Outdoors

How much weight to carry

15-25% for multi-day trip, somewhat more if longer.

Average person's hiking speed

30 min/mile on flat terrain (1 hour = 2 miles). Add 1 hour for each 1000 feet of ascent. Plan at least 5 min rest for every hour hiking

Types of lightning strikes

Direct strike (usually high/sharp points) Side flashes -- bolt can arc up to 50 feet off the original strike Ground currents -- current spreads out from ground after strike following numerous paths of least resistance. Some pathways can include cracks crevices filled with water, wet rock, bodies of water, wet ropes, roots, cables. Sometimes easiest path is to jump across ionized air (spark gap) -- can be in caves or overhangs.

How to anchor tent or tarp sand or snow

In snow, can make a "dead man" -- tie to moderate sized tree branch, then bury the branch in the snow. Once snow sets will be very solid, may have to chip it out. In sand, need lots of surface area. Can also fill a stuff sack with bulky items, tie to guyline, and bury it.

Cotton

Stays wet and heavy!!!

True North vs Magnetic north

True north/mapnorth is the geographic north pole, where all longitude lines meet. True north is always directly at the top of the map, but it is not necessarily the same as magnetic north, where the compass points Magnetic north -- where the magnetized compass needle points -- parallel to the lines of magnetic force IN YOUR PARTICULAR LOCATION. Typically marked as MN on a topo map.

Food weight needed per day Fluids per day

2 lbs for three season backpacking 2.25 lbs for cold weather 2.5 or more for very strenuous exercise or very cold temperatures 2-3 quarts or liters (more like 1.8-2.8, but similar) for normal fall/spring 3-4 q/L for hot weather 4+ for winter (evaporation and respiration) Add 1 quart for altitude over 8000 ft.

Temperature loss per elevation

About 3.5 degree drop for each thousand feet

Calculating back bearing, and why to use?

Back bearings are used to retrace steps or check position while hiking a bearing. If you have a bearing that you want to walk, say 45 degrees, then you need to shoot a bearing directly opposite that (by adding 180 degrees if your initial bearing is under 180, or subtracting 180 if your initial bearing is above 180). Locate a landmark along that back bearing. Start hiking your actual bearing, then turn around after some time and shoot a bearing back to your landmark -- should still be the same bearing.

Bird clues about wildlife

Constantly calling blue jays or crows in an area are common sign of a predator such as a fox, hawk, or owl.

Thunderstorm -- sensation approaching. Specific place to watch for these

Darkening skies with sudden rush cool air (this is because rain creates downdrafts within the cloud that can lead in front of the storm). Watch out afternoon on mountains!

Direction with a watch or stick

Look at or imagine analog watch. Point hour hand for current time at sun. South is halfway between that hour hand and 12 PM. Compensate for daylight savings time. With stick -- put a stick in ground, point up. Mark tip of shadow. Wait 20-30 min. Mark tip again. Draw a line connecting the two points -- this line will always run east-west. Since the sun is always slight to the south in the norther hemisphere, you can figure out which is which.

How to measure distance on a map

Use a string along the intended route, mark the string, then pull it taut and measure it against the scale line in the legend

Telling time with sun, compass

With sun -- moves 15 degrees of arc per hour. Extend arm with palm facing you. Width of palm (pinky to pointer) is about 15 degrees. So number of hand widths from bottom of sun to ground. In the morning this tells you how many hours since the sun rose, in the evening it tells you how many hours until sunset. (Each finger about 15 min). If you know local sunset time you can figure out what time it is by subtracting. Compass -- orient compass north. Place thin stick upright in center of compass, mark the degree number where shadow from sun hits. Consider north to be 12:00 PM. Every 15 degrees off north is the equivalent of an hour. For example, if shadow is 330 degrees, 360-330 = 30 degrees or two hours: 12-2 = 10 AM. If it was at 30 degrees positive it would be 12 + 2 = 2 PM.

Clothing techniques -

You'll need most of your layers first thing in AM -- less activity, cooler weather. Ditto for end of day. Before you start the hike, take layers down until you are cool, not freezing. Remove wet clothing promptly. Make use of ventilation to help with heat control.

Sleeping pads -- type, thickness

either closed cell foam, or inflatable. Closed cell roll up tight, can be stiff in the cold. Can be used for other things like splints! Inflatable more comfy but risk of puncture, and can be slipper on a hill. 3/8 inch 3 season, at least 1/2 inch winter. Can save size/weight by having them not the full length of the bag.

Latitude and longitude

latitude runs east west, longitude north south. Equator is 0 degrees latitude, prime meridian is 0 degrees longitude (greenwich england). West of there is considered west longitude, go from 0 to 180 degrees. Both are measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc: 1 degree = 1/360 of a circle. 1 minute of arc = 1/60 of degree. 1 second of arc = 1/60 of a minute. So 7.5 minutes of arc (typical of topo map) shows an area of 1/8th of a degree. When we see lat/long positioning, lat will be written first: N 38(Degree sign)44'58" W 106 (degree sign) 14'31" -- this means 38 degrees 44 minutes and 58 seconds north latitude (above equator), 106 degrees, 14 minutes and 31 seconds west of the prime meridian

The essentials for any outdoor trip

Map Compass Extra Food Extra clothing (polypropylene, fleece or other insulating) Water bottle (at least 1-2 quarts) Flashlight/headlamp with extra batteries Rain gear Pocketknife Matches/lighter (at least two ways to light) Candle or firestarter First aid kit Sunglasses/sunscreen/bug spray Also recommended: watch, water purification system, foam or sleeping pad for ground insulation, space blanket/tarp/tube tent for shelter with cord to set up

Chlorine - how bleach can be used

Should contain ONLY bleach (sodium hypochlorite) and no additives or perfumes. If 4-6% solution, add 2 drops per q/l if clear, 4 if cloudy. Mix, wait 30 min. Water should have slight chlorine odor. If not, repeat, wait 15 min. Water should be 68F or higher. For other chlorine methods follow instructions

Risk assessment and safety management system - hazard types

Three types of hazards: Environmental (rocky trails, lightning, animals, overexposure to heat/cold, dirty water, storms, ledges, etc) Equipment (improper clothes, faulty or missing equip) Human (physical condition, medical hx, anxiety, limited skills, lack of awareness, poor leadership)

Map legend

should contain map name year original and revisions general location in state adjacent quadrangle maps map scale/distance scale contour interval magnetic declinaton lat/longitude UTM coordinates

Biologically contaminated vs toxic water - boiling - chemical purification options, general method

- biologically contaminated = has viruses, bacteria, or other microorganisms. Toxic = dissolved chemicals. Boiling/filtering/treating/solar stills will not help toxic water - boiling - Wilderness med society -- water over 185 kills pathogens within a few minutes, so 212 is fine -- bring to boil covered for 1 minute is more than enough. - iodine or chlorine. Not all are effective against all microorganisms -- cryptosporidium in particular. Iodine does not touch these, only some chlorine does (not all) but iodine better at giardiasis often. Method: If cloudy or has large particles, strain first. add chemical swish around, make sure you get some on threads of bottle. Let sit at least 30 mins (or 30 min after tablet has dissolved). Less effective at low temp -- best to try to warm water to 60F before treating. If you can't, double treatment time.

Triangulating position

1. Orient the map with your compass 2. Look around you and try to identify two prominent landmarks (mountains, bridges, end of a lake, etc) preferable as close to 90 degrees apart as possible 3. Find them on the map 4. Take bearing between you and the first landmark. Place compass on map so that one corner of the base plate rests on the landmark. 5. Keeping corner on landmark, turn the ENTIRE compass (not just housing) until orienting arrow and compass needle points to north on the map 6. Draw a line on map along edge of base plate from the landmark 7. Repeat for other landmark -- where the lines cross is approximate location. You can do this with more landmarks to increase accuracy. If you happen to be located at location of prominent feature (like a stream or road), you only need to see where your first bearing line intersects with the stream or the road to know where you are.

Backpacks - types, volume, packing

70% of weight on hips. External frame vs internal frame. External carries lots of weight but can be top heavy. Internal often have bivy extension at top of bag for more space. Most bags start at 49 L, go up 120+ (internal) Usually you need 50+ liter space for few days trip, 75+ for week, 90+ for longer. Make sure hip strap is near navel, snug before shoulder straps, sternum strap. For external frame shoulder straps should be even with shoulder. Internal -- frame structure should stop 3 inches above shoulders. Loading -- normally weight should be highish and close to body (heaviest between shoulder blades -- things like food, stove, fuel) but worse terrain should carry heavy things lower towards middle of back. Load bulky, light gear low in the pack. General rule is 50% of weight in upper 1/3 pack. Fuel bottles should be below food. Place items you'll need often on top. If external, can lash things like sleeping bag or tarp to top or botton. Stuff clothes or use stuff sacks rather than folding.

What is a bearing

A bearing is a horizontal angle (Clockwise) from north (either true/map north OR magnetic north) to some point in the real world or on a map. If working from a map, this is called a map bearing, and the angle you are measuring is the clockwise angle from true north on the map to another point on the map. IF you are taking a bearing from a real point on the landscape with a compass, then you are measuring clockwise angle from magnetic north to the landscape point. This is a magnetic bearing.

What to do... - If approached by a bear - If charged by a bear - If attacked by a bear

Approach -- need to convince bear you are not a threat: calm, slow movements, backing away (but stop if this seems to agitate the bear). Speak in quiet monotone voice. Do NOT make eye contact or run away If charged -- try to stand ground, this is usually a bluff. If you have bear spray, use it when bear is 10-15 feet away If attacked -- keep pack on, lie on stomach, hands clasped together over back of head, try to remain silent and motionless even if bear swats or bites you. If bear continues to attack despite being motionless, you will have to fight back. If swatted, roll with the swat back onto stomach. Keep silent and motionless for at least 30 minutes after the attack

Clothing layers 1

Base/wicking -- should keep skin dry by moving perspiration to the outside of the fabric. Should dry quickly. In winter these should be close fitting, in summer, loose. Examples include dual hydrophobic (inside layer)/hydrophilic (outside) fabrics like Dryline, Microchannel fibers like Polartec PowerDry Vapor barrier -- used in rare circumstances on top of base layer - needs to be waterproof. Keeps water vapor near skin to reduce sweating. Not all people tolerate. Feet lose heat easily -- plastic bag over socks is an example. Insulating layers - create dead air space. First layer often polypropylene. Should have some wicking. Ideally allows "opening" and "closing" for ventilation. Second and third layers can be fleece (synthetic wool -- good insulation but non wind proof), wool (Warm, wind resistant but heavy and slow to dry), down (Very warm and light but ruined if wet -- for example, down sleeping bag often needs inside vapor barrier, outside waterproof breathable bivy sack), or synthetic fibers (Polarguard, Thinsulate).

UTM (universal transverse mercator) system 1

Based on metric system, uses meters as unit of distance. World is divided into 60 zones that run north-south, each covering strip 6 degrees wide in longitude at the widest part (the equator). Numbered starting at the international date line (pacific ocean) -- Zone 1 from 180 to 174 west longitude. North America is covered by Zones 7 (west coast) through 22 (eastern canada). Zones are oblong, widest in the middle, covering both north and south hemispheres. Divided into horizontal bands each covering 8 degrees of latitude. C-M letters are south of the equator, N-X north of the equator

Scenario 2: you're at a campsite, want to go to a summit that you see (taking a bearing from the land, waling a bearing, walking a line of sight bearing)

Bearing from land: Point the direction of travel arrow of compass towards desired destination. Rotate compass housing until the north orienting arrow of housing lines up with magnetic needle (red in the shed). Read bearing in degrees from the degree dial at the index line ("read bearing here"). Walking: After taking the bearing, hold the compass level in front of you at navel. Direction of arrow should point forward. Rotate body until magnetic needle is red in the shed. Direction of travel arrow now points to destination. Keep the needle boxed and walk! Line of sight: if you can't see final destination, walk to a visible landmark somewhere along the desired bearing. Then take another bearing to next visible landmark, walk to that.

contour lines

Brown lines represent 3-d terrain. Steep slopes -- contours closely spaced Gentle slopes -- widely spaced valleys -- contours form V shape pointing up the hill (the V shape indicates drainage path that could be a stream or river) Ridges -- contours form V shape pointing down hill Summits -- contours form circles Depression -- contours are circular with lines radiating to the center.

Cold fronts

Cold air mass pushing under a warmer one. Smaller and move much faster than warm fronts. Steep leading edge pushes air upwards at front. Begins usually with high cumulus clouds, lowers to form stratocumulus or cumulonimbus clouds at leading edge called the squall line. After the cold front you typically get clear, drier, cooler air.

Types of heat loss and general prevention of each

Conductive -- loss of heat from touching a cooler surface. Happens 25x faster when wet. Prevented by thick insulation Convective -- loss of heat to air around body, which then dissipates. Wind makes this happen much faster. Prevented by windproof garments Radiant -- radiation of infrared radiation. Prevented by thick layers of insulation or reflective material Evaporative -- water on skin evaporates and draws heat away. Prevented by fabrics that move water away from the skin, or vapor barriers

Map basics -- scale, color/symbols

Consider both topographic maps (USGS) for geographic features, and local trail maps for more up to date info on campsites, etc. Scale - 1:xyz -- for instance 1:24,000 means that each unit on the map (inches, cm, whatever) equals 24,000 real life ones. Usually the second number is actually converted to be more useful, so we end up with inches or cm to miles or km. Large scale maps cover a SMALLER area (e.g. the 1:24,000 above). Small scale maps (like 1:250,000) show only larger things like cities. USGS are usually 1:24,000, AKA 7 1/2 minute maps -- shows roughly 7.5 minutes of latitude and longitude (about 6.5 x 8.5 miles). Colors/symbols: black = man made features like roads, buildings. Blue = water, lakes, rivers etc. Brown = contour lines. Green = areas with substantial vegetation. Purple = features new since original survey based on aerial photos. Red= major highways, boundaries of public land. White = areas with little vegetation, but white with blue lines = snowfields and glaciers. Symbols can be found at erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/symbols

Hanging methods for bears

Counterbalance -- separate food items into two equal weight bags. Throw rope over branch (at least15 ft high, 10 ft from tree, 4 inches in diameter at tree). Attach one end of rope to one bag. Raise the bag as high as you can up to the branch. Attach the other bag as high up on the rope as you can. Curl excess rope into a loop for retrieval. Push the second bag up to the level of the other bag with a long stick. Hook and pull to reverse Can also use a pulley system for heavy loads -- find a tree with same branch specifics as the first one. Toss a rope over the branch, pull it 2/3rd over. Take the shorter side (end A) and tie to tree trunk or another nearby trunk. Make a trucker's hitch on End B 6 ft from ground, clip carabiner 1 into bight. Tie a separate strong rope around top of food bag to clip carabiner 2 into. Feed running end of End B rope through carabiner 2 and then back through carabiner 1. Attach bag to carabiner 2, pull on free end B to haul the bag as high as possible. Tie off end B. To retrieve, untie End b and lower to the ground.

River crossing specific dangers, red flags, choosing site to cross

Dangers: the obvious answers: drowing or hypothermia. Specifically, though, watch for foot entrapment, strainers, undercut banks, chutes. Red flags - in flood (muddy brown), can't determine depth, over knee height and fast moving (if a stick moves faster down stream than you can walk, it's fast), floating bouldersfloating logs/obstructions, other hazards (strainer, waterfall, etc). Choose a shallow stretch, free from obstructions, with gradual banks. Should not have any obstacles immediately after. Avoid bends (water usually deep and faster on the outside of the bend, often have strainers, difficult to climb out of)

Calculating miles per hour

Divide number of miles to be hiked/2. Calculate total feet of ascent, divide by 1000, and multiply that by 1 hour. For example: 8 miles with 2000 total vertical feet ascent = (8/2) + (2000/1000 x 1 hr) = 4+2 = 6 hours, plus 30 min rest.

Tarp setup

Don't face opening to prevailing wind To set up A-frame with tree method: Start with bowline around one tree -- height should be so that tarp bottom edges are a few inches above your ground sheet for ventilation, OR can tuck under the ground sheet for better weather protection but less venting (if wet). Then attach rope via tautline or trucker hitch (tautline may be easier). Place tarp over line, stake out corners at 45 degree angles (either with stakes or by tying guylines to rocks or other trees). Guys have to be strong! If no guy lines, can tuck edges of tarp under ground sheet and weigh it down with rocks. Tie bandana on line outside tarp to direct water to ground. Can use rain ponchos for doors. Can make your own grommets by putting small stone on inside of the tarp, tying cord to it, then staking other end of cord.

Iodine -- when not to use, general procedure

Don't use if allergies, pregnant women, on lithium, women over fifty. Keep in dark bottle. Best if used on water over 60 or even 68F. Most basic is 2% tincture of iodine, 5 drops per q/l if clear, 10 if cloudy. 30 min at 68F. Follow instructions for other products. Can use some vitamin C (50 mg) dissolved afterwards to fix taste, or add a pinch of salt.

UTM 2 - Eastings, Northings, and putting it together

Eastings-- within each zone, the larger the easting number, the further north (different from longitude in the US, which gets smaller as it goes east). We set a centerline for each zone called central meridian, assigned a value of 500,000 meters east. If we're east of this the numbers are higher -- 523,000 is 23000 meters east of the center line. Northings -- within each zone we set the equator to 0 in northern hemisphere. Example: 13 S 0392028E 4289705N -- (read this in ZEN order -- zone, eastings, northings) -- so zone 13 S (north america, somewhere north of equator we know right away), 392,028 easting value means 107,972 meters WEST of the central meridian of the zone, 4,289,705 meters north of the equator

Protection from lightning strikes

Get off summits, ridges, pinnacles or whatever place is the highest around. Don't get TOO far away where you becomes the new tallest object though. stay away from taller trees if in the middle of an open field, try to get to a low lying area and assume lightning position Get out of the water Stay out of gullies or ditches that have water Find a position partway down a slope, ideally on dry or well-drained ground Avoid caves and overhangs unless they are CLEARLY dry and spacious. They are often part of a system of cracks/fissures which are good conduits for current. Stay out unless dry and at least 20 ft of headroom, 4 ft of space on each side

Getting water in cold weather

Getting -- if lakes/streams not frozen this is easy! If they are...do not eat snow -- takes too many calories, causes hypothermia. Plus 10q snow = 1 q h20. If collecting water, DONT FALL IN OR GET GLOVES WET -- consider tying string to water bottle. You can melt snow, start with some slush and add. You don't need to purify clean snow. Can also collect solar water collector -- dig pit 2 ft across, 1 ft deep in sunny spot. Spread dark plastic trashbag across depression to make a shallow bowl. Put clean snow all around the raised margin of the pit. IT will melt and collect on top of trash bag.

Navigation scenario 1: Fog -- you wake up in total fog. You know where you are on the map

Goal: take a bearing on the map from your known location back to civilization, then follow that bearing out. Procedure if map not oriented: Lay the edge of compass base plate on map, making a line from your starting to ending desired position. Since base plate is parallel to direction of travel, you can use this to set direction. Next rotate compass housing (KEEPING BASE PLATE STEADY) until orienting lines are pointing to TRUE/MAP NORTH. Ignore compass needle. Read the bearing from the degree dial ("read bearing here"). Now correct for declination. In the eastern US, going from MAP TO magnetic bearing, we have to ADD declination Other option is orient map first -- see above. Then place compass base plate on map between start and end points, hold steady, rotate housing until ORIENTING ARROW ALIGNS WITH MAGNETIC NEEDLE (red in the shed). Read bearing at degree dial at index line. This should be different than the above bearing (until you correct the above bearing for declination)

Cloud types

High clouds -- cirrus (Cirro = high). Cirrus are thin, wispy, cirrocumulus are layers of small globular clouds, cirrostratus are thin sheets, look like veils, give halos around sun/moon Middle clouds -- "alto". Altostratus are denser veils or sheets of gray, sun/moon look like through frosted glass. Altocumulus are layers of puffy white clouds Low clouds -- stratus: low, uniform sheet, like fog above ground. Nimbostratus = dark gray rain cloud cumulus -- puffy, changes shape. Stratocumulus are spread out layers of these down low. Cumulonimbus are thunderheads

REview -- when do you not need to correct for declination?

IF you orient the map to magnetic north each time you take a bearing (or if you have adjusted your compass for local declination, as some compasses allow you to do with an outer degree ring that can be unlocked. You would adjust the orienting arrow so that it pointed to magnetic north).

Manuevering around obstacles

If obstacle cannot be traversed, typically you will hike a rectangle pattern around it: Take your original bearing (in this example, pretend 315 degrees), add 90 degrees and turn to the right (here this is 45 degrees). Maintain a pace count of track distance. After passing length of obstacle, subtract 90 to get back on original bearing. Once past the width of the obstacle, subtract 90 again (225), walk the same pace count back to the left as you did to the right, then add 90 back again (to the original 315) to get back on the same bearing in the same spot, around the obstacle.

General crossing tips

Keep boots on to protect feet, although can take off socks. Keep pack on but undo straps in case you need to jettison Moe one foot at a time, feel bottom before committing weight, don't cross feet, use hiking pole as "3rd leg" Face upstream if crossing solo If foot starts to get caught, fall into water to avoid entrapment --pulling up may set the entrapment If you are swept away, jettison pack, put feet up as shock absorbers, float on back, swim to shore -- avoid obstacles! Boulders are slippery, don't walk on them! Avoid baggy pants if you have foam sleeping pad, tie on top of pack, so buoyancy does not lift your feet off Have someone downstream in a rescue position

Barometric pressure -- high and low pressure Some natural signs of low or falling pressure

Low pressure tends to coincide with bad or wet weather, high pressure usually means clear dry air Birds not flying/flying lower -- low pressure = less dense air, harder to fly Smells are more distinct (when ditch and pond offend the nose, look for rain and storm blows) Smoke tends to curl downwards and linger rather than dissipate

Sleeping bags - selecting temp rating, types of bags, sleeping bag care, sleeping bag extras

Lowest normal temp for trip location/season - 10 or 15 degrees. Types: mummy bag -- form fitting, warm, weigh less than rectangular bag because less filling, tapered semi-rectangular -- tapers slightly to feet. Not as warm as mummy bag but weighs less than rectangular Rectangular -- roomiest and heaviest Care -- stuff, don't roll! Keep in larger laundry bag when not using. Extras -- liner can be used as cover for sleeping on bag, or inside bag can add 10 degrees to rating Vapor barrier -- adds about 10 degrees, but keeps things moist, so wear polypropylene or hydrophobic material Bivy sack -- waterproof outer shell, adds 10 OVerbag -- cut to fit over another bag, can sometimes be used alone as a summer bag, or adds 15-20 to normal bag

Bear precautions

Make noise in bear country so as not to startle the bears Keep food stored away (info on upcoming cards), utensils clean, packed, garbage clean/hung Cooking area downwind of of sleeping area Get away if you see a cub by itself or traveling with its mother If bear enters campsite, sometimes it can be deterred by banging pots or making noise, or by grouping all people together (bad eyesight, can confuse it). If measures fail, move well away

Mountain and coastal winds

Mountains-- Valley breezes occur during the day. Mountains act like a heat sink and absorb solar energy during the day, so mountain heat up more quickly than vally. Air above mountains heats and rises, replaced by cooler air from the valley Mountain breezes occur at night. Mountains act like fins of a radiator, giving off heat as the sun goes down, so they cool faster than the valley. This air replaces the air over the value which is warmer Coastal Sea breeze -- during day, land warms faster, air over land heats up, rises, cooler moist air from sea comes into shore. Land breeze -- at night land loses heat faster than sea, sea air heats and rises, air from shore flows out to replace

Snow ice basics

North facing slopes stay harder long, keep now later in season. Consider climbing early in the day before snow has softened -- less change of pits, icefall Stay off slopes from 30-45 degrees when avalanche danger is high On steep slopes might not be able to walk flat footed -- can do kick steps -- pull foot back, kick in to make a little step. Going down can use plunge steps -- extended but not locked leg, drive heel down into soft snow.

How to orient the map

Place compass on the map so side of baseplate is parallel to edge of map, with direction of travel arrows pointing towards top of map. Holding map and compass together, still parallel, rotate both until north end of magnetic need points to N on compass housing (boxing the needle/red in the shed). The map is now oriented with respect to magnetic north. Any bearings you take from map can immediately be applied to the field and vice versa.

Rough navigation from stars/moon

Polaris is always due north -- the two stars that shape the outer lip of the big dipper (Merak, Dubhe) point to Polaris (5 x the distance from merak to dubhe), which is the end star of the handle of the little dipper For south, find orion -- three stars across his belt which make straight diagonal line upwards (Alnitak, alnilam, Mintaka). Look down from the middle star for a group of three vertical stars (actually one of these is the nebula). This group (orion's sword) points south IF moon is in crescent and high in the sky, connect the "points" of the crescent and see where that line hits the horizon -- that's roughly south. Moon and stars generally rise in the east and set in the west, except polaris Venus can be seen in the west three hours after sunset for most of the year You can also put two stakes in the ground, line up tops with any bright star. Wait a few hours. If the star has moved down, its in the west (we're turning away from it to the east). If it moved up, its east. If it moved right, you're looking south. If it moved left, you're looking north Latitude -- find north star. Stack your fists up from horizon to the star. Each fist represents 10 degrees of latitude roughly.

Some weather sayings that can be helpful

Red sky at morning, sailors take warning, red sky at night, sailors delight (Redness in the sky -- not clouds-- is caused by light reflecting off moisture in the air) so in the morning this means there is moisture in the air to the west, probably heading our way. Rainbow in morning is a warning, at night, a delight (same principle as above) When leaves show their underside, be sure that rain betide (damp air softens leaf stalks and bends them as storm approaches, especially maples or aspen) Rain before wind, topsail halyards you must mind. Wind before rain, soon will make sail again (rain ahead of strengthening wind suggests gale approaching. Wind before rain tends to die out when rain arrives) No dew at night, rain by morning. No dew at morning, rain by the next day (dew is a sign of a fair tomorrow).

Rope crossing technique No rope crossing techniques

Rope -- secure one end of rope 5 feet above river in good crossing location. Have strongest member cross with free end (not wearing pack), keep end out of water. Once across, anchor to rock or tree 5 ft above river. Group stands on down stream side of rope, facing upstream, cross while holding. Last person (also strong) unties roar and carries it across. No rope -- line astearn method for three or more -- line facing upstream. First person has hiking stick for balance. Hold waist of person in front of you . Typically upstream person moves first, then next person, then next, but if water is very fast move simultaneously. Can also do the line abreast method -- form a line facing the opposite shore side to side. Grab handful of clothing at the person next to you's waist on each side, walk across together. Paired crossing -- two people -- face each other, link arms. Heavier person downstream facing upstream. Lighter person upstream facing downstream.

Clothing layers 2, revitalizing rain gear

Shell layers -- outer jacket/pants that should protect from wind and elements. If waterproof, needs to be breathable as well or will get tremendous moisture buildup -look for front or armpit zips. Wind shells typically nylon (not waterproof). Soft shells are a step up -- wind resistant and water resistant (not perfect with either though), hard shells which are both water and wind proof (like coated nylon) but breathability is an issue. GoreTex or Ultrex have tiny pores that let sweat vapor through but not rain. Very expensive though. Hard shells need seam sealing (glue, heat, seam tape). Rain gear usually needs to be washed with non detergent soap, lightly ironed on medium, and sometimes treated with waterproofing refresher like NikWax

Storm distance and 30/30 rule. How far away can thunder be heard

Sound travels 1/5 mile per second, so count number of seconds between flash and bang and divide by 5 to get miles. If thunder is within 30 seconds (6 miles) -- you are in danger zone, and need to start taking shelter. So recommendation is take immediate precautions when thunder is heard within 30 seconds of lightning flash, and wait for 30 minutes after last thunder to resume activity. Thunder can be heard about 15 miles max.

Hiking on rocky slopes, scree slopes

Spread group out to watch for falling rocks (yell rock if falling, turn face downhill if you hear this), vary your stride (we tend to probe with one foot, put all weight on other can lead to overuse injuries). Keep feet as flat as you can with weight over them. Scree -- gravel and small rock slopes -- consider going up diagonally. Going down try to use plunge step but don't lock knee

SEvere lightning storm actions

Spread the group out but stay within visual range. AT least 20 ft Lightning position -- follow the 30/30 rule. Crouched position with feet close together, butt off the ground. Hands on knees. Don't lie down or put hands on ground. IF possible, crouch on dry, insulting material like foam pad or pack. Try to set metal objects like ice axes, metal pack frames away from your body to create a more attractive path PAST you rather than THROUGH you.

Socks

Start with lightweight synthetic sock liner to wick moisture. Next, medium or heavy wool, wool/nylon, or synthetic. NO COTTON SOCKS. Bring enough socks so you always have one wearing, one drying, one dry (three each). Smooth all socks of wrinkles before putting on (blisters)

SToring and purifying in cold weather

Store- wide mouth bottle so doesn't freeze. Carry close to body or use insulated holder. Keep in sleeping bag. Keep lid tightly closed in case threads freeze a little. Can fill a pot, put a lid on it, then bury it under a foot of snow -- good insulator. Boiling works for purification. Filtration works but may freeze or crack the filter, use with caution. Chemical treatments need you to warm the water first.

Declination

The difference in angle between true north and magnetic north. In north america, east of the Mississippi river, magnetic north is west of true north. This means we have "west declination". In MA this is about 15 degrees west (magnetic north is about 15 degrees west of true north). In the western US, the opposite is true -- magnetic north is EAST of true north/map north). Declination CHANGES over time -- about a degree every 5 years, so updated maps are crucial!

What is warmth to weight ratio

The ideal fabric to stay warm creates lots of dead air space (to heat) but doesn't weigh too much, since dead air typically depends on the thickness of the fabric. Down is a great example.

Warning signs of lightning

Thunder even without visible lightning Sudden cloudburst of large raindrops or hail Fast cold front -- rapid change in wind direction with blast of cold air Signs of highly charged air = SERIOUS lightning potential: hair standing on end/crackling, crackling or buzzing noises in the ari, small sparks around metal objects, bluish glow around objects (St. Elmo's fire)

Map bearings vs magnetic bearings -- accounting for declination

To compensate for declination, you want the map and magnetic bearing to be equivalent. Three possible cases of how this happens 1. You are on the agonic line with 0 degrees dec, congrats! 2. You orient your map with your compass before you take a bearing, because then you have made the two norths equivalent. 3. If you don't do this, then you need to make a correction by adding or subtracting declination from map to compass or compass to map: For West declination (eastern US), magnetic north is less than true north, map bearing is less than magnetic bearing. Map to magnetic: if you take a bearing between two points on the map with respect to map north, then you need to ADD declination to create the proper magnetic bearing. If using compass to take a bearing from current position to point on landscape ,then you need to subtract the declination from compass bearing to get map bearing.

Bearproofing camp

Try to have sleeping area upwind of kitchen and food areas, all three at least 300 ft apart. Hang all food, pots, pans, cups, bowls, utensils, garbage, and TOOTHPASTE. Be sure camp is clear of food scraps. Food and garbage should be in duffel bags, stuff sacks, or other plastic bags at least 16 ft off the ground, and 8 ft from tree trunk. If using stuff sack, don't hang directly from drawstring (will rip). Use a rope and carabiner around the neck of the bag

Filtration sizes and designations Common filter practices Types of fliters

Water "filter" -- typically removes down to the 1 micron range, so can get protozoa (giardiasis, crypto) "microfilter" - down to .2 microns, gets many bacteria (v.cholera, e.coli, salmonella) water purifier -- .004 microns, can filter viruses as well. Filter cleanest water possible to preserve filter -- strain first, or let it stand for particles to separate first. Treat intake hose as contaminated. When changing filter, wash hands and dispose safely Types -- membrane -- thin sheets with precise pores Depth filters -- carbon or ceramic Can combine filters (to get out things like crypto) and then chemical (to get other bacteria/other items without having to let it sit for hours to get crypto).

Warm fronts

When warm air mass rides up over cooler air. Usually very large and slow moving. First see high wispy cirrus clouds, lowering over 1-2 days into stratus or further into nimbostratus clouds. Can see this developing at night as well -- cirrus clouds causing halo around the moon or twinkling starts. Precipitation can last for days because of how slow they move.