus upon exposure.
abnormal
researchers often assess throwing through which of the following?
accuracy, distance, and velocity
Cumulative
adding skills to the previos milestone
which of the following concepts is associated with the perception-action perspective of catching?
affordance, optic array, and phase shift
which type of constraint(s) will influence the development of prehension and grasping of infants?
all types of constraints
Myelination of axons
allows faster conduction of neural impulses tends to follow the direction of conducton
research studies that examine the development of striking
are sparse
Describe arm movement in proficient galloping and sliding.
arms not used for balance
When do the secondary sex characteristics appear
at a younger age in early maturers than in late maturers
Functional constraints relate to behavioral function. Which of the following is an example of a functional constraint?
attentional focus
Knowledge is a type of ________________ constraint that interacts with other constraints. Select one: a. structural b. functional c. environmental d. sociocultural e. task
b
A longitudinal research study involves observing the same individual or group Select one:
b. on numerous occasions over a long period
*Proximodistal* is
b. the direction of growth proceeding from the body midline toward the extremities
a rate limiter of jumping includes that a person must
be able to develop enough force to bring the body into the air from a still position
If you follow the dynamical systems perspective, you believe that
behaviors emerge as a result of self-organization
Arnold Gesell
believed the biological process (genetic and hereditary) is the main driver of human motor development; not the environment Co-twin control strategy
Subcortically
below the level of the higher brain center
The perception-action approach uses which of the following terms?
body scaling and affordance
sex differences among older adults in overarm throwing have been associated with which of the following?
both sex and childhood and young adulthood experiences
Growth of which organ increases rapidly after birth?
brain
What is the current theory regarding spontaneous movement?
building blocks, similar to some voluntary movements
Primitive reflexes
built in responses facilitate survival
asymmetrical
galloping is an example of a locomotor skill that requires a ____________ gait.
The *fetal stage* occurs in which of the following time periods?
c. 8 weeks to birth
*Regarding the prenatal period and development, which of the following statements is true?*
c. Genetic factors and extrinsic factors individually influence and interact to influence development.
Which type of curve is associated with growth curves that indicate *rapid* growth after birth, followed by *gradual* but *steady* growth during childhood, then by *rapid* growth during adolescence, and finally *leveling off*?
c. Sigmoid
A *teratogen* is any drug or chemical agent that causes ____________ development in a fetus upon exposure.
c. abnormal
*Regarding embryonic development, the 40-week time point is associated with the appearance of which of the following in the fetus?*
c. pink and smooth skin and at least moderate head hair
Momentum
force X time
Extrinsic factors
can affect fetus through nourishment or physical environment
Why?
can go either way, he may not want to walk to the store or it could be due to aging
Plasticity
capability of cells to take on a new function Some cells have plasticity meaning modifiable Some cells in the system are injured, the remaining cells might be stimulated to perform the role of that damaged cell
Recessive Disorder
caused by a defective gene from each parent
Dominant Disorders
caused by a defective gene from one parent
the maturational perspective explains developmental change as a function of maturational processes, in particular through the development of the _______________.
central nervous system
Age-related
certain things happen at certain stages in one's life
What is motor development?
changes in motor behavior over the lifespan and the processed which underlie the process which underlies these changes
The maturational perspective explains developmental change as a function of maturational processes, in particular through the development of the _______________.
cns
The information processing perspective holds that the human brain acts like a
computer
motion and stability are affected tremendously by the interaction of ______________.
constraints
infants may use a variety of types of locomotion. For example, __________ is defined as infants moving on hands and knees.
creeping
What is the research study design in which researchers measure individuals or groups at selected ages and observe them all within a relatively short period of time
cross-sectional
Preparatory movements in Proficient Jumping
crouch maximizes takeoff force
Continuous
cumulative change happening throughout life
Which of the following is a definition of procedural knowledge? Select one: a. knowing the necessary steps to prepare to perform a movement b. knowing how to transfer learning from practice to a game situation c. knowing factual information d. knowing how to do something in accordance with specific rules e. knowing how to score
d
Which of the following is an example of a social or cultural environmental constraint? Select one: a. age b. race c. religion d. b and c e. a, b, and c
d
to improve and optimize movement performance, individuals must find the optimal relationship between __________ and __________ in a given movement.
force and distance
Which type of curve is associated with measurements such as *height, weight, or length plotted against advancing age?*
d. Distance
Teratogens
delivered through nourishment system acts as malformation-producing agents
Universality
development patterns common for all humans
the process wherein cells become specialized, forming specific tissues and organs
differentiation
Genes
directs the development of the nervous system
What are two circumstances that causes Locomotor reflexes disappear?
disappear when voluntary behavior surfaces or gap between disappearance of reflex and appearance of voluntary behavior
which type of curve is associated with measurements such as height, weight, or length plotted against advancing age?
distance
The developmental sequences for throwing were constructed specifically to address a throw for ________ rather than ________
distance; accuracy
the developmental sequences for throwing were constructed specifically to address a throw for ________ rather than ________.
distance; accuracy
ideas about the relationship between reflexes and later movement have changed ____________ over the past 50 years.
drastically
recent research has shown that infants with motor impairments are able to _____________.
drive robots
When do we use oppositional arm and leg movements?
during walking and running
The terms soft assembly, rate limiters, and controllers are related to which perspective of development?
dynamic systems
If a researcher says that walking emerges from the individual, her surroundings, and the goal she is trying to achieve, rather than is driven by a genetic prescription, the researcher would most likely agree with what theory?
dynamical systems
the terms soft assembly, rate limiters, and controllers are related to which perspective of development?
dynamics systems
which of the following are the two branches of the ecological perspective?
dynamics systems and perception-action
*Which researcher led the biomechanical descriptive period? Select one: a. G. Lawrence Rarick b. Karl Newell c. Arnold Gesell d. Anna Espenschade e. Ruth Glassow*
e
Which of the following is part of a four-part philosophy designed to enhance the enjoyment and benefits of children's participation in sport? Select one: a. Winning isn't everything, nor is it the only thing. b. Failure is not the same thing as losing. c. Success is not synonymous with winning. d. a and b e. a, b, and c
e
Overall growth, from conception through adulthood, is _____________ a result of the interaction of *genetic* and *extrinsic* factors.
e. ALWAYS
The ______________ system exerts its control over specific cellular functions through chemical substances called hormones.
endocrine
the ______________ system exerts its control over specific cellular functions through chemical substances called hormones.
endocrine
Maximal oxygen uptake is the best single measurement of _
endurance
which is required for infants to begin creeping or crawling to explore the environment?
enough strength to support and move oneself, coordination to uncouple the limbs, surface has several characteristics, including a continuous path to support the body
What type of constraint is a hot humid climate?
environmental
What type of constraint is an earthquake?
environmental
In what direction should force be applied?
equal and opposite force
Who tends to organize their knowledge in relation to the goal of a game?
experts
Who tends to preplan responses for specific situations?
experts
Environmental constraints (3 types)
external to the body -global: apply to everyone -physical (gravity, surfaces, weather) -sociocultural: not as easy to understand as physical (gender roles, cultural norms)
Task constraints
external to the body; related specifically to a task or skill -goal of task: move differently for different tasks -rules guiding task performance -equipment needed to perform task/skill
is (are) the leading cause of accidental death for people over 75 years old
falls
There is a rapid increase of _____ in the first 6 months after birth, and the highest peak weight velocity occurs in the first month
fat
there is a rapid increase of _____ in the first 6 months after birth, and the highest peak weight velocity occurs in the first month.
fat
Fat tissue increases rapidly during two periods: _________ and ________
first 6 months after birth; early adolescence
feet: early walking
flat, out-toed, wide apart
what are the components of the definition of motor development?
it is a continuous process, it is related to age, and it is sequential
Building Blocks
leading to complex motor skills
___________ occurs when a person propels himself on one foot and lands on the other foot.
leaping
which body segment(s) are most associated with the developmental sequence of running?
legs and arms
Describe the differential force production in galloping?
legs performing different tasks
Older adults are somewhat _______ accurate and ______ variable in their performance than younger performers, and the differences are greater when the moving object moves faster and when the older adults are sedentary rather than active.
less; more
older adults are somewhat _______ accurate and ______ variable in their performance than younger performers, and the differences are greater when the moving object moves faster and when the older adults are sedentary rather than active.
less; more
a constraint
limits or permits movement, discourages or encourages movement, and can be positive or negative
Which of the following is a potential cause for the loss of strength with aging
loss of motor neurons in the spinal cord c. general inactivity
What is involved in aging?
loss of neurons, dendrites, synapses, neurotransmitters, and myelin.
From an information processing perspective, individuals must _____________ to become proficient catchers.
make more precise calculations
from an information processing perspective, individuals must _____________ to become proficient catchers.
make more precise calculations
How is force related to momentum (motion) of an object?
mass * accelerations = mass x (velocity/time) = where, (mass x velocity)/ time = momentum/time
Physiological ________________ is a qualitative advance in biological makeup that often makes it difficult to tell the differences in individuals from observation alone
maturation
physiological ________________ is a qualitative advance in biological makeup that often makes it difficult to tell the differences in individuals from observation alone.
maturation
If a parent or teacher believes an infant cannot walk before the step reflex disappears, then she follows which theoretical viewpoint?
maturational
Which of the following is related to cardiovascular structure and function
maximum heart rate b. stroke volume c. blood pressure
Imbalances
may develop between nervous, endocrine, and immune systems
Asymmetric tonic neck reflex
may indicate cerebral palsy or other neurological problem
Insulin Deficiency
may result from type 1 diabetes
Moro Reflex
may signify a cerebral birth injury if lacking or asymmetrical
a key point of this chapter is that ____________ principles govern all of our movements.
mechanical
Proximodistal
midline to extemities
Sequential or Mixed-Longitudinal
mini-longitudinal (shorter time) studies with overlapping ages
Perceptual motor development
motor development was result of some external environmental input: perception of stimulus (sense of processing, organizing and integrating information)
Spontaneous Movement
movements not caused by known external stimuli - aka stereotypies
Crawling
moving on hands and abdomen
Creeping
moving on hands and knees
the ___________________ paradigm has been used to study the development of postural control and balance of infants.
moving-room
Which of the following aspect(s) of strength is (are) typically characterized by better maintenance with aging
muscles used in daily activities
What has been observed in some brain areas?
neurogenesis
Can all reflexes be extinguished at one time?
no
the purpose of ____________________ is to indicate where a person falls within a group of similar individuals matched on relevant factors, such as age, sex, and race.
norm-referenced scales
Physical growth and maturation are an example of which type of constraint of Newell's model? Select one: a. task b. functional c. environmental d. structural
pg-structural
An increase in weight is an example of
physical growth
Sequential
occur one after the other; series of changes
a longitudinal research study involves observing the same individual or group
on numerous occasions over a long period
Takeoff or landing in early jumping
one foot
in a maximal ballistic effort (such as kicking a ball as hard as possible), the movement involves multiple body parts that act in a sequence. This sequence is knows as
open kinetic chain
A characteristic of skilled locomotor movements is a familiar pattern known as ____________ arm and leg movement.
oppositional
which of the following are elements of the open kinetic chain?
optimal sequence and timing
Sequential
order of attainment is relatively consistent
a skilled two-handed catcher would be expected to demonstrate which component of the developmental sequence related to hand action?
palms adjusted
Which of the following leads to enjoyment of participation in early adolescence
perceptions of high ability b. low parental pressure c. greater coach satisfaction
an increase in weight is an example of what?
physical growth
Research participants are asked to throw darts to a target to measure accuracy. The participants throw from three distances: 5 feet, 10 feet, and 15 feet. The distance of the throw is an example of what kind of constraint?
task
What type of constraint is the size of the soccer ball?
task
a research study investigated the impact of start distance from a ball on kicking form and found that kicking patterns change as a function of distance. In this case, distance is an example of what type of constraint?
task
research participants are asked to throw darts to a target to measure accuracy. The participants throw from three distances: 5 feet, 10 feet, and 15 feet. The distance of the throw is an example of what kind of constraint?
task
which type of constraints are external to the body?
task and environmental
newton's second law
the acceleration of a person or object is proportional to the force applied to it and inversely proportional to its mass
the dynamic systems approach differs from the maturational perspective in which of the following ways?
the dynamic systems focuses on many systems that contribute to development, while the maturational perspective focuses on only one (role of the central nervous system); the dynamic systems allows for the study of development across the life span, while the maturational perspective does not.
newton's third law
the law of action-reaction states that for every force you exert on an object, the object exerts an equal force back on you in the opposite direction.
Motor Control
the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects of movement
motor control
the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects of movement
What happens to infants reflexes as they age?
they disappear
What are some examples of Ballistic Skills?
throwing, kicking, and striking
Which of the following factors determines how much catch-up growth takes place when a positive environment is restored after negative extrinsic factors have retarded growth?
timing of the negative influence IncorrectIncorrect b. duration of the negative influence c. severity of the negative influence
Insulin
transportation of glucose and amino acids through membranes
which type of training is associated with an earlier onset of walking for infants with Down syndrome?
treadmill
True or False: Is sex a biological constraint whereas gender is sociocultural constraint?
true
True or false: Paradox in developmental tells that all individuals are supposed to have similar developmental characteristics but there exist some individual differences.
true
Which of the following is (are) components of the developmental sequence of throwing?
trunk action b. humerus and forearm action
which of the following is (are) components of the developmental sequence of throwing?
trunk action, and humerus and forearm action
Describe coordination in sliding.
turning to one side
which type of muscle fiber is associated with performance of endurance activities?
type 1
Which type of muscle fiber is associated with performance of endurance activities?
type I
What is the coordination of galloping?
uncoupling legs
Motor Development depends on
underlying processes
