Patho Exam 2 Ch 12, 13
Cancers of blood-forming cells are called
leukemias
Cancers of lymphatic tissue are called
lymphomas
Stomach cancer
Chronic H. pylori-associated inflammation causes stomach cancer.
Cervical cancer
HPV
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines grade 1 (overweight) as a BMI of:
25 to 29.9 A BMI of 25 to 29.9 kg/m2 is considered a grade 1 (overweight) classification. A BMI of 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m2 is considered normal range, whereas 30 to 39.9 kg/m2 is a grade 2 (severe overweight) classification, and a BMI higher than 40 kg/m2 is considered grade 3 (morbidly overweight)
The survival rate for stage IV Hodgkin disease can be as high as:
70% Survival rates for Hodgkin disease is 99% for stage I and 70% for stage IV.
Nutritional counseling regarding cancer stem cell repopulation must stress the importance of including sufficient quantities of what in a daily diet? (Select all that apply.) a.Vitamin A b.Vitamin D c.Protein d.Vitamin C e.Water
A, B Cancer stem cells use several developmental mechanisms for the self-renewal, and these mechanisms appear to be fundamental to the initiation and recurrence of tumors. Adequate consumption of specific food compounds, including vitamin A and D, genistein, green tea epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), sulforaphane, theanine, curcumin, and choline may suppress cancer stem renewal. No current research supports such a connection with the other options.
Research data support the relationship between the exposure of ultraviolet light (UVL) and the development of: (Select all that apply.) a.Basal cell carcinoma b.Squamous cell carcinoma c.Hodgkin lymphoma d.Non-Hodgkin lymphoma e.Soft-tissue sarcoma
A, B Exposure to UVL can cause basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. No current research supports a causative relationship between the remaining options and UVL exposure
Normally, which cells are considered immortal (never die)? (Select all that apply.) a.Germ b.Stem c.Blood d.Epithelial e.Muscle
A, B Usually, germ cells (those that generate sperm and eggs) and stem cells are the only cells in the body that are immortal. Other cells in the body are not immortal and can divide only a limited number of times
Which environmental factors have been shown to have greatest significant effect on the frequency of genetic mutations in humans? (Select all that apply.) a.Tobacco use b.Radiation exposure c.Obesity d.Severe allergies e.Stressful occupation
A, B, C The number of environmental factors can alter the frequency and consequences of genetic mutations. The most significant factors include smoking, radiation, obesity, and a few oncogenic viruses. Allergies and stress have not been strongly linked as risk factors for genetic mutations.
The significant risk factors associated with the development of basal cell carcinoma include: (Select all that apply.) a.Light-colored hair b.Pale eyes c.Fair skin d.Freckles e.History of acne
A, B, C, D Risk factors associated with a high risk of melanoma include light-colored hair, eyes, and skin; an inability to tan; and a tendency to freckle, sunburn, and develop nevi. No current research supports acne as a risk factor.
Which individual is at risk for developing lung and respiratory tract cancers because of exposure to known cancer-inducing environmental factors? (Select all that apply.) a.A patient whose partner smokes 1 1/2 packs of cigarettes a day b.A 10-year employee of an asbestos fiber manufacturer c.A farmer whose equipment is primarily driven by diesel engines d.An older adult with a family history of lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) e.A 10-year delivery employee for a paper manufacturing company
A, B, C, E Numerous environmental factors can cause inflammation and include, for example, inhaling tobacco smoke, asbestos fibers, or fine particles in the air from diesel engine exhaust and industrial sources. Sulfur dioxide is produced by power plants burning oil and coal, copper smelting, and paper mills. These sources are major factors in lung and other respiratory tract cancers. A family history is not considered a risk factor since these cancers are generally affected by environmental rather than genetic factors.
What cellular characteristics are affected by anaplasia? (Select all that apply.) a.Size b.Ability to differentiate c.Life expectancy d.Tissue structure e.Shape
A, B, D, E Anaplasia is defined as the loss of cellular differentiation, irregularities of the size and shape of the nucleus, and loss of normal tissue structure. Life expectancy is not generally included in this term.
When considering topics for a series of community discussions related to cancer prevention strategies, the nurse will include: (Select all that apply.) a.Healthy eating b.Tobacco avoidance c.Importance of early diagnosis d.Impact of obesity on one's health e.Age-appropriate exercise routines
A, B, D, E Eliminating smoking, decreasing obesity, participating in appropriate exercises, eliminating infections, and avoiding an unhealthy diet are all essential for preventing cancer. Screening is not a prevention strategy.
Which statements concerning aging and the occurrence of cancer are true? (Select all that apply.) a.Decline in immunologic functions b.Predisposition to nutritional inadequacies c.Unwillingness to access health care services d.Reluctance to engage in cancer screenings e.Effects of immobility on the immune system
A, B, E Many common malignancies occur mostly in older age as a result of immunologic functions declining with age. Older persons are predisposed to nutritional inadequacies, and malnutrition impairs immunocompetence. Far-advanced cancer often results in immobility and general debility that worsens with age. No research supports a correlation between aging and a reluctance to seek health care, in general, or cancer screenings, in particular.
lcohol consumption has been proven to be a consistent risk factor in the development of which major cancer? (Select all that apply.) a.Colorectal b.Kidney c.Breast d.Esophageal e.Pancreatic
A, C, D Research supports a consistent link between alcohol consumption and an increased risk for breast, colorectal, and esophageal cancers; no such data have yet been determined for the remaining options
Which primary prevention strategy has a substantial likelihood of reducing the risk of developing cancer? (Select all that apply.) a.Offering free smoking cessation classes to college students b.Establishing a support group for patients receiving chemotherapy c.Providing a breast cancer screening at a senior center twice a year d.Supplying low sugar, low-fat snacks at an after-school tutoring program e.Funding a support service that offers transportation to cancer treatment centers
A, C, D C????? Targeted interventions can substantially reduce the incidences of cancers worldwide and should include primary prevention strategies to decrease or eliminate certain lifestyle factors including tobacco avoidance and the cessation of smoking, a reduction in obesity and alcohol consumption, an increase in physical activity, and the implementation of vaccination programs for liver and cervical cancer, as well as effective early detection programs for colorectal, breast, and cervical cancer. Support groups and transportation to cancer centers are secondary strategies.
Tobacco smoking is associated with which cancers? (Select all that apply) a.Lung b.Skin c.Bladder d.Kidney e.Pancreas
A, C, D, E Besides lung cancer, tobacco increases the risk for cancers of the mouth, lips, nasal cavity and sinuses, larynx, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, kidney, bladder, uterus, cervix, colon and rectum, ovary, and acute leukemia. No current research links tobacco smoking to skin cancer
What are the most common causes of nosocomial infections among patients with cancer? (Select all that apply.) a.Indwelling medical devices b.Suppressed immune system c.Visitor-introduced microorganisms d.Poor appetite e.Inadequate wound care
A, C, E Hospital-acquired (nosocomial) infections increase because of indwelling medical devices, inadequate wound care, and the introduction of microorganisms from visitors and other individuals. A suppressed immune system and a poor appetite are possible causes of infections but they are not nosocomial in nature
Which substance has been shown to increase the risk of cancer when used in combination with tobacco smoking?
Alcohol Alcohol interacts with smoke, increasing the risk of malignant tumors, possibly by acting as a solvent for the carcinogenic chemicals in smoke products. No current research supports the remaining options as having an increased effect on the incidence of cancer when used in combination with tobacco smoking.
The ras gene converts from a proto-oncogene to an oncogene by:
Altering one or more nucleotide base pairs A point mutation is the alteration of one or a few nucleotide base pairs. This type of mutation can have profound effects on the activity of proteins. A point mutation in the ras gene converts it from a regulated proto-oncogene to an unregulated oncogene, an accelerator of cellular proliferation.
Which statement supports the hypothesis that intestinal polyps are benign neoplasms and the first stage in the development of colon cancer?
An accumulation of mutations in specific genes is required for the development of cancer. Multiple genetic mutations are required for the evolution of full-blown cancer.
Which term is used to describe a muscle cell showing a reduced ability to form new muscle while appearing highly disorganized?
Anaplasia anaplasia is defined as the loss of cellular differentiation, irregularities of the size and shape of the nucleus, and the loss of normal tissue structure. In clinical specimens, anaplasia is recognized by a loss of organization and a significant increase in nuclear size with evidence of ongoing proliferation.
Is the process of cancer cell growth
Angiogenesis is the process of growth and proliferation of cancer cells.
By what process do cancer cells multiply in the absence of external growth signals?
Autocrine stimulation Cancer cells must have mutations that enable them to proliferate in the absence of external growth signals. To achieve this, some cancers acquire the ability to secrete growth factors that stimulate their own growth, a process known as autocrine stimulation.
What is the most common route for distant metastasis? (Select all that apply.) a.Seeding b.Blood c.Lymphatic vessels d.Invasion e.Proliferation
B, C To transition from local to distant metastasis, the cancer cells must also be able to invade local blood and lymphatic vessels. The remaining options are not directly related to distant metastasis.
Which personal lifestyle choices will likely have a positive impact on reducing an individual's risk for developing cancer? (Select all that apply.) a.Avoiding crowds b.Wearing a hat while golfing c.Eating a strict vegetarian diet d.Having regular health screenings e.Staying indoors during smog alerts
B, E Avoiding exposure to ultraviolet radiation and air pollutants will help decrease the risk of developing skin and lung cancer. Although avoiding crowds may reduce the risk of contracting infections, no research suggests such a decision will reduce the risk of cancer. Eating a vegetarian diet will reduce the consumption of red meat, but no research suggests that such a diet is a factor in reducing the risk of cancer. Health screening, although important, can detect the possible presence of a specific disease, but it does not prevent diseases.
What are characteristics of benign tumors?
Benign tumors include the suffix -oma. Benign tumors are usually encapsulated and well-differentiated. They retain some normal tissue structure and do not invade the capsules surrounding them or spread to regional lymph nodes or distant locations. Benign tumors are generally named according to the tissues from which they arise and include the suffix -oma.
The most common site of metastasis for a patient diagnosed with prostate cancer is which location?
Bones The bone, especially the lumbar spine area, is the most common metastasis site for prostate cancer.
Cancer Stages: I II II IV
Cancer confined to the organ of origin is stage 1; cancer that is locally invasive is stage 2; cancer that has spread to regional structures, such as lymph nodes, is stage 3; and cancer that has spread to distant sites, such as a liver cancer spreading to the lung or prostate cancer spreading to bone, is stage 4. The prognosis generally worsens with increasing tumor size, lymph node involvement, and metastasis.
It has been determined that a tumor is in stage 2. What is the meaning of this finding?
Cancer is locally invasive. Cancer confined to the organ of origin is stage 1; cancer that is locally invasive is stage 2; cancer that has spread to regional structures, such as the lymph nodes, is stage 3; and cancer that has spread to distant sites, such as a liver cancer spreading to the lung or a prostate cancer spreading to bone, is stage 4.
Cancers linked to alcohol
Cancers of the gastrointestinal system are linked to alcohol: cancer of the oral cavity, larynx, pharynx, hypopharynx, esophagus, and liver.
Which marker is used to evaluate a tumor of the adrenal gland?
Catecholamines are secreted by the adrenal medulla and are found in excess if a tumor exists.
Markers used to evaluate tumores for 1.Prostate cancer 2.Liver and germ cancer 3.Pituitary adenomas
Catecholamines are secreted by the adrenal medulla and are found in excess if a tumor exists. 1. PSA levels are used to detect prostate cancer. 2.AFP is used to detect liver and germ cell cancers. 3.ACTH is the marker used to detect pituitary adenomas.
What is the consequence for cells when the functioning TP53 gene is lost as a result of mutation?
Cells escape apoptosis. The most common mutations conferring resistance to apoptosis occur in the TP53 gene.
Carcinoma in situ is characterized by which changes?
Cells remain localized in the glandular or squamous cells. Carcinoma in situ (CIS) refers to preinvasive epithelial malignant tumors of glandular or squamous cell origin. These early stage cancers are localized to the epithelium and have not broken through the local basement membrane or invaded the surrounding tissue.
Which cancer may be treated with radiation delivered by brachytherapy?
Cervical Radiation sources, such as small 125I-labeled capsules (also called seeds), can also be temporarily placed into body cavities, a delivery method termed brachytherapy. Brachytherapy is useful in the treatment of cervical, prostate, and head and neck cancers. Brachytherapy is not used in the treatment of the other cancers.
The Papanicolaou (Pap) test is used to screen for which cancer?
Cervical The Pap test, an examination of cervical epithelial scrapings, readily detects early oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV)infection.
Takes advantage of specific vulnerabilities in specific cancer cells.
Chemotherapy All chemotherapeutic agents take advantage of specific vulnerabilities in target cancer cells.
Burkitt lymphomas designate a chromosome that has a piece of chromosome 8 fused to a piece of chromosome 14. This is an example of which mutation of normal genes to oncogenes?
Chromosome translocation Chromosome translocations, in which a piece of one chromosome is translocated to another chromosome, can activate oncogenes. One of the best examples is the t(8;14) translocation found in many Burkitt lymphomas; t(8;14) designates a chromosome that has a piece of chromosome 8 fused to a piece of chromosome 14.
Research supports the premise that exercise has a probable impact on reducing the risk of which cancer?
Colon The World Cancer Research Fund summarizes the effects as convincing for cancers of the colon and probable for postmenopausal breast cancer and endometrial cancer.
Which cancers are all associated with chronic inflammation?
Colon, thyroid gland, and urinary bladder Some organs appear to be more susceptible to the oncogenic effects of chronic inflammation; for example, the GI tract, prostate, thyroid gland, pancreas, urinary bladder, pleura, and skin. One large study found a 66% increase in the risk of lung cancer among women with chronic asthma, an inflammatory disease of the airways.
Two "hits" are required to inactivate tumor-suppressor genes because
Each allele must be altered, and each person has two copies, or alleles, of each gene, one from each parent. A single genetic event can activate an oncogene, acting in a dominant manner in the cell. However, each person has two copies, or alleles, of each gene, one from each parent. Therefore two hits are required to inactivate the two alleles of a tumor-suppressor gene, allowing the process to become active.
Carcinoma refers to abnormal cell proliferation originating from which tissue origin?
Epithelial cells Only cancers arising from epithelial cells are called carcinomas.
What is the most commonly reported symptom of cancer treatment?Fatigue
Fatigue Fatigue is the most frequently reported symptom of cancer and cancer treatment.
In childhood neuroblastoma, the N-myc oncogene undergoes which type of mutation of normal gene to oncogene?
Gene amplification Amplifications are the result of the duplication of a small piece of a chromosome over and over again; consequently, instead of the normal two copies of a gene, tens or even hundreds of copies are present
Liver cancer
Hepatis B virus (HBV)
What are tumor cell markers?
Hormones, enzymes, antigens, and antibodies that are produced by cancer cells Tumor (biologic) markers are substances produced by both benign and malignant cells that are found either in or on the tumor cells or in the blood, spinal fluid, or urine. Tumor markers may include hormones, enzymes, genes, antigens, and antibodies.
Research has shown a link between cancer and which sexually transmitted disease?
Human papillomavirus Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted virus in the United States. High-risk, or oncogenic, HPVs can cause cancer. A persistence of infection with high-risk HPV is a prerequisite for the development of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) lesions and invasive cervical cancers.
What is the major virus involved in the development of cervical cancer?
Human papillomavirus Infection with specific subtypes of human papillomavirus (HPV) cause virtually all cervical cancers.
In a normal, nonmutant state, an oncogene is referred to as a:
In its normal nonmutant state, an oncogene is referred to as a proto-oncogene.
What is the skin-related health risk induced by some types of chemotherapy?
Infection Decreased renewal rates of the epidermal layers in the skin may lead to skin breakdown and dryness, altering the normal barrier protection against infection. Radiation therapy may cause skin erythema (redness). Pain and ultraviolet damage is not related to chemotherapies.
Many cancers create a mutation of ras. ras is
Intracellular-signaling protein that regulates cell growth Up to one-third of all cancers have an activating mutation in the gene for an intracellular signaling protein called ras. This mutant ras stimulates cell growth even when growth factors are missing
Which cancers pose the highest risk for radiologists?
Leukemia Ionizing radiation exposure places radiologists at risk for the development of leukemia, lymphoma, and skin cancers.
Which terms represent the correct nomenclature for benign and malignant tumors of adipose tissue, respectively?
Lipoma, liposarcoma In general, cancers are named according to the cell type from which they originate (e.g., lip for cancers that originate in adipose or fat tissue), whereas benign tumors use the suffix -oma.
What is the role of caretaker genes?
Maintenance of genomic integrity Caretaker genes are responsible for the maintenance of genomic integrity
What is the cause of anemia in a patient diagnosed with pancreatic cancer?
Malabsorption of iron Iron is malabsorbed in individuals with gastric, pancreatic, or upper intestinal cancer. Commonly associated with malignancy, mechanisms of anemia include chronic bleeding (resulting in iron deficiency), severe malnutrition, cytotoxic chemotherapy, and malignancy in blood-forming organs. The pancreas is not involved in the formation of blood components. Chronic bleeding and iron deficiency can accompany colorectal or genitourinary malignancies.
Malignant tumor characteristics
Malignant tumors have no capsule, which allows them to spread readily. They have rapid growth rates and specific microscopic alterations. They are poorly differentiated and spread to distant tissues.
Apoptosis is
Normal mechanism for cells to self-destruct when growth is excessive Normal cells have a mechanism that causes them to self-destruct when growth is excessive and cell cycle checkpoints have been ignored. Diverse stimuli, including normal development and excessive growth, trigger this self-destruct mechanism, called apoptosis
mutant genes that, when in their normal nonmutant state, direct the synthesis of protein that positively accelerate proliferation
Oncogenes A proto-oncogene is an oncogene in its nonmutant state.
Which cancer originates from connective tissue?
Osteogenic sarcoma Cancers arising from connective tissue usually have the suffix -sarcoma.
Which statement is true regarding pain and cancer?
Pain is generally associated with late-stage cancer. Pain is generally associated with the late stages of cancer. Pressure, obstruction, invasion of a structure sensitive to pain, stretching, tissue destruction, and inflammation can cause pain. Pain is not the initial symptom of cancer nor does it indication that the cancer has metastasized.
Research has supported that alcohol consumption has a convincing impact on increasing the risk of which cancer?
Pharynx Research had shown that alcohol consumption has a convincing positive impact on the risk of developing pharynx cancer.
Is used to kill cancer cells while minimizing damage to normal structures.
Radiation Radiation therapy is used to kill cancer cells while minimizing damage to normal structures.
Chronic inflammation causes cancer by:
Releasing compounds such as reactive oxygen species that promote mutations Inflammatory cells release compounds, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other reactive molecules, that can promote mutations and block the cellular response to DNA damage.
The function of the tumor cell marker is to:
Screen individuals at high risk for cancer. Screening and identifying individuals at high risk for cancer are ways tumor markers can be used. These markers are not used to definitively diagnosis or treat cancer and are not useful in predicting specific sites of cancer development.
Autocrine stimulation is the ability of cancer cells to:
Secrete growth factors that stimulate their own growth. Cancer cells must have mutations that enable them to proliferate in the absence of external growth signals. To achieve this, some cancers acquire the ability to secrete growth factors that stimulate their own growth, a process known as autocrine stimulation
Provides a framework to determine treatment.
Staging Staging may alter the choice of therapy, with more aggressive therapy being delivered to more invasive disease (advanced staging)
Which gastrointestinal tract condition can be an outcome of both chemotherapy and radiation therapy?
Stomatitis Chemotherapy and radiation therapy may cause a decreased cell turnover, thereby leading to oral ulcers (stomatitis), malabsorption, and diarrhea
Is guided by molecular analysis in specific diseases.
Target agent The newest highly targeted agents that are used to treat cancer exploit specific vulnerabilities uncovered by molecular analysis in specific disease
Which statement concerning benign tumors is true?
The cells are well-differentiated. A benign tumor is well-differentiated with its tissue appearing similar to the tissue from which it arose.
Tobacco smoking and cancer
The prevalence of current smoking among U.S. adults has declined from 24.7% in 1997 to 18.9% in 2011. For every person who dies from tobacco use, another 20 people suffer with at least one serious tobacco-related illness. Smoking also causes damage to blood vessels and contributes to a number of other diseases. Tobacco use accounts for one out of every five deaths each year in the United States—many more than 4000 to 5000 in the United States alon
cancer
The term cancer refers to a malignant tumor with rapid growth, a loss of differentiation, and the absence of normal tissue organization.
What aberrant change causes the abnormal growth in retinoblastoma?
The tumor-suppressor gene is turned off. One of the first discovered tumor-suppressor genes, the retinoblastoma (Rb) gene, normally strongly inhibits the cell division cycle. When it is inactivated, the cell division cycle can proceed unchecked. The Rb gene is mutated in childhood retinoblastoma.
Which statement is true regarding pleomorphic cells?
They are a result of anaplasia. In contrast to normal cells, which are uniform in size and shape, anaplastic cells are of variable size and shape and abnormally differentiate, making them pleomorphic.
What is the role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in cell metastasis?
To develop new blood vessels to feed cancer cells By recruiting new vascular endothelial cells and initiating the proliferation of existing blood vessel cells, the angiogenic factors, such as VEGF and growth factor bFGF, allow small cancers to become large cancers.
How do cancer cells use the enzyme telomerase?
To switch on the telomerase to enable cells to divide indefinitely Cancer cells, when they reach a critical age, somehow activate telomerase to restore and maintain their telomeres and thereby make it possible for cells to divide over and over again.
Inherited mutations that predispose to cancer are almost invariably what kind of gene?
Tumor-suppressor genes Inherited mutations that predispose to cancer are almost invariably in tumor-suppressor genes
When in its normal state, which gene negatively regulates proliferation?
Tumor-suppressor genes encode proteins that, when in their normal state, negatively regulate proliferation.
Mechanisms of metastasis
Two distinct mechanisms give rise to patterns of distant spread. First, cancer cells spread through vascular and lymphatic pathways, as well as natural tissue planes. Metastatic cells are very heterogeneous, and some of these cells have new abilities that can facilitate metastasis. Metastasis is highly inefficient; to metastasize, a cancer cell must surmount multiple physical and physiologic barriers. Many metastatic cells secrete proteases and protease activators to digest the extracellular matrix and basement membrane, enabling cells to move. Only rare cells in a cancer are able to metastasize.
Oncogenes are genes that are capable of:
Undergoing mutation that directs the synthesis of proteins to accelerate the rate of tissue proliferation Oncogenes are mutant genes that, before mutation, direct synthesis of proteins that positively regulate (accelerate) proliferation.
Which characteristic among women correlates with a high morbidity of cancer of the colon, uterus, and kidney?
Women who have a high body mass index D. Woman who have smoked for more than 10 years A recent hypothesis states that the observed increased incidence of such cancers as breast, endometrium, colon, liver, kidney, and adenomas of the esophagus may be associated with obesity.
The body has two primary defense systems to protect against xenobiotics that cause cell damage:
Xenobiotics are a variety of compounds that can cause cellular damage and are transported by lipoproteins in the blood. The body has two primary defense systems to protect against xenobiotics that cause cell damage: (1) detoxification enzymes, and (2) the antioxidant system. The enzymes are primarily found in the liver, and the phase I activation enzymes are represented by the P-450 system.
Melanomas
can appear suddenly without warning or can arise from or near a mole (melanocytic nevus) and melanomas most commonly affect whites. Established risk factors for melanoma are genetic and phenotypic traits, increasing age, fair skin and hair color, greater than 20 nevi, freckling, three or more atypical nevi, and an increased likelihood of burning with sun exposure. Environmental exposures important in melanoma include a history of three or more episodes of sunburn; periodic excessive sunlight exposure (vacations with intense exposure); and UV exposure at tanning salons. When detected in the early stages, melanoma is highly curable. Approximately 20% of melanomas, however, are diagnosed at nonlocalized and advanced stages
Neoplasm
generally refers to new growth and may be benign or cancerous.
Obesity and cancer risk
obesity is a risk factor for cancers of the endometrium, colorectum, kidney, esophagus, breast (postmenopausal), and pancreas. Evidence is evolving that suggests the existence of an association of obesity with cancers of the thyroid, gallbladder, liver, ovary, aggressive types of prostate cancer, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. A meta-analysis of over 40 studies of women diagnosed with breast cancer shows a modest but significant increase in all-cause and breast cancer-specific mortality in obese versus nonobese women. Hyperinsulinemia is associated with a risk of cancers of the colon, endometrium, and possibly the kidney and pancreas, and chronic hyperinsulinemia increases the risk of cancer as well. Overall, the putative mechanisms whereby obesity drives the progression of cancer are not completely known, and the process is complex. For most obese women (BMI >40), the risk of dying of breast cancer is doubled.
Cancers arising from connective tissue usually have the suffix
sarcoma.
Benign growths
which are not referred to as cancers, may retain some normal tissue structure and do not invade the capsules surrounding them or spread to regional lymph nodes or distant locations.