PDHPE- HSC Online- Factors affecting Performace

Lactic acid system or Anaerobic glycolysis Duration

Depends on the level of intensity. At high intensity < 90% it has a duration of 30 - 45 seconds.

There are four main "influencers" that can affect how much pressure people feel:

1.Skill Level. 2.Personality. 3.Trait Anxiety. 4.Task Complexity. You can use the model by managing these four influencers, and by being aware of how they can positively or negatively influence your people's performance.

Lactic acid system or Anaerobic glycolysis Exercise type most suited for this energy system

400 / 800 metre running, 100 / 200 metre swimming, 1000 metre time-trial (track cycling).

Personality

A person's personality also affects how well he or she performs. For instance, some psychologists believe that people who are extroverts are likely to perform better in high-pressure situations. People with an introverted personality, on the other hand, may perform better with less pressure

Alactacid system or ATP/PC Fuel

ATP and phosphocreatine (PC) - is produced naturally in the body and acts like a bandaid to resynthesise the floating phosphate molecule to an ADP molecule, which reforms ATP.

ATP

ATP releases energy when it splits to form adenosine diphosphate (ADP) plus a phosphate ion (P). ADP + P + energy (from food) arrow ATP ATP arrow ADP + P + energy (for activity) ATP is found within the cells of the body and is an energy-rich chemical compound. However, only a small amount is stored in the muscles, only supplying a few seconds worth of intense activity. Therefore the body must be able to replenish stores in a process known as resynthesis. This involves rebuilding ATP from ADP using one of the three energy systems. The intensity (the effort needed) and duration (period of time) of the activity determines the way in which ATP is resynthesised. There are two anaerobic systems (also referred to as energy pathways) which resynthesise ATP without oxygen present and the aerobic system which resythesises ATP with oxygen present.

Alactacid system (ATP/PC) Fuel source

ATP supplies in the body are very limited and there is often only enough energy to supply an explosive contraction such as a sprint start. The alactacid system is used by the body to produce ATP when there is insufficient time to break down glycogen in the presence of oxygen for the replenishment of ATP. At the same time that ATP is being broken down in the muscle, another high-energy substance which is stored in our cells - phosphocreatine (PC) - is also being broken down. PC arrow C + P + energy ADP + P + energy arrow ATP

Types of training and training methods

Adequate training is necessary to ensure athletes are prepared for performance in their sport. The type of training and methods used depends on factors such as the type of movement, skill requirements and specific demands of the activity in question. Soccer players have different needs to netball players, as do track athletes to field athletes, and weight lifters to gymnasts. Coaches and athletes need to understand there are different types of training specifically designed to develop aerobic and anaerobic capacity, strength and flexibility, and each is closely linked to the energy systems and principles of training

Aerobic glycolysis system Cause of fatigue

Aerobic glycolysis will continue as long as the body has sufficient levels of blood glucose, muscle glycogen or stores of energy (e.g. fat stores) which can be mobilised and used in energy production.

Aerobic interval training

Aerobic interval training involves alternating periods of exercise or work, followed by periods of rest or relief. Interval training involves moderate duration (time) and moderate to high intensity training, for example, 80-90 per cent of maximum heart rate (MHR) for 30-60 minutes in intervals of 4-10 minutes. The rest period between each repetition is short in relation to the work period, approximately 1-2 minutes. This does not allow for full recovery and thus maintains stress on the aerobic system. These can be adjusted to provide improvements in both aerobic and anaerobic training and can be designed to match the athlete's sport and conditioning levels. The duration of the intervals should be long enough to allow athletes to reach their maximal oxygen uptake (max VO2), but be short enough not to bring on fatigue. The intensity should allow athletes to reach their max VO2, but the rest intervals should usually be active, such as walking or jogging slowly. This aids in removing accumulated lactic acid and therefore allows athletes to train longer.

Aerobic, e.g. continuous, Fartlek, aerobic interval, circuit

Aerobic training develops the capacity of the aerobic energy system and aims to: •increase cardiorespiratory efficiency (the ability of the body to deliver and utilise oxygen) •reduce coronary heart disease and improve general health •assist in weight control. There are four common methods to improve aerobic capacity; continuous, Fartlek, aerobic interval and circuit training. One method of training will not meet the training needs of any given sport and therefore it is important to use a variety of methods to effectively train for the specific activity as well as provide variety in training.

Aerobic

Aerobic training involves training the larger muscle groups (e.g. legs) to efficiently combine with the cardiorespiratory system to supply a higher volume of oxygen to the working muscles and therefore improve performance. The training methods used for developing aerobic fitness are continuous, aerobic interval, fartlek and circuit training.

Alactacid system or ATP/PC How it works

After muscular contraction ATP is broken down to form ADP. Phosphocreatine (PC) is then broken down to form creatine and phosphate, which when broken off combines with ADP to form ATP. ATP is then available for further muscular contractions.

Physiological adaptations in response to training Key Messages

All training is undertaken with the goal of causing the body to adapt. These adaptations assist in improving an athlete's performance. ##Long-term aerobic training causes adaptations to heart function. Heart rate decreases, and stroke volume and cardiac output are increased. ##Aerobic training increases the body's ability to deliver and use greater amounts of oxygen and therefore contributes significantly to improved aerobic efficiency. ##Aerobic training improves haemoglobin levels as the volume of blood in the body increases. ##Muscle hypertrophy is a positive response to training, with fast-twitch fibres being slightly more responsive than slow-twitch fibres.

Positive and negative

Although both forms of motivation are used in sport, the use of positive motivation tends to be more effective than negative motivation in improving an individual's performance. It results in higher levels of improvement in performance, and tends to last longer than any gains made from the use of negative motivation. Reinforcement most often comes in the form of rewards (positive reinforcement). The rewards reinforce the act and let the athlete know that further progress will be rewarded in the same way. Many athletes, particularly elite athletes are continually bombarded with motivation, often of a positive nature. Sometimes however athletes can become de-motivated and this may be due to negative influences.

Nutritional considerations

An athlete must ensure that their diet is adequate enough to meet performance needs. Different sporting activities require different levels of energy and nutritional needs. Programs designed to improve performance must be supported by sound nutritional practices. If nutrition is not included as an integral part of training and preparation for competition, even the most talented athlete may never reach their full potential. While complete nutritional balance is essential for optimal physical performance, the specific roles of carbohydrates and hydration are the two most important considerations. Athletes need to consider factors such as what to eat and drink, the most appropriate time for food intake and strategies to recoup expended energy as well as training and performance requirements.

examples of how you include Circuit into your training.

An example of a circuit for a sport is a basketball training circuit. Stations that may be included are: shuttle runs, up and backs, side shuffle, burpees, push ups, tricep dips, sit ups, walking lunges, squats, dribbling, continuous layups, passing into a wall, hoop/backboard touches/jumps and plyometric jumping.

Anaerobic

Anaerobic training involves activities of a short duration undertaken at a very high intensity, mostly in excess of 85 per cent of an individual's maximum, and this is coupled with limited recovery. This is called anaerobic interval training. This develops the two anaerobic energy pathways as the major supply of energy and is aimed at increasing tolerance to lactic acid. An example is sprint repetition.

Anaerobic, e.g. anaerobic interval

Anaerobic training involves high intensity activities, mostly in excess of 85 percent of maximum heart rate (max HR), with limited recovery to develop the two anaerobic energy pathways. One of the most effective ways to train the anaerobic system is to use interval training, which is often referred to as sprint training. This has some similarities to aerobic interval training, however anaerobic intervals tend to use higher intensity with longer rest breaks. Anaerobic intervals are characterised by brief, maximal activity, generally ranging between 10 seconds and 2 minutes, with a work rest ratio of 1:3, meaning for every 10 seconds you work you rest for 30 seconds. The rest component, also known as the relief interval, may involve sitting or stretching or gentle work such as walking or slow jogging. The intervals are performed in sets of repetitions that are designed to overload the anaerobic energy systems. Maximal effort repetitions (lasting 10 seconds or less) are designed to improve the ATP-PC stores, whereas slightly longer efforts (up to 2 minutes) aim to improve the body’s tolerance to lactic acid to be removed from the body between repetitions and sets. Elite athletes will recover faster than non-athletes. This is an exceptional training method for events such as 400 metre to 1500 metre running.  Many teams use anaerobic intervals in their training to develop the speed component required by their sport, particularly in the pre-season. A balanced training program may need to incorporate speed, acceleration, and power as well as agility, depending on the needs of the activity/sport.

Trait and state anxiety

Anxiety can be defined as an unpleasant state of mental uneasiness or concern that causes physical and psychological discomfort. Extreme anxiety disrupts and unsettles behaviour by lowering the individual's concentration and affecting their muscular control. Any sporting game or contest can give rise to anxiety when one's perceived ability does not measure up to the demands of the task. Trait anxiety is an athlete's general predisposition to perceive a situation as threatening or non-threatening. This tends to be a personality trait. State anxiety refers to the emotional response of an athlete to a particular situation, e.g. the presence of match point in tennis, the pressure of performing in an elite gymnastics final for the first time.

Anxiety and arousal

Anxiety is a state of being uneasy, apprehensive, or worried about what may happen during a performance. Anxiety usually involves an increase in the level of emotion; however, it is often accompanied by feelings such as worry, concern, negative thoughts and feelings. When discussing anxiety it is important to distinguish between trait and state anxiety, identify sources of stress, and recognise the link between optimum arousal levels and performance.

Anxiety and arousal: Key Messages

Anxiety is the emotion felt by an individual, when they perceive that arises from perceiving a situation as threatening, uncontrollable or unavoidable. There can be a mental response (worry, self doubt) and/or a physical response (increased heart rate, knots in the stomach). ##Athletes can experience anxiety when they place themselves under pressure (trait anxiety) or when they are placed into a stressful situation (state anxiety). ##Stress is the imbalance between what is demanded of a person and their perceived ability to meet those demands. When a person perceives a large imbalance between what is asked of them and their capabilities, they become stressed. Sources of stress can be internal or external. Athletes can use relaxation techniques to control stress. ##Everyone has an optimal level of arousal when they perform at their best. There is a link between a decline in performance and under-arousal/over-arousal. ##The 'inverted U' hypothesis, catastrophe hypothesis, and individualised zone of optimal functioning (IZOF) theory all attempt to demonstrate the relationship between arousal and performance.

Anxiety

Anxiety is the emotional response to a perceived threat. Arousal can be defined as the emotional, mental or physiological activation required to produce a response. Anxiety and arousal can play a significant role in performance. Many athletes need to learn strategies to manage their anxiety and arousal levels. Anxiety produces a heightened level of emotion that causes physical (e.g. lack of sleep) and psychological discomfort (e.g. fear of failure).

Pre-performance Type of food

As carbohydrate is the primary fuel source for exercise of moderate to high intensity, optimising carbohydrate levels in the muscle and liver is the primary goal of pre-performance preparation. Foods higher in fat and protein and fibre require longer periods to digest than most foods. This may lead to discomfort and possible indigestion if consumed close to activity or in large amounts. Liquid meals (drinks with high carbohydrate content) are sometimes recommended for athletes. Athletes are advised to eat mostly complex carbohydrates, such as wholegrain cereals, such as bread, pasta and rice, because they have a low glycaemic index (GI) (external website), that is, provide slow energy release.

Lactic acid system or Anaerobic glycolysis Recovery

As exercise slows or stops, oxygen begins to break down lactic acid and remove it from the bloodstream. Recovery may take between 20 mins to 2 hours depending on duration and intensity of exercise. A thorough warm-down after exercise will assist in lactate removal.

Protein

As protein is responsible for the growth, repair and maintenance of body tissue the use of protein supplements is common amongst power and strength athletes such as weight-lifters, rugby league and rugby union players. Research has shown that most athletes do not need or benefit from protein supplementation.

Lactic acid system or Anaerobic glycolysis Cause of fatigue

As the level of lactic acid builds up in the muscles it contributes to muscular fatigue and exhaustion.

Alactacid system (ATP/PC) Rate of recovery

As the stores of PC are broken down, they are quickly restored. If the individual is resting most of the ATP and PC supplies are restored within 2 minutes. This allows for the activity to be repeated in intense, short bouts, without immediate exhaustion, for example field athletics athletes. The only way PC can be restored is to recombine the P and C release to resynthesise ATP. This is done during recovery. This system represents the most readily available source of ATP for use by the muscles.

Alactacid system or ATP/PC Exercise type most suited for this energy system

Athletics throwing events (javelin, shotput), jumping events (high jump), weight lifting, 100metre sprints, track cycling sprint

Ballistic stretching

Ballistic stretching is also known as ‘bounce stretching’. This involves repeated movements such as swinging and bouncing at the end of the range of movement to gain extra stretch. Due to the force of the stretch, the stretch reflex comes into play and places great pressure on the muscle fibres and causes the muscle to contract. This method of stretching has the greatest risk of injury as force and momentum can be potentially harmful if the contracted muscle is stretched beyond its preferred length. This can leave muscles with micro-tears (and in some cases macro-tears) which may lead to a reduction in flexibility and mobility. Ballistic stretching can be useful in some performances where ballistic and explosive actions are required and by experienced athletes. In these cases it should form part of the third stage of warm-up after a general warm-up a, a static stretch period and an active stretch period, with movements being executed smoothly to avoid jerky actions and too much momentum at the end point of the stretch.

Caffeine

Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant. While much of the evidence relating to caffeine and performance is still inconclusive, there is general agreement on areas relating to cognitive function, anaerobic performance and aerobic performance. Caffeine is most commonly found in coffee, tea, cola drinks, energy drinks and chocolate and as such is present in many people's diets. Caffeine is a stimulant and can affect the body in as little as 30 minutes. The majority of the caffeine's ergogenic (external website) effects are seen after 45-60 minutes when blood levels of caffeine peak. These include: •increased heart rate and disrupted heart rhythm •symptoms of anxiety (in high doses) •improve cognitive processes, such as alertness •decrease athlete's rating of perceived exertion - making athletes feel as though they are performing more easily than they actually are •relax smooth muscles (such as intestines/bowels). The most favourable evidence supporting ergogenic aid properties of caffeine relate to endurance sports such as marathon running. Increased caffeine levels can make some athletes feel 'jittery and unsettled' before competition so athletes need to be aware of individual variation in the benefits of caffeine. It can also affect sleep quality and quantity which may adversely affect recovery. In the past, consumptions of large amounts of caffeine was considered illegal in international sport and banned under the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) code. Caffeine has recently been removed from the WADA banned list with evidence showing that high doses of caffeine don't produce performance enhancement and generally result in adverse side effects. The diuretic (external website) effect of caffeine has been a contentious issue however for most athletes the link with dehydration is not supported.  Although caffeine is a mild diuretic it does not exacerbate dehydration. Athletes performing in hot or humid conditions on the other hand may need to re-evaluate their caffeine intake.

Aerobic glycolysis system Fuel

Carbohydrate-foods are broken down into glucose, which can be used by the body for energy. Glucose may also stored as glycogen in the muscles and/or the liver. A further source of fuel is fat, which can be used over longer periods of exercise.

Lactic acid system or Anaerobic glycolysis Fuel

Carbohydrates are the only source of fuel in the form of muscle glycogen or blood sugar.

Concentration/attention skills (focusing)

Concentration or attention skills refer to the ability of the athlete to focus their thoughts and energy into the task at hand. It allows the athlete to focus on relevant cues and ignore distractions, for example, the crowd.

Circuit training

Circuit training is a series of exercises that requires the athlete to work at stations, completing each exercise before moving on to the next with little or no rest between exercises. Depending on the equipment available, circuits can be developed to improve aerobic fitness or can be highly specialised to meet specific needs of certain athletes or sports by also focusing on strength, muscle endurance or anaerobic fitness. There are two types of circuits: fixed resistance circuits and individual circuits. In fixed resistance circuits, the resistance and the number of repetitions are fixed, for example 20 repetitions of bicep curls with a 2kg weight. Times can be recorded for each set and compared to previous sets. Individual circuits are where an individual performs as many repetitions in a given time frame, often 30 seconds, to one minute. Again, number of repetitions can be recorded and compared to previous sets or sessions. Exercises can be strength-based activities, such as sit-ups and push-ups, aerobic-based such as skipping or step-ups, or skill-based such as dribbling a soccer ball through cones or netball passes to a partner. The greatest benefits are achieved when the skills and fitness components specific to the particular sport or activity are developed.

Compression garments

Compression garments can assist the removal of waste products from the muscles as well as provide the muscles with oxygen and nutrient-rich blood by stimulating circulation. Compression garments assist athletes to recover faster and with less negative post-exercise effects such as muscle soreness and lethargy

Continuous training

Continuous training is the most common and simplest form of aerobic training. Here, the heart rate is elevated and maintained without rest intervals. Training should be performed for a minimum of 20 minutes using any activity that keeps the heart rate elevated above the aerobic threshold but below the anaerobic threshold e.g. jogging, cycling, rowing, and swimming. Continuous training is generally of a long duration (30 minutes to two hours) and moderate intensity (65 - 85% of maximum heart rate). Elite athletes such as marathon runners use high-intensity continuous training whereby their training is at the upper limit the aerobic training zone where lactate production equals lactate clearance. Continuous training may not replicate the all performance requirements and be specific to the type of training required so other aerobic training methods may need to be utilised to meet the needs of the activity. For example, most sports require short bursts of sprinting throughout the game and continuous training does not train to meet these needs.

Creatine products

Creatine is important in energy production as it contributes to the resynthesis of ATP in the first 10 seconds of performance. Advocates of creatine use believe it enables athletes to train more effectively in power sports. It is important in making energy available to sustain short duration explosive activity as in weight-lifting and sprinting. One of the risks of the use of supplements is ‘inadvertently doping'. This occurs when illegal substances are included in supplementary products

Creatine products

Creatine is occurs naturally in the body's muscle tissue. It can also be found in the diet, with the main source being from meat. In the muscle, creatine is converted to creatine phosphate which provides a ready source of energy to resynthesise ATP for working muscles during high-intensity anaerobic activity such as weight lifting and sprinting. Because creatine cannot be stored in the body, athletes attempt to increase the body's stores of creatine by supplementation. By supplementing creatine, athletes are trying to enhance the efficiency of the ATP-PC system to provide energy and resynthesise ATP faster. While manufacturers of creatine products continue to market its performance enhancing properties, including increasing strength, delaying fatigue and burning fat, research is still inconclusive and little may be gained from consumption. Creatine supplementation has been associated with increases in weight (due to water retention), hence many athletes avoid it. Creatine is however, used by many strength athletes, as research has established that muscle hypertrophy (growth) is more easily achieved when training is assisted by creatine supplementation. Vegetarians may benefit from creatine supplementation as their diets lack protein, which is a main source of creatine. However, this is only of benefit to athletes taking part in explosive anaerobic activity, not endurance activities.

Tissue damage strategies, eg cryotherapy

Cryotherapy, or cold therapy, is the local or general use of low temperatures to remove heat from a body part. The goal of cryotherapy is to decrease pain and inflammation, promote vasoconstriction and prevent the build up of waste products. Various forms of cryotherapy have become popular as recovery strategies for many athletes. Ice pack therapy is a treatment of cold temperatures to an injured area of the body. An ice pack is placed over the injured area and absorbs heat, decreasing metabolism and oxygen demand. There is immediate vasoconstriction, followed by vasodilation. Cryogenic chamber therapy is where a patient is placed in a cryogenic chamber for a short duration (no more than 3 minutes). The chamber is cooled with liquid nitrogen to a temperature of -110°C. The patient is protected from frostbite with socks, gloves and mouth and ear protection, but in addition to that wears only a bathing suit. During treatment the average skin temperature drops to 12°C, while the coldest skin temperature can be 5°C. The core body temperature remains unchanged during treatment but may drop slightly afterwards. Therapy triggers the release of endorphines which give immediate pain relief.Watch the following video on Cryotherapy Chambers (external website) (the application of this recovery strategy to sport is described from 8:30minutes). Short periods of cold water immersion (CWI) to reduce post exercise oedema (external website) have become popular in many sports. This strategy is used during acute phases of muscle injury, soreness or bruising. The physiological mechanisms are not well understood by coaches but athletes report lighter and less tight muscles. Â Ice baths may make the athlete feel better after exercise but this could be a pain killer effect rather than actually speeding up recovery. There is some evidence that ice baths can impair performance if used repeatedly. CWI involves athletes immersing themself into a cold water bath (4-12°C) for a short interval (often 3-5minutes) followed by short interval (often shorter than the CWI) out of water at air temperature. This is repeated 4 to 5 times. Watch the following video of a rugby team taking part in a cryotherapy ice bath session (external website).

Nutritional considerations: Key Messages

Different types of athletic performance have different nutritional needs. Many athletes require a diet higher in carbohydrates, protein and total energy intake than non-athletes. ##To ensure optimal performance in training and competition the correct balance of energy sources, nutrients and fluids is essential. ##The main aim of pre-performance nutrition is 'fuelling up' and supplying enough carbohydrates to maximise the body's glycogen stores over the 24 hours before competition. Water is another essential component of any pre-event meal. The necessary quantities depend on factors such as activity duration, climatic conditions and body size. ##Carbohydrate loading is a specific eating and training plan designed for endurance events that exceed 2 hours duration. It aims to maximise the stores of glycogen within the body before competing in endurance events that lasts longer than two hours. ##During physical activity nutritional considerations such as maintaining hydration levels and enriching glucose levels (if performance is long in duration) are also of importance. ##After exercise it is important to eat foods high in carbohydrates and drink plenty of appropriate fluid as this allows energy stores to recover more quickly. The first two hours following exercise are the most important refuelling period.

Verbal cues that a coach should give to an individual in the cognitive stage to assist their skill acquisition in soccer.

Dribbling •keep your eyes on the ball •keep the ball at your feet - small kicks/pushes •small kicks •turn your foot out and use the inside of your foot; do not toe-punt •take your time do not rush; it’s not a race Kicking •keep your eyes on the ball •step beside the ball with your non-kicking foot (not too close) (before you kick) •swing your kicking leg back (up towards your bottom - helps give power) •kick with your dominant foot using the inside of your foot (instep) - you need to turn your foot out to do this •swing the opposite arm to your kicking leg - if kicking with your right foot your left arm should come out to the side to counter-balance you •follow through with your kicking leg (should come up at least knee high)

Basketball: cognitive stage

Dribbling •very slow pace •does not look up from ball •slaps ball instead of pushing down with hand •pushes ball too far in front of body position •pushes ball too hard so it bounces up higher than needed which makes control difficult •stops regularly to regain control of the ball; may double dribble •uses dominant hand only - cannot use other hand •uses two hands at the one time to dribble •often is only able to dribble in a line; finds it very difficult to weave through cones Shooting •too much or too little strength applied to shot - often misses rim/backboard completely or hits high on backboard •holds ball incorrectly •does not use arms/legs to power up the ball •shoots from stationary position (netball style); cannot lay-up •shows little understanding of positioning •fails to follow direction of ball for rebound

SOCCER: Cognitive stage

Dribbling •very slow pace •minimal control of the ball - does not stay close to their feet; kicks it a few metres in front of them; cannot dribble in a line or the direction of travel •does not look up from the ball to view fellow team members or opposition •looks away from the ball when about to kick it •cannot use both sides of their foot to control the ball - often toe punts •is not fluent Kicking •lacks direction - ball will be miss-kicked and not go to other player •lacks power of kick - ball does not travel far •underestimates power and pushes the ball past teammate •misses the ball all together •looks away from ball when about to kick it •toe punts

Aerobic glycolysis system Duration

Duration can be virtually unlimited depending on intensity and availability of oxygen.

examples of how you include Continuous into your training.

Duration of more than 20 minutes with intensity above 65% max HR will produce an aerobic training effect. Elite athletes aim at training at the upper threshold of the training zone where their body is able to equalise lactate production/clearance so they are able to maintain a faster pace throughout their event. Therefore a typical long distance runner will often do a few very long, moderate intensity runs, but intersperse that with some sessions that are shorter but of a higher intensity.

Aerobic glycolysis system How it works

During continuous activity the body is able to supply oxygen to working muscles. This oxygen can be used to break down muscle glycogen to form ATP. This process is called aerobic glycolysis.

Lactic acid system or Anaerobic glycolysis How it works

During high intensity activity the body breaks down muscle glycogen without oxygen to form ATP. This process is called anaerobic glycolysis.

During performance

During performance nutrition needs to be focused on maintaining energy levels. Endurance events and events in hot and humid conditions can have a significant impact on the body's fuel and fluid supplies. The need for carbohydrate and electrolyte (external website) replacement depends on a number of factors including intensity, duration, humidity, and individual sweat rates. In the case of moderate to high-intensity activities lasting longer than 60 minutes (including individual or team-based sports of an intermittent nature) additional fuel in the form of carbohydrate supplementation is needed to avoid glycogen depletion. Appropriate liquid carbohydrate supplements (e.g. some sports drinks) can delay glycogen depletion by up to 30 minutes at exercise intensities above 75% of aerobic capacity. Liquid carbohydrate is not necessary for lowâ€"intensity, short-duration exercise. Sports gels and bars are being used more increasingly by athletes as these are easy to consume and digest quickly providing a quick release of energy for the athlete as well as reduce the risk of gastrointestinal problems. Care should be taken that these products are well researched and used appropriately. Adequate hydration by regular fluid intake must be maintained and needs to the body's requirements and the exercise duration and intensity. 200-300 mL of fluid is recommended to be consumes every 15-20 minutes during exercise. An athlete should not use thirst as an indicator of dehydration as hydration levels may be well depleted by that time and performance may already be affected. Dehydration of even 2% can have a detrimental effect on an athlete's performance.

Dynamic stretching

Dynamic stretching is also referred to as range of motion’ (ROM) stretching. It is popular for warm-ups and pre-training routines as it attempts to imitate many of the movements experienced in a game. It uses movement speed together with momentum (avoiding bouncing, ballistic, movements) to gradually warm up muscle fibres and extend them through the degree of stretch required in the activity. In contrast to static stretching, dynamic stretch movement is continuous but the end position is not held. Therefore it is not as safe as static and PNF stretching due to tension being exerted by specific movements on muscles and across joints. Examples of this type of stretching is a full lunge where the back knee touches the ground before the next leg is moved forward; leg swings, where the range (or height) of the swings is slowly increased; swinging a golf club just prior to a shot being played.

Energy

Energy can be defined as the capacity or power to do work, such as the capacity to move an object (of a given mass) by the application of force. Energy can exist in a variety of forms, such as electrical, mechanical, chemical, thermal, or nuclear, and can be transformed from one form to another. It is measured by the amount of work done, usually in joules or watts.

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation occurs when the individual’s internal state is modified by sources originating from outside the person such as parents and coaches and includes praise, material rewards and financial remuneration. Extrinsic motivation focuses on the product, or what can be gained. While rewards or fears may change how hard we work, they do not alter attitudes that underlie our behaviours. A focus on material rewards such as prizes and monetary incentives or a fear of retribution if one’s performance is not up to standard can turn the purpose of the activity into an end rather than a means.

Fartlek training

Fartlek training is the Swedish name for 'speed play'. This involves a combination of continuous training and interval training in that it involves varying the intensity (or speed) or the terrain (hills) on which athletes are working. This engages both the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. Generally speaking, the bursts of speed are usually of 5-10 seconds duration, and are repeated every 2-3 minutes and are less prescriptive than interval training where the athlete sets their own pace and sprint distances. This form of aerobic conditioning suits many sports where there are frequent changes in the predominant energy system, for example frequent short sprints throughout the game of soccer.

Lactic acid system Cause of fatigue

Fatigue and exhaustion occurs when lactic acid accumulates in the muscle cells. This will usually cause the athlete to decrease the intensity of the activity, or to stop altogether. The speed of lactic acid production depends again on the exercise intensity. Very high levels of lactic acid prevent muscles fibres from contracting and hence a deterioration in performance. There are also suggestions that the accumulation of hydrogen ions, which brings about a decrease in pH and increases acidosis (an increase in the acidity of the blood), causes fatigue.

Alactacid system (ATP/PC) Cause of fatigue

Fatigue is caused by the inability of the system to continually resynthesise ATP as PC stores are exhausted and need time to recover.

Flexibility

Flexibility training is designed to improve the range of motion of a joint and reduce the likelihood of an injury and muscle soreness. Each joint has a specific range of motion (ROM) which varies between individuals, especially between elite athletes and inactive people. There are a number of ways in which flexibility can be developed including static, ballistic, dynamic stretching and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF). Each of these methods of flexibility training can be used to develop an individual's flexibility and improve overall performance as a result.

Psychological strategies, eg relaxation

Following intense training and demanding performances, athletes may experience symptoms of low concentration, lack of motivation and increased levels of anxiety. Psychological strategies can play an important part in emotional and possibly spiritual recovery by assisting in recovery of concentration, lifting motivation and decreasing anxiety levels. Some psychological strategies that can be used to enhance recovery are outlined below. •Debriefing - Effectively evaluating a performance can be a useful way to provide emotional and psychological support after training or competition. This should focus on the process not the outcome. Debriefing allows the athlete to achieve 'closure' with regards to a past performance and set goals for future performances. This is usually logical, rational discussion removed from the hype and the emotion of performance. •Contingency planning - Simple strategies or distracters, such as mood-lifting activities, which are used in situations such as a major performance setback or traumatic event. •Social support -Athletes need to build up a network of support contacts outside their athletic lives. •Relaxation skills - These can reduce levels of tension and arousal and also energise the athlete. Individuals relax in many different ways, with some preferring to read a book, listen to music or watch television. Specialised relaxation techniques are also widely used, including meditation (external website), progressive muscle relaxation (external website), visualisation (external website), breathing exercises (external website), positive self-talk and flotation. The athlete needs to practice only one or two techniques on a regular basis for these to become effective tools to use to aid recovery. The choice of relaxation methods is quite individual and involves experimentation to establish which technique works best. •Rest and sleep - Rest days are essential and a least one day per week should be a non-training day. This allows time for physical and psychological recovery as well as time for other interests and activities. Adequate sleep (7-9 hours) is regarded as probably the most important recovery strategy as it provides regeneration and restoration of the body's systems to allow adaptation to training. Too much sleep however, can be detrimental, contributing to sluggishness and lethargy

Energy Systems

For the purposes of human movement we are mainly concerned with the transfer of chemical energy into mechanical energy. In this process, the breaking of chemical bonds in molecules releases energy for use by the body. The body does not directly use the energy that is released in the breakdown of food; rather this energy is used to make a chemical compound called adenosine triphosphate. (ATP). The three macro nutrients, carbohydrate, fats and protein, all work in different ways to assist with the production of ATP and provide differing amounts of energy per gram. The energy systems should not be thought of as working independently of one another, but more so where one system is used predominantly at any given point, depending on the duration and intensity of the activity. For example, netball centre players use the aerobic system to provide constant energy required to continually move back and forth on the court - usually at moderate levels of intensity. Occasionally, they may need to sprint down the court to assist in attack or defence or jump to intercept a ball. These movements usually last a few seconds, and use the anaerobic energy systems. In most sporting situations, energy systems are used in various combinations. Middle to long distance track athletes should be able to pace themselves to ensure that their ATP supplies are not depleted too early in the race. If they push too hard, or begin the final sprint too soon, lactic acid will accumulate to high levels and decrease their performance.

Pre-performance Amount of food

Generally, the appropriate amount of food relates to the expected energy expenditure of the event. This will vary with the type of activity and level of competition, e.g. competitors in endurance events need more energy over a period of time than events requiring short sharp bursts of anaerobic energy. Care needs to be taken that large amounts of food are not eaten prior to any event as it may cause gastrointestinal discomfort, particularly if the activity is of high intensity.

What is Stress?

Hans Selye was one of the founding fathers of stress research. His view in 1956 was that "stress is not necessarily something bad - it all depends on how you take it. The stress of exhilarating, creative successful work is beneficial, while that of failure, humiliation or infection is detrimental." Selye believed that the biochemical effects of stress would be experienced irrespective of whether the situation was positive or negative. Since then, a great deal of further research has been conducted, and ideas have moved on. Stress is now viewed as a "bad thing", with a range of harmful biochemical and long-term effects. These effects have rarely been observed in positive situations. The most commonly accepted definition of stress (mainly attributed to Richard S Lazarus) is that stress is a condition or feeling experienced when a person perceives that "demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize." In short, it's what we feel when we think we've lost control of events. This is the main definition used by this section of Mind Tools, although we also recognize that there is an intertwined instinctive stress response to unexpected events. The stress response inside us is therefore part instinct and part to do with the way we think.

Alactacid system or ATP/PC Duration

Has the shortest duration of the 3 systems. Will only last at < 95% intensity for 10 -12 seconds.

Pre-performance Hydration

Hydration is important for all individuals, however for athletes, and especially those involved in endurance events or competing in hot or humid conditions, it is of extreme importance. As a general rule, 500-600 mL of fluid should be consumed in the 2 to 3 hour period prior to endurance performance and 250-350 mL in the last 15 minutes. Athletes competing in endurance events or those that last longer than an hour may benefit from including sports drinks in their pre-performance preparation. The weather conditions on the day need to be considered carefully when planning fluid intake. High levels of humidity can extract a significant toll on athletic performance.

Neural strategies, eg hydrotherapy, massage

Hydrotherapy and massage aim to relax muscles that have been fatigued or damaged as a result of high intensity exercise. Neural strategies, integrated with other recovery strategies, have become popular in recent years, particularly with teams involved in contact sports such as rugby league.

Hydrotherapy

Hydrotherapy involves the use of water to relax, soothe pain and assist metabolic recovery whilst providing support for movements which eliminate jarring and straining movements. Typical hydrotherapy methods include spas, underwater massage and swimming pools (heated and non-heated). Active exercise can be incorporated into hydrotherapy sessions allowing a gravity assisted environment. Many forms of equipment have been designed to assist movements. Water therapies are not used or valued as much in Australia as they are in European countries, where a wide range of therapies have been in use for several thousand years. Sports teams such as rugby league, rugby union and AFL have recently been seen undertaking hydrotherapy sessions as part of their post-game recovery strategies. Studies have shown that lactate levels are recovered equally fast by using either contrast water immersion or active recovery. Lactate recovery following passive rest was significantly slower. Active recovery for 10-15 minutes following exercise requires extra energy and may be less effective if energy stores have already been depleted. Two common strategies used in hydrotherapy include: •Contrast water immersion: Alternating hot water (39-40°C) spa sessions (approx 3-4 minutes) with cold water (10-15°C) plunge repeated three times. This aims at enhancing recovery by increasing blood flow through the actions of vasoconstriction and vasodilation (narrowing and widening of the blood vessels). It improves waste removal and nutrient delivery and often results in the athlete feeling refreshed and alert. Click on the following link for a deeper understanding of contrast baths: BrianMAC Sports Coach - Hot/Cold baths (external website). •Even temperature immersion: Promptly following a training session, game, or competition, the athlete showers or bathes, often with hot water. This accelerates recovery of lactates and reduces metabolic fatigue. Interspersing stretches with light active movements in a pool appears to reduce post-performance stiffness and accelerate the return to a normal state. Spa baths are often used allowing a massage effect from the jets.

Examples of motivation

I love training with my friends. ---> Positive and intrinsic motivation I have a trophy room at home.---> Positive and extrinsic motivation Material reinforcement The school highlights all the student's successes. There is always talk about which teams are winning. --->Positive and extrinsic motivation Social reinforcement When I miss a goal I make myself train an extra hour of fitness---> Negative and intrinsic motivation My coach suggests how I could improve and what changes to make.---> Positive and extrinsic motivation Even if I am playing poorly, the coach will encourage me. This lifts my spirits higher.---> Positive extrinsic and intrinsic Social reinforcement Peers saying I did a good job.---> Positive and extrinsic motivation Social reinforcement Beating friends and good players at training makes me happy. --->Positive and intrinsic motivation My coach is good. He applauds good moves when they come off.---> Positive and extrinsic motivation Social reinforcement I want to play a high level of competition.---> Positive and intrinsic motivation I'm currently training with the state U18 team. --->Positive and extrinsic motivation When people see me play, they notice me. --->Positive and extrinsic motivation Social reinforcement Last year I made the U16 All Australian Team. I was really proud because I didn't expect to get in.---> Positive extrinsic and intrinsic My coach yells at me when I make a mistake --->Negative and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is a self-propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in the task or the activity and they enjoy learning and performing the movements. Intrinsic motivation originates with inner feelings and may serve to drive a need to succeed, accomplish or perform at the best level. It is self-sustaining and self-reinforcing because effort and personal accomplishment becomes its own reward. For these athletes, establishing competence is sufficiently challenging and rewarding in itself. Many individuals complete long distance running events such as the City to Surf. There are many competitors and only a few divisions, yet thousands of people take part in events like these for the satisfaction of completing the race despite knowing they have little chance of winning.

Minerals

Iron and calcium are essential minerals for body function and the two minerals that are most commonly deficient in athletes, affecting performance as well as health. Iron is found in haemoglobin (in red blood cells) which collects and transports oxygen to where it is needed in the body. Low iron levels therefore affect performance as muscles are deprived of oxygen. A balanced diet will supply adequate levels of iron through foods such as lean meats, grainy products, and leafy green vegetables. People who are most at risk of iron deficiency are endurance athletes, females, vegetarians and adolescent males. Calcium deficiency is more specific to health as it is vital for bone structure. The quality of bone tissue deteriorates gradually from the age of about the mid-twenties, and this contributes to brittle bones (osteoporosis). For older athletes, especially females, this is extremely important as sport can put a considerable amount of stress on the body, particularly the muscles and bones. Sources of calcium include dairy products, leafy green vegetables and fish such as salmon and sardines.

Important to remember with flexibility

It is important to make sure that you are following safety guidelines for correct stretching techniques which include having correct position and body alignment for the stretch and using the correct breathing technique. This involves: •take another deep breath at the end of the first stretch before completing the stretch for a second time •exhale as the muscle is being stretched •do not hold your breath while stretching.

Lactic acid system or Anaerobic glycolysis By-products

Lactic acid is the main by-product of this system.

Stages of skill acquisition Key Messages

Learners progress through three stages of skill learning. Some learners may not reach the final stage in their execution of skills. ##The cognitive stage is the beginning stage where the individual is working out what needs to be done to perform the skill ##The associative stage is where the individual practices the skills and begins to apply them in game settings. ##The autonomous stage is where the movement come easily and individuals can focus on the environment in which the skills are occurring.

Lung capacity

Lung capacity is the amount of air that can move in and out of the lungs during a breath. The basic principle is the greater the volume of air that can be inhaled and exhaled during exercise, the greater the amount of oxygen that can be absorbed into the blood stream. More oxygen leads to improved performance during aerobic work. As a result of training a number of adaptations occur within the lungs, due to the increased efficiency of the lungs, rather than changes in the size of the lungs. The strength and endurance of the lung tissue and surrounding muscles increases, a greater volume of air can be inhaled and exhaled as well as faster breathing (ventilation). Training also increases the number of capillaries in the lungs, allowing more oxygen to be absorbed with each breath taken.

Supplementation

Many athletes and coaches believe that a balanced diet alone is not enough for optimal performance. If an athlete uses extra food substances in their diet it is referred to as diet supplementation. There are many types of supplements available to athletes and they vary greatly in terms of their impact on performance. Supplements can assist AIS athletes to achieve peak performance. However, poor regulation of the supplement industry allows athletes to be bombarded with marketing hype that exaggerates or completely invents unproven benefits arising from the use of supplements. Unfortunately, the driving force behind the supplement practices of many athletes is not sound science applied to the specific needs of a sport. Instead, some athletes are motivated by fear that their competitors might be taking supplements and that they can't afford to miss out on any 'performance edge'. The results of the present frenzy of supplements in sport are: •a small but real risk of a positive 'doping' outcome •money being wasted on products that simply do not work •time, money and belief being distracted away from the factors that can really enhance health, recovery and performance Dietary supplements can take many forms, including vitamins, minerals, protein, caffeine and creatine products. Supplement intake is routine for many athletes. However, supplements may be of little value if the diet is already well balanced in terms of nutritional requirements. Athletes use nutritional supplements for many reasons, including their belief that: •supplements enhance their performance •their nutritional needs are not being met due to their increased training loads •they eat poorly or have an unhealthy lifestyle •the claims of advertising (of the products) are true. Supplementation should not replace a well balanced appropriate eating plan. It can be beneficial in circumstances where there are special needs resulting from ill health, poor access to quality food or body deficiencies

Aerobic glycolysis system Exercise type most suited for this energy system

Marathon running, 800 / 1500 metre swimming, road cycle race.

Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery

Mental rehearsal, visualisation and imagery involve practising the performance or skill, or the environment in which it is performed in the athlete's mind. This allows athletes to develop a visual image of the performance in a non-threatening environment. This visual image can help the performer focus on the movements required to produce an optimal performance, increase concentration and confidence. Mental rehearsal, sometimes called visualisation or mental imagery, has been shown to enhance not only competition performance, but also the acquisition and building of motor skills. It involves the mental repetition of a movement or sequence to increase the mind's familiarity with the desired motion. It relies on the power of imagery - that is, seeing clearly in the mind what is required of the body in the movement. It involves recalling and then reliving the execution of a skill or a performance. In this process there is no physical movement. A key feature of mental rehearsal is that it can replicate the feelings of anxiety the individual will experience during performance while allowing an individual to visualise success. Mental rehearsal also allows the brain to work out problems and propose alternative solutions and decisions. It works by improving the neural connections between the brain and the muscles to create the movement.

Pre-performance When to eat

Most athletes feel comfortable having a meal 3 to 4 hours prior to competition. If the time period before the event (or between games/events) is shorter, food intake should be in the form of snacks and liquid preparations.

Motivation: Key Messages

Motivation is a state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal. ##Motivation can be positive (a reward for a good performance) where it acts to reinforce actions and behaviour that are correct. Negative motivation is a desire to avoid an unpleasant or undesirable consequence for a poor performance andsubsequently is not sustainable. Positive motivation is more likely to be maintained over time. ##Intrinsic motivation is the desire that comes from within. Extrinsic motivation is the want or desire to succeed in a task to gain an external reward.Both forms are valuable, but intrinsic motivation is more sustainable. ##Reinforcement sustains motivation and can include internal reinforcement (pride), extrinsic or material reinforcement (money) or social reinforcement (praise in front of others).

Motivation

Motivation is often referred to as the 'drive' towards a goal. Motivation greatly influences the amount of interest and effort an athlete gives to a task. Motivation is a personal thing and what motivates one person may not motivate another person at that point in time. Motivation is a very important factor in improving and maintaining an individual's athletic performance. Individuals who lack motivation may not attend regular training sessions, may not train with full intensity, and may not perform to their highest standard during games or competition. The type of reinforcement an athlete receives may also affect their motivation. Reinforcement refers to the reward that encourages the athlete to continue to apply efforts. It can be positive or negative and intrinsic or extrinsic.

Motivation

Motivation is what drives behaviour and is very important for athlete's to reach an optimal level of performance. Motivation significantly impacts on an individual's approach to training sessions, games and/or events. Motivation can be positive or negative, and intrinsic or extrinsic.

Intrinsic and extrinsic

Motivation which comes from within the individual is said to be intrinsic. This may include personal satisfaction or enjoyment that stems from the performance. This is believed to be more effective than an athlete relying upon extrinsic forms of motivation which come from sources outside a person, such as money and trophies While the responsibility for motivation needs to be shared between the athlete and their coaches/parents/peers, sustained motivation relies much more on intrinsic factors than on extrinsic factors.

Muscle hypertrophy

Muscle hypertrophy refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle cells, that is, ‘bulking up’. This occurs as a result of strength or resistance training that stimulates activity in muscle fibres causing them to grow. Hypertrophy does not occur as a result of aerobic training. Muscle fibres enlarge after training. Reasons for this increase in size include the higher proportion of myofibrils (the contractile element of the muscles). The fibres also enlarge as a result of increased stores of glycogen and the energy-supplying compounds (ATP and phosphocreatine - PC) needed for the increased muscle size. Training needs to follow the overload principle to bring about muscle hypertrophy. Muscle hypertrophy occurs when an athlete lifts medium to heavy weights, such as training for strength, power or a lean body mass. Training for muscular endurance (lifting light weights with high repetitions) does not bring about a hypertrophic response. The heavier weights being lifted produce an overload response where the muscles enlarge so that during the following training session they are better prepared for the task. As with other adaptations that occur as a result of training, the principle of progressive overload sees hypertrophy responses over a period of time. The principle of reversibility can be seen through muscular atrophy, where an athlete looses muscle size due to a lack of training

Negative motivation

Negative motivation is characterised by an improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not performing to expectations, such as being dropped to a lower grade team or put on the bench for a previous poor performance. Inspiring an athlete to perform well because they expect to be punished if they fail may work on occasion, but has serious shortfalls. Consider yourself in the example provided above where the coach has told you that if you do not perform well during this game you may be benched or dropped to a lower grade. How may this affect your performance in the game? Players who are motivated negatively may display performance inhibiting behaviours that may surface in high pressure situations as a result of fear of failure, such as: •indecisiveness during game play •lack of creativity in game play •fear of risk taking - opt for the safe play •susceptibility to 'choking'. The general long term effects can be the destruction of confidence, initiative and belief in oneself - the reverse of what motivation is supposed to achieve. Some athletes may be responsive to negative motivation on particular occasions, but positive motivation is better on an ongoing basis.

Neural strategies

Neural recovery strategies such as hydrotherapy and massage help replenish the nervous system. The change in chemicals found in muscles following heavy bouts of exercise or psychological stress can be addressed by these neural strategies.

Alactacid system or ATP/PC By-products

No waste products.

Optimum arousal

Optimal arousal refers to the level of excitement in activities that enables an athlete to perform at their best. Optimal performance can only occur when the performer has achieved a balance between over-arousal and under-arousal. Athletes can learn to attain optimal level of arousal by developing practices and techniques which will allow them to manage their arousal levels.

Optimum arousal

Optimum arousal While anxiety is predominately a psychological state, arousal refers to a physiological state. Arousal can be described as the degree of energy release and the intensity of readiness of the performer or as drive or excitation. There are levels of arousal that can produce optimal performance depends on the sport and the individual. Arousal is a necessary ingredient in sports performance, although its level can wither, facilitate or hinder the execution of specific skills or task components. Arousal levels vary on a continuum from deep sleep to high excitement. Optimal arousal does not mean maximal arousal. Both over-arousal and under-arousal can contribute to poor performance. An individual will perform a skill most successfully when the level of arousal is optimal for that particular task. A poor performance may be due to low level of arousal, perhaps resulting from distraction, disinterest or a depressed level of motivation. The other end of the spectrum is a state of over-arousal, whereby the athlete is unable to perform the required movement with precision because he/she is excessively tense and unable to concentrate. Levels of arousal vary considerably between individuals and they respond to different stimuli to raise or lower their levels of arousal. Arousal has drive properties, meaning that the manipulation of factors that affect anxiety can increase or decrease arousal. Generally, athletes who have a high disposition towards anxiety require less arousal than those who have a low disposition towards anxiety.

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching

PNF stretching has emerged from the field of rehabilitation, and is one of the most effective forms of stretching. PNF stretching involves lengthening a muscle against a resistance, usually provided by a partner and incorporates: •a static stretch •an isometric contraction that is held for up to 10 seconds •brief period of relaxation (only a few seconds) •a further static stretch, which may be assisted. Due to the nature of the stretch, over-stretching is a possibility. A person performing this form of stretching should therefore watch for a feeling of tension, mild pain or quivering muscles.

What is the purpose of training principles

People undertake physical training programs for a variety of reasons; however, the main objective is to improve performance. Other reasons may include weight loss, general fitness improvement, or rehabilitation from injury. Regardless of the reason, there are a number of principles which need to be adhered to when designing training programs to help achieve optimal training outcomes. It is important to remember that programs need to be designed to suit individual activity needs and to suit individual athlete's needs and differences.

Skill Level

People's levels of skill with a given task directly influence how well they perform, which is why you need to train your people intensively if you want them to cope in high pressure situations. For instance, if they're not practiced enough to do a task, they'll feel under serious pressure, and they won't perform well. What's more, people are less able to think in a flexible, methodical way when they're under pressure, which is why they need to be able to fall back on well-rehearsed responses.

Alactacid system or ATP/PC Efficiency of ATP production

Phosphocreatine (PC) combines immediately with ADP to resynthesise ATP. It is a very efficient process and for each molecule of PC, one molecule of ATP is produced. (1:1)

Physiological strategies, eg cool down, hydration

Physiological strategies aim to remove metabolic by-products and replace lost fluids and energy stores.

Positive motivation

Positive motivation occurs when an athlete performs because they have received rewards for similar actions in the past and they realise that continuing to perform as required results in additional rewards. Positive motivation relies on continual self-reinforcement and/or reinforcement by others such as the coach, family, friends, spectator and the media. There are many ways in which motivation can be given or maintained such as: •Â providing incentives/rewards e.g. money, gifts •developing personal progress charts e.g. how many runs/goals scored, tackles made •reinforcement (support/praise) from others e.g. family, friends, media •recognising achievements e.g. MVP, newsletters/paper articles, noticeboards •handling mistakes constructively e.g. positive constructive criticism from a coach •developing challenges for the athlete e.g. fitness challenges, skill challenges.

Lactic acid system Rate of recovery

Post-exercise lactic acid diffuses from the muscle and into the bloodstream. It is then reconverted to glycogen in the liver and once again can be used as a source of fuel. To break down and remove lactic acid may take 30 minutes or up to 2 hours. An active recovery will aid this process, whereby the level of intensity is below that with which lactic acid accumulates.

Post-performance

Post-performance nutrition should focus on replacing energy stores as quickly as possible. This is best achieved through proactive recovery enabling optimisation of body repair and regeneration processes. Post-performance nutrition involves replacing energy stores following exercise as quickly as possible. How well athletes recover after a session of exercise will have an impact on their ability to perform in future training and competition. A post-performance nutritional plan aims at returning the body to its pre-event state as soon as possible. This is best achieved through proactive recovery, i.e. active recovery rather than prolonged rest. This means that refuelling (carbohydrate) and rehydration (fluid and electrolytes) should begin immediately (ideally, within 30 minutes) and continue for 8-12 hours following the performance. This enables optimisation of body repair and regeneration processes. The best way to recover is to act quickly and eat food with high carbohydrate content. An intake of foods with a high glycaemic index (GI) is most beneficial as it raises blood glucose levels faster than low GI foods. Rehydration should involve an increased level of electrolyte and carbohydrate than previously prescribed (during activity) as well as an increased quantity. Dietary protein consumed immediately after a session is taken up more effectively by the muscle for rebuilding processes (as exercise can cause a substantial breakdown of muscle tissue) than is protein consumed hours afterwards. Active rest (light exercise such as walking and stretching) enhances recovery of body systems damaged by the stress of the activity. It can be difficult for athletes who take part in multiple training sessions each day or who train for extended periods of time to replace fuel and fluid stores adequately. Extensive, strict planning is required.

An athlete's nutritional needs can be broken down into the following three phases. The links below will explore these further.

Pre-performance During performance Post-performance

Pre-performance

Pre-performance nutrition is about preparing the body for exercise. There are a number of important considerations for athletes to be aware of as part of pre-performance nutritional strategies. These include: •what type of food to eat and in what amount •when to eat and drink and •how to carbohydrate load if required. Food consumed prior to activity is useful only if fully digested and its energy and nutrients available to where they are required in the body. Fluid levels rarely keep pace with the body's requirements, and they need to be repeatedly replaced.

Principles of training Key Messages

Progressive overload implies that the load needs to be slowly increased as we become accustomed to the existing level of resistance to bring about further improvements. ##Specificity focuses on the replication between what is done in training to what is required in the performance or game. ##Reversibility implies that fitness, strength and flexibility improvements will be lost as training ceases. ##The principle of variety suggests that the training program needs to include a range of activities to ensure that motivation remains high. ##A threshold is a starting point for a new state or experience and in regards to exercise often relates to intensity of performance. The lowest level of intensity that will produce a training effect is the aerobic threshold. The highest level is the anaerobic threshold. The zone between the thresholds is the training zone, the area where we need to be working to improve aerobic performance. ##Warm up and cool down are essential to any training program, and particularly for the prevention of injury.

Protein

Protein supplements have had a strong favour with weight-lifters, body builders and strength athletes for a long time as protein in the form of amino acids is the basic structure of muscle. Protein supplements can be natural or synthetic and are available in powder, liquid or solid formulations. Many athletes believe that protein supplements are important because of their muscle building qualities, with higher intake positively affecting muscle size, when in fact, this is a misconception. The body can only utilise a small amount of protein at any one given time, therefore excess protein will not aid in tissue growth and is often wasted. Protein can be used as a source of energy when carbohydrate and fat stores are in short supply or are exhausted. Most well balanced diets (made up of fish, chicken, red meat, milk and cheese, wholemeal/grain breads and cereals, and some types of beans) contain ample protein. The majority of the general population consume protein in proportions higher than required for general health maintenance. In fact most athletes consume more than enough protein within a high energy diet making protein supplementation both needless and wasteful. Some athletes such as strength athletes, endurance athletes undertaking heavy training and some adolescents undergoing a growth spurt may have a need for protein intake but generally these are exceptions to the general principle of diet providing adequate protein. High amounts of protein can negatively affect health. •High amounts of protein can increase the amount of calcium excreted in the urine and possibly contribute to osteoporosis. •Excess protein is eliminated by the body and this processing and filtration can interfere with kidney function. •Diets high in protein can often have a high fat content, contributing to weight gain and blood vessel blockage. •Typically an increase in protein in the diet may be at the expense of other nutritious foods such as fruit and vegetables, which may then lead to deficiencies in some nutrients.

Psychological strategies, eg relaxation

Psychological recovery strategies aim to disengage the athlete from the performance. Heart rate, breathing and body temperature remain elevated post exercise and may take time to drop as do anxiety levels about the performance or future performances. Strategies such as relaxation assist to bring these levels to normal levels.

Lactic acid system By-products of energy production

Pyruvic acid/lactic acid is the main by-product of the lactic acid system.

Recovery strategies

Recovery is an integral part of effective performance which focuses on identifying strategies to minimise and manage fatigue from training and competition. These can include physiological, neural, tissue damage and psychological strategies. Recovery is the re-establishment of the initial state. It can be passive or active and requires planning. Recovery is an integral aspect of training. It focuses on identifying strategies that athletes can use to minimise and manage fatigue from training and competition. Appropriate recovery strategies will: •maximise gains from training and improve quality in every session •improve consistency of quality performance •minimise and eliminate injuries, overtraining, illness or burnout. Elite athletes use a range of strategies designed to enable them to minimise fatigue associated with high-volume training and resume full training in the shortest possible time. Recovery strategies can be categorised as physiological, neural, tissue damage or psychological. If recovery is inadequate the athlete may be: •incapable of performing at the expected standard •prone to injury •susceptible to overtraining or non-functional overreaching

Haemoglobin levels

Red blood cells transport oxygen to every cell in the body. Each red blood cell contains about 250 million haemoglobin molecules. The main function of haemoglobin is to absorb oxygen at the lungs and carry this oxygen to the working muscles and organs via the blood stream. Haemoglobin absorbs oxygen at a very fast rate and this leads to an efficient oxygen transportation system within the body. Women tend to have slightly lower levels of haemoglobin than males. This is a contributing factor to females having lower VO² max values. Haemoglobin levels increase as a result of training. General endurance training programs increase haemoglobin levels 20 percent. Upon commencement of training, oxygen is removed from the cells. The body responds by producing more red blood cells and haemoglobin, allowing more oxygen to be delivered to the cells. Over the years athletes and sports scientists have explored many ways of improving haemoglobin levels, particularly for endurance athletes. Legal methods such as high iron diets, altitude training and targeted training have proven to be quite successful. Other methods such as blood doping, blood transfusions and drugs such as EPO have put athlete's health and wellbeing at risk and have been made illegal. Altitude training involves athletes training at higher altitudes than they are accustomed to, as there is a lower amount of oxygen in the air the greater the distance is from sea level. This causes the body to produce more haemoglobin so the body can absorb oxygen more effectively. Similar effects have also been seen by athletes who use tents that limit the supply of oxygen.

Relaxation

Relaxation techniques are techniques that, with practice, reduce arousal levels and limit the impact of over-arousal. Relaxation helps the athlete lower their stress level and calm themselves before a performance. Techniques that can be used to achieve this include progressive muscular relaxation, meditation, centered breathing, and hypnosis. Relaxation techniques are often used by sports performers to calm themselves which decreases anxiety and controls arousal. Relaxation can be useful before, during or after an event. As with mental rehearsal, visualisation and imagery, it must be practised so that it becomes a natural response and it is important that each athlete finds the relaxation technique that suits them personally. There are a number of relaxation techniques, including progressive muscle relaxation (external website), autogenic training (external website), meditation (external website), biofeedback (external website), breathing exercises (external website) and hypnosis (external website). Each procedure differs from the other, but aims to produce calmer, more relaxed performers. Relaxation techniques usually have one or more of the following characteristics: •procedures for tensing and then relaxing muscles •a focus on breathing •a focus on heaviness and warmth •mental imagery.

Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)

Required Resources To undertake this test you will require: •Questionnaire (see below) •Assistant How to conduct the test •The assistant explains the test protocol to the athlete: ◦Read each statement below, decide if you "Rarely", "Sometimes" or "Often" feel this way when competing in your sport, and tick the appropriate box to indicate your response. •The athlete responds to the 15 questions on the questionnaire below - no time limit •The assistant determines and records the athlete's SCAT score Example question before I compete I am calm

Resting heart rate

Resting heart rate is the minimum number of beats required of the heart to maintain body function at rest. This is determined by your basal metabolic rate (BMR) â€" the minimum requirement for oxygen needed by the body. Resting heart rate will decrease as aerobic fitness improves. This is due to improved efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system and in particular, an increase in stroke volume (the amount of blood ejected by the heart with each beat). An increased stroke volume means that for every heart beat an athlete will be able to pump more blood from the heart to the working muscles. This means that the heart does not have to work as hard to provide the oxygen required. Trained athletes generally have a lower resting heart rate than untrained individuals. Highly conditioned endurance athletes can have resting heart rates below 40 beats per minute (bpm) with some recorded as low as 30bpm (Lance Armstrong - Tour de France cyclist). Another impact of training is on post-exercise heart rate. The more aerobically trained an individual the quicker the individual’s heart rate returns to resting levels.

Goal-setting

Setting goals allows an athlete's progress to be planned and monitored over a period of time. Goal setting also increases motivation and commitment levels providing the athlete with a clear direction. Goals need to be realistic and achievable to be effective. Goals may relate to areas such as the overall performance, specific skills involved, fitness or behaviours. Goals are targets that we direct our efforts towards. They can relate to either performance or behaviour. The establishment of goals is important to improve both individual and team preparation and if collectively owned - by individuals, team, coach, and parents - will be more likely to obtain greater returns. By empowering athletes with the responsibility to set their own goals, they are more likely to seriously attempt to fulfil them. Goals provide focus and motivation, give direction, and help people to realise their aspirations and produce better results. Not only can goals redirect an athlete who is unable to see the end result of training, but they can provide the essential formula for success. Goals may be short or long term, and behaviour or performance oriented. Short-term goals play an important role as they serve as checkmarks by which other goals can be measured. Using the example of a long distance runner, a short-term goal may be to complete three endurance sessions for the first month of training. A long-term goal may be to run a 14km fun-run such as the City to Surf in Sydney. A behavioural goal may be to get up early and train before work/school. A performance goal may be to finish the City to Surf in less than 90 minutes.

How does the acquisition of skill affect performance?

Skill acquisition refers to the process that athletes use to learn or acquire a new skill. A skill can be defined as an act or task such as typing or drawing, or in the instance of sport, catching, throwing, and running. Skill acquisition is a gradual developmental process that requires our cognitive (thinking) processes to work with our physical abilities to learn how to perform movements that we were previously unfamiliar with. For performers and coaches to produce peak performance, it is essential that they understand how the level of skill acquisition can affect performance. This includes an understanding of the learning process, analysis of how well it is performed and identification of how the performance of this skill can be improved. Learning can occur in three ways: •cognitive learning - learning by receiving knowledge and information •affective learning - learning on a social level (e.g. self-esteem and fair-play) •motor learning - learning by acquiring physical motor skills.

Stages of skill acquisition

Skill learning is a continuous and dynamic process. When the learner acquires a skill certain changes can be seen in their performance as they move through stages of learning from a beginner through to a skilled performer. These changes can be analysed in three stages, as developed by Paul Fitts and Michael Posner in 1967 (external website) These stages are known as the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages of skill acquisition

Vitamins

Some athletes consume vitamin supplements, such as a multivitamin, as a type of 'nutrition insurance', even though their diet may be very good. This can be an expensive option, with no proven benefit and may have potential for danger, as an excess of some vitamins can cause health complications and/or have a detrimental effect on performance. Fruits and vegetables are strongly recommended as ideal sources for many vitamins, especially if a variety of different colours are consumed.

Fight-or-Flight: stress

Some of the early research on stress (conducted by Walter Cannon in 1932) established the existence of the well-known "fight-or-flight" response. His work showed that when an organism experiences a shock or perceives a threat, it quickly releases hormones that help it to survive. In humans, as in other animals, these hormones help us to run faster and fight harder. They increase heart rate and blood pressure, delivering more oxygen and blood sugar to power important muscles. They increase sweating in an effort to cool these muscles, and help them stay efficient. They divert blood away from the skin to the core of our bodies, reducing blood loss if we are damaged. As well as this, these hormones focus our attention on the threat, to the exclusion of everything else. All of this significantly improves our ability to survive life-threatening events. Not only life-threatening events trigger this reaction: We experience it almost any time we come across something unexpected or something that frustrates our goals. When the threat is small, our response is small and we often do not notice it among the many other distractions of a stressful situation. Unfortunately, this mobilization of the body for survival also has negative consequences. In this state, we are excitable, anxious, jumpy and irritable. This actually reduces our ability to work effectively with other people. With trembling and a pounding heart, we can find it difficult to execute precise, controlled skills. The intensity of our focus on survival interferes with our ability to make fine judgments by drawing information from many sources. We find ourselves more accident-prone and less able to make good decisions. There are very few situations in modern working life where this response is useful. Most situations benefit from a calm, rational, controlled and socially sensitive approach. In the short term, we need to keep this fight-or-flight response under control to be effective in our jobs. In the long term we need to keep it under control to avoid problems of poor health and burnout. Note:

examples of how you include Fartlek into your training.

Some ways of incorporating Fartlek training into training sessions is to: ◦run around the outside of a field or oval and incorporate regular bursts of speed every two to three minutes or from one corner to another ◦running up and down hills - the intensity increase of running up a hill provides the same training effect as running at a faster pace ◦group line running where the leader changes - running around an oval/field where the back runner sprints to the front whilst the remainder of the group jog closely together. When the back runner reaches the front the next back runner sprints to the front, and so it continues.

State anxiety

State anxiety is characterised by a state of heightened emotions that develop in response to a fear or danger of a particular situation. State anxiety can contribute to a degree of physical and mental paralysis, preventing performance of a task or where performance is severely affected, such as forgetting movements during a dance or gymnastic routine, to breaking in sprint or swim starts or missing relatively easy shots at goal i.e. pressure situations. For some athletes sports anxiety can be a valuable motivator, e.g. contact sports such as rugby, whereas other sports require a very low level of anxiety for successful performances, e.g. archery, pistol shooting. Athletes can learn to manage anxiety using techniques such as relaxation, hypnotherapy, cognitive behaviour therapy and positive thinking. For state anxiety, therapies focus on the specific situations causing stress to the athlete whereas Trait anxiety requires a broader approach.

Static stretching

Static stretching is also referred to as passive stretching. This involves the gradual lengthening of a muscle to a position (end point or limit) where it is held for 15 - 30 seconds. It is a safe and effective method of stretching muscles and joints as the movement is done in a controlled slow manner taking the muscle to a point where there is stretch without discomfort.

Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety Key Messages

Strategies athletes can use to enhance motivation and manage anxiety, include concentration/attention skills, mental rehearsal, visualisation, relaxation and goal setting. ##Concentration and attention skills allow the athlete to focus on the task at hand and ignore other distractions. ##Mental rehearsal and visualisation is where individuals conduct perfect practice in their mind prior to performance, thereby enhancing their ability to physically perform the skills when required.  ##Athletes who are susceptible to a state of over-arousal can implement relaxation techniques such as controlled breathing, massage, meditation, yoga, progressive muscular relaxation and self-hypnosis to manage this over-arousal. ##Goals are targets that an individual aspires to achieve and can be short or long term, and behaviour or performance oriented. ##The SMARTER acronym can assist athletes when developing their goals.

Strength training

Strength training involves the use of resistance. Resistance training helps to increase the amount of force a muscle can exert and results in muscular hypertrophy. Muscles contract in a number of ways and each of these need to be addressed by specific training. To develop strength, resistance must be applied to muscles as they contract. This resistance can take many different forms such as a person's own body weight, free weights, weight machines, hydraulic machines and elastic bands.

Warning about stress

Stress can cause severe health problems and, in extreme cases, can cause death. While these stress management techniques have been shown to have a positive effect on reducing stress, they are for guidance only, and readers should take the advice of suitably qualified health professionals if they have any concerns over stress-related illnesses or if stress is causing significant or persistent unhappiness. Health professionals should also be consulted before any major change in diet or levels of exercise.

Sources of stress

Stress is a human response to a threat or perceived threat. As it depends on perceptions it can vary greatly from one person to another e.g. one athlete may be totally unphased by a sudden death play-off in competition whereas another may see this as a situation producing high levels of stress. Stress can come from many sources both internal and external and athletes can learn strategies to alleviate stress.

examples of how you include Aerobic Interval into your training.

Swimmers use this type of training regularly when they complete a series of sets while training; for example, completing four sets of 400 metres every 7-8 minutes. Runners might run 1200 metres then walk for half a lap then repeat the process four to six times.

Sources of stress

Stress is a normal part of everyday life but left uncontrolled it contributes to anxiety and reduced performance. Athletes constantly undergo stressful situations before, during and after competition. When athletes compete they might experience too much stress (hyperstress), too little stress (hypostress), good stress (eustress) or bad stress (distress). A major game, such as a world cup soccer qualifier may produce significant stress for some athletes. Equally a game of less importance such as a pre-season trial game or exhibition game may result in players too relaxed to perform. Stress can come from many sources, some of which athletes have little control over. Internal or personal pressures include the desire to win or fulfil goals, self-esteem and self-confidence, fear or failure to non-controlled aspects such as injury and illness. External stressors can include competition pressures such as the opponents; social pressures such as spectators, coaches and expectations of others; and physical pressures such as pressure to perform under demands of competition and reaction to opponents. There are many techniques that can be used to cope with stress before, during and after events, which will be discussed in the section on strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety.

Stroke volume and cardiac output

Stroke volume (SV) is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart (left ventricle - to the body) during each contraction measured in mL/beat (millilitres per beat). Therefore cardiac output (Q), the amount of blood leaving the heart each minute, measured in L/minute, can be calculated by multiplying stroke volume by heart rate (Q = SV x HR). The stroke volume and hence cardiac output will determine the amount of blood being circulated and therefore how much oxygen will reach working muscles.

Supplementation: Key Messages

Supplementation is often unnecessary as the body can obtain sufficient nutrients through a balanced diet. ##For some athletes adequate intake of vitamins and minerals such as iron and calcium is a significant performance issue. ##Protein supplementation is often unnecessary and can be detrimental to the individual's health or physical performance. ##Research indicates that the consumption of creatine and caffeine in their recommended dosages can have a positive effect on performance for some athletes.

Task Complexity

Task complexity describes the level of attention and effort that people have to put into a task in order to complete it successfully. People can perform simple activities under quite high levels of pressure, while complex activities are better performed in a calm, low-pressure environment.

Inverted U

The Inverted-U model (also known as the Yerkes-Dodson Law), was created by psychologists Robert Yerkes and John Dodson as long ago as 1908. Despite its age, it's a model that has stood the test of time. It shows the relationship between pressure (or arousal) and performance According to the model, peak performance is achieved when people experience a moderate level of pressure. Where they experience too much or too little pressure, their performance declines, sometimes severely. The left hand side of the graph shows the situation where people are under-challenged. Here, they see no reason to work hard at a task, or they're in danger of approaching their work in a "sloppy," unmotivated way. The middle of the graph shows where they're working at peak effectiveness. They're sufficiently motivated to work hard, but they're not so overloaded that they're starting to struggle. This is where people can enter a state of "Flow," the enjoyable and highly productive state in which they can do their best work

Concentration/attention skills (focusing)

The ability of an athlete to keep on task during competition is attention, focus or concentration. This involves focusing attention on relevant environmental cues, and maintaining that attention By improving the ability to focus on relevant cues (coach - 'keep your eyes in the ball') and to ignore irrelevant ones (spectator - 'you catch like a baby') the individual will be able to improve their performance. Attention involves taking control of the mind and, with clarity, focusing on what is important. The type of concentration required varies with the type of activity. It could be: •intense concentration is required in activities such as gymnastics, diving and batting in cricket •intervals of high concentration interspersed with periods of intense concentration predominate in most team games such as oz tag, netball and softball •at the extreme is sustained concentration as might be required in triathlons, marathon running and high level tennis matches, such as the recent world-breaking longest Wimbledon match where the score went to 70-68 in the fifth set tie breaker. Over 11 hours of tennis

Stages of skill acquisition

The ability of individuals to experience, learn and refine motor skills greatly affects their ability to perform any physical activity. This section explores the processes that individuals undertake when learning a new skill and how these processes can be adapted to help individuals learn these skills more easily and quickly. The process of learning new motor skills can be organised into three stages. The learner gains a better understanding of the skill, and improves their ability to execute the skill as they move through these stages of skill acquisition.

Stroke volume

The ability of the body to make oxygen-rich blood available for working muscles is the biggest factor affecting aerobic performance. The more blood that the heart can eject per heart beat, the more work an individual will be able to do. Aerobic training, over a period of time, has a substantial effect on stroke volume and, therefore, on the individual's future aerobic performance. Training causes the size of the heart to increase, noticeably, the ventricles. The walls of the ventricles also become thicker and stronger. This allows for more blood to enter the heart and more powerful contractions and therefore more blood to be ejected during each contraction. For all heart rate levels, from rest to maximal exercise, training increases an individual's stroke volume and this is more evident during sub-maximal and maximal exercise as the ventricle fills more completely.

Recovery strategies: Key Messages

The ability to recover after competition and training is essential in ensuring that optimal performances can be maintained. Recovery can involve a range of strategies. ##When selecting the most appropriate recovery strategy coaches and athletes need to apply the principle of specificity to meet the demands of training and competition. ##Physiological strategies aim to conserve body fluid levels, replace fluid as well as reduce and remove the by-products of exercise. ##Neural strategies such as hydrotherapy and massage assist in waste disposal within muscle. They aim to minimise the effects of fatigue and allow for continuation of the training program. ##Cryotherapy uses cold therapy in the form of ice packs, ice baths and cryotherapy chambers to reduce pain and inflammation and assist in eliminating metabolic waste. ##Psychological strategies such as relaxation and sleep are as important as physiological strategies in completing total recovery following demanding physical activity. ##Not all recovery strategies utilised by athletes are supported by scientific evidence.

Aerobic glycolysis system Efficiency of ATP production

The aerobic system is the slowest but most efficient form of energy production. It utilises oxygen to metabolise muscle and liver glycogen as well as blood glucose and fatty acids. For each glucose molecule metabolised there is 36 molecules of ATP produced. (1:36). For each fatty acid molecule metabolised 130 molecules of ATP are produced. (1:130)

Alactacid system (ATP/PC) Duration of the system

The amount of PC in muscles is limited. After about 5-10 seconds of maximal work supply is depleted. This reduces its ability to contribute to movement and therefore another energy system is activated. High intensity activity lasting for 10 seconds or less uses the ATP-PC system as the primary source of energy. Explosive activities such as 100m sprint, kicking a football, and athletic field events are examples of skills/activities that are primarily fueled by the ATP/PC system.

Associative

The associative stage of skill acquisition really focuses on the idea of practice with the learner learning how to do it. Practice at this stage increases the learner’s ability to perform the skill or task. They may not necessarily perform the skill well but have an understanding of how to do it. Most learners stay in this stage for a long period of time, with most not progressing to the next stage.

Vitamins/minerals

The body is unable to manufacture vitamins, so diet must supply them as vitamins are essential to maintain bodily functions. Excessive quantities of some vitamins can be unnecessary, expensive and potentially dangerous. Minerals are micronutrients that are essential for the body to function properly. Iron and calcium are the two most common minerals deficient in athletes, and inadequate supplies will diminish performance and contribute to health problems. Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients, meaning that they are only needed in very small amounts in the body. They do not contain energy but perform vital roles in the body such as growth and metabolism. The body is unable to manufacture vitamins and as such diet is the key source of vitamins and minerals.

Alactacid system or ATP/PC Recovery

The body will naturally replace stores of phosphocreatine. After 30 seconds there is 50% recovery, after 2 minutes there is 100% recovery.

Oxygen uptake and lung capacity

The cardiovascular system determines the supply of oxygen-rich blood to muscles. The respiratory system also plays an essential role in athletic performance as oxygen levels will influence how hard a muscle can work and for how long.

Cognitive

The cognitive stage of skill acquisition is the early identification and understanding of the skill to be learned. Individuals focus on what to do, that is most of the learner’s activities during this stage will be in the mind â€" watching, thinking, analysing, reasoning, judging and visualising, rather than lots of practice. During this stage the learner develops an in-depth understanding of the skill to be acquired.

Cognitive stage

The cognitive stage of skill acquisition is the early identification and understanding of the skill to be learned. Individuals focus on what to do, that is most of the learner’s activities during this stage will be in the mind â€" watching, thinking, analysing, reasoning, judging and visualising, rather than lots of practice. During this stage the learner develops an in-depth understanding of the skill to be acquired. This is the first experience the learner has with a skill. At this stage the learner needs one or two simple instructions to concentrate on and plenty of demonstrations of the correct skill. Too much instruction causes the learner frustration due to information overload. For example, in tennis, the learner needs to do is concentrate on getting the body side on at impact and keeping the racquet head parallel to the ground. Conceptualisation, the generation of clear mental pictures of a task, is a critical process at this stage of learning. Demonstrations of the skill being practised give the learner an overall view of the skill. Visual cues allow them to transfer what they are seeing into what they want to do. This as well gives them a "mind's eye" to revert back to and rehearse. Some learners pass through the cognitive stage very quickly while others may find this stage particularly challenging. To begin with they make many errors and have few successes (e.g. missing the ball altogether followed by hitting the next one in the desired direction) depending on the complexity of the skill. Complex skills may need to be broken down into smaller movements. Learners may experience large errors, awkwardness, jerkiness, poor timing and some disorientation. For example, when playing a golf shot, someone in the cognitive stage will often miss the ball or hit the ground. During cognitive learning, coaches should focus on simple fundamental skills, aim to keep motivation high and provide positive, constructive and specific feedback. Video feedback demonstrations and visual cues are valuable tools for coaching at this stage. When the error count begins to drop and a more consistent performance is demonstrated, they have started to move into the associative stage

Introduction to Core 2: Factors Affecting Performance

The content covered in each of the focus questions within Core 2 Factors Affecting Performance is inter-related. It is important to take a holistic view when revising this course. Developing a deep understanding of the relationship between content covered in each of the focus questions will help you to apply various health information. It is important to think of the relationships between the focus questions and dot points in the syllabus. For example, think of the relationship between: •the energy systems and the types of training •nutritional considerations, supplementation, recovery strategies and the types of training •psychology and the learning environment •motivation and the stages of skill acquisition

Cool down

The cool down, or active recovery, is a group of lower intensity exercises performed immediately after exercise to remove waste products, decrease muscle soreness (DOMS), (external website) improve muscular relaxation, bring the cardiovascular system back to rest and allow time to reflect on the training or performance. This could involve short jogging repetitions, slow swimming or similar low intensity activity. Static stretching is often combined with the cool down to improve range of movement and reduce the risk of injury.

Warm up and cool down: Cool down

The cool down, which follows the training or performance session, is effectively the same as the warm up, but in reverse, and is aimed at minimising muscle stiffness and soreness. The cool down, while not as intense or involved as the warm up, allows for the active recovery and gives the body time to return the blood to the heart, rather than letting the blood pool in the muscles. This allows the oxygenated blood to 'flush out' the waste products that form during activity and begin to rebuild the energy stores required for the next performance. The cool down should include a period of aerobic work, gradually decreasing in intensity as well as stretching aimed at reducing muscle soreness and aiding recovery.

How does resting heart rate change as a result of training?

The graph below shows the effect of exercise on heart rate (HR) for a trained and an untrained individual. Both individuals were required to do exactly the same amount of work and their heart rate responses are shown. The graph shows heart rate response over time i.e. beats per minute (bpm).

Energy systems

The human body requires a continuous supply of energy both to meet the metabolic needs and to power muscular contraction for movement. There are three energy systems which provide the working muscles with energy for movement. These include: •the two energy systems which operate without the presence of oxygen - the alactacid (ATP/PC) system and the lactic acid system •the energy system that operates with oxygen - the aerobic system. The predominance of any system or systems during activity is dependent on the duration and intensity of the activity.

additional information about stress

The ideas of "eustress" (good stress) and "distress" (bad stress) were developed by Hans Selye, one of the early researchers on stress. Selye believed that a mild level of stress encouraged animals and people to behave in a more active way, while an excessive level of stress would hamper their performance. Since then, other people have drawn similar conclusions, substituting the idea of "stress" with the idea of "pressure". Framed in this way, this is an important and valuable idea. With all of its associations of unhappiness and loss of control, real stress is now seen as a bad thing in all circumstances. The ideas of "eustress" and "distress" are therefore no longer useful. Indeed, they may be harmful in that they may encourage managers to try to motivate subordinates by increasing the amount of unpleasant stress they experience. The error in this approach is clear if you remember that "pressure" is a different thing from "stress".

Lactic acid system Duration of the system

The lactic acid system is an important energy system because it provides a very quick supply of ATP for intense, short bursts of activity (usually 30-60 seconds, but may last up to 3 minutes). The duration of the system depends upon the intensity of the activity, therefore the less intense the activity, the longer it will last.

Lactic acid system or Anaerobic glycolysis Efficiency of ATP production

The lactic acid system produces ATP very rapidly. However due to the lack of oxygen it is very inefficient. For each molecule of muscle glucose and glycogen, two molecules of ATP are produced (1:2). Note: two molecules of lactic acid are also produced.

Types of training and training methods Key Messages

The main types of training are aerobic, anaerobic, flexibility and strength training. ##Aerobic training includes continuous activities, such as running, swimming, as well as Fartlek, circuit training and long-interval training. These methods are designed to improve the efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system to deliver oxygen to working muscles. ##Anaerobic training involves high-intensity, short-duration exercise (such as interval training). This method is characterised by repeated bursts over short distances at high intensity and are designed to improve the two anaerobic energy pathways. ##Flexibility training encompasses four methods, static, ballistic, dynamic, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF). The appropriate method to use depends on the specific nature of the sport or activity involved. ##Strength training utilises weight and hydraulic machines or other devices, such as elastic bands or free weights, to provide resistance against which a muscle can contract. It is designed to improve the amount of force that can be exerted by the muscle during a contraction. The most commonly used method is isotonic strength training whereby the muscle length changes as weights are lifted and lowered.

Alactacid system or ATP/PC Cause of fatigue

The muscles stores of phosphocreatine are exhausted after approximately 10 seconds.

Lactic acid system Source of fuel

The other system that does not require the presence of oxygen to resynthesise ATP in muscles is the lactic acid system, which is also known as anaerobic glycolysis. Following the initial 10 -12 seconds of maximal exercise, PC stores are exhausted and ATP still needs to be produced to provide energy. The body needs to find an alternate fuel and the lactic acid system becomes the dominant supplier of ATP. This system involves the partial breakdown of glucose to form lactic acid in a number of chemical reactions know as glycolysis. The glucose for this process comes from either glucose stored in the blood or from the breakdown of glycogen in the liver or muscle.

Oxygen uptake

The oxygen uptake (VO2) of an athlete is the amount of oxygen which the body uses in a minute. It should not be confused with the ventilation rate, which is the total amount of air per minute passing in and out of the lungs. Oxygen uptake is believed to be one of the best indicators of an athlete's overall fitness. Most training works to improve the athlete's ability to move oxygen into the cells and improve the ability of the cells to use the oxygen. The standard measure of oxygen uptake is: VO² = millilitres of oxygen used per kilogram of body weight per minute = mL/kg/min Like many components of fitness, VO² max has a genetic component where an individual is limited by their inherited characteristics. It is also known that VO2 max can be increased through training by increasing training volume and intensity. The less fit an individual is, the more they can increase their VO2 max (sometimes by up to 20 percent through proper training). Fit athletes have a harder time increasing their VO² max, as they are often close to their genetic potential.

Progressive overload

The principle of progressive overload implies that a training effect is produced when the system or tissue is worked at a greater level that it is normally accustomed to working. As the body adapts to these new levels, training should continue to be progressively increased. Progressive overload can be achieved by varying the frequency, duration and intensity of the training, with increases in intensity having the greatest effect. Considerable stress must be placed on the system or tissue so that improvements can occur. If there is too much overload, fatigue can result as well as potential injury; if training load is too little, the training effect will plateau or decrease. Athletes need to be aware that not all adaptations will occur in the same timeframe and that it is important to increase the workload gradually over a long period so improvements are maintained and overtraining is avoided.

Reversibility

The principle of reversibility states that effects of training are reversible, even only after one or two weeks of stopping or reducing training. That is, the training effects will be quickly lost, and the person's performance will decline, and unfortunately often at a rate faster than gains were made. This is often referred to as the detraining effect. Reversibility is evident in all components of fitness such as aerobic and anaerobic fitness, power, strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and speed. Many athletes take part in off-season training programs to maintain their fitness until the next season begins or injured athletes may take part in other activities to maintain their fitness until recovery takes place

Specificity

The principle of specificity implies that the greatest gains are made when activity in the training program replicates the movements in the game or activity. That is, training should be specific to the: •task requirements •energy systems required in the task •muscle groups required in the task •components of fitness involved in the task. For example, to be competitive in their chosen sport, long distance runners need to develop the aerobic energy system and leg muscles. A javelin thrower needs to develop the ATP-PC system to throw while, at the same time, developing shoulder, back and arm muscles specific for throwing and power. A squash player will benefit from playing tennis during practise sessions as there is a transfer of skill even though the technique is slightly different.

Training thresholds

The principle of training thresholds relates to levels of exercise intensity that are sufficient to produce a training effect. Training thresholds are usually explained in terms of the maximum heart rate in relation to volume of oxygen uptake (VO2). During exercise, the following three factors become important in relation to training thresholds: •heart rate •ventilation (external website) •blood lactate (external website). All these increase in proportion to the intensity of exercise. This appears to be related to maximum oxygen consumption (max VO2 (external website)). The increase in lactic acid in untrained athletes occurs at a lower max VO2 than in trained athletes. The aerobic training threshold is the lowest intensity at which an athlete needs to work to produce an aerobic training effect, that is, an improvement in the body's ability to use oxygen during exercise. This occurs at approximately 70% of the person's maximum heart rate (MHR), or at approximately 50-60% of that person's max VO2, and is equivalent to a moderately paced jog. At this level a person can conduct a conversation comfortably. With increased intensity comes a rise in lactic acid representing an increasing reliance on the anaerobic energy system. The point at which lactic acid accumulates is known as the anaerobic training threshold and is usually around 80% MHR or 75% max VO2. The threshold is the maximum speed or effort that an athlete can maintain and still have no increase in lactic acid. The term lactate threshold (LT) is increasingly being used as it is a more precise term because anaerobic energy is continually produced, even at rest, meaning that lactic acid is formed and removed continuously. Therefore for an individual to obtain an aerobic training effect they should exercise in the aerobic training zone; that is, between the aerobic and lactate (anaerobic) thresholds.

Variety

The principle of variety states that athletes need to be challenged by not only the activity but also by the implementation of the activities and this is often achieved by cross-training. Training can often become repetitious and boring, especially if done for many hours over many weeks over many years. This is particularly evident in endurance activities involving few technical skills, for example swimming and running. While the principle of variety is not essential to improve performance it does make training more interesting and enjoyable. Aerobic, anaerobic, strength and flexibility training can take many forms so it can be easy to incorporate this principle into training programs.

Lactic acid system Efficiency of ATP production

The production of energy during this process is very efficient as there is a relatively quick supply of ATP; however it requires large amounts of glucose. Unfortunately, however, this process can yield only 5 per cent of the number of ATPs that are produced by the aerobic system, yet more than the ATP/PC system.

Energy Systems: Key Messages

The source of energy for muscle contraction is adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ##The body has three energy systems, or pathways, which resynthesise ATP to produce energy: adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - creatine phosphate (PC), lactic acid and aerobic. ##The alactacid system provides immediate energy for maximum activity lasting up to 10 seconds. Its fuel source is creatine phosphate (PC) and does not produce any by-products during energy production. ##The lactic acid system provides energy for less than one minute of high intensity exercise and to up to three minutes for lower intensity exercise. Its fuel source is glycogen and produces a by-product called lactic acid, which can inhibit performance. ##The aerobic system provides energy for rest as well as during sustained work of low to moderate intensity. It uses carbohydrate and fat to provide large quantities of ATP and produces carbon dioxide and water as by-products, neither of which are harmful to performance.

Types of training and training methods

The type of training carried out by an athlete should target the specific needs of the activity being trained for. Training programs can focus on different aspects of fitness and can include aerobic, anaerobic, strength and flexibility training. Aerobic training aims to improve the ability of the body to use oxygen. Anaerobic training focuses on developing the ability of the body to recover from brief intense activity. Strength training focuses on the ability of the muscle to produce force. Flexibility training works to improve the range of movement at a joint. All types of training play an important role in improving performance.

How can psychology affect performance?

The use of psychological strategies to improve sports performance has increased significantly over the past few decades. Coaches have realised that, particularly at elite level psychology plays a key role in determining the level of performance. The ability of the mind to generate thought patterns, influence emotions, stimulate or diminish arousal and create images of a desired action is now better understood and has changed the way that many athletes approach their events. The major aspects of psychology that affect performance are motivation and anxiety. Athletes need to be able to prepare for major competitions, reduce tension and stress that may have cause a decline in performance, and maintain high-level performances over a long period of time.

Alactacid system (ATP/PC) By-products of energy production

There are no by-products of this system that will cause the body to fatigue however heat is produced during the process of muscular contraction.

Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres

There are two types of muscle fibre: •slow-twitch muscle fibres •fast-twitch muscle fibres. Slow-twitch fibres contract slowly and release energy gradually as required by the body during steady-state activity such as jogging, cycling and endurance swimming. These fibres are efficient in using oxygen to generate energy (ATP), making them resistant to fatigue but unable to produce the power of fast-twitch fibres. When the body is engaged in endurance-type activity, slow-twitch fibres are preferentially recruited for the movement because they are more efficient in meeting the immediate demands of the working muscles. Fast-twitch fibres contract quickly and release energy rapidly however, they fatigue rapidly due to anaerobic metabolism providing the energy. The body preferentially recruits fast-twitch fibres to perform explosive type activities such as weight-lifting, field athletics and sprint track athletics. Two types of fast-twitch fibres can be explored further through the link at the bottom of this page. The individual’s ratio of fast-twitch to slow-twitch muscle fibre is genetically determined, making them more suited to certain sports or activities. The ratio of both types of muscle fibre varies in each individual and each muscle. In summary: •Ratio of fast to slow-twitch fibres is thought to be genetically determined. •The metabolic capabilities of both types of fibres can improve through specific strength and endurance training. •Sprinters and weight lifters have a large percentage of fast-twitch fibres. •Marathon runners generally have a higher percentage of slow twitch fibres. •Muscles that primarily maintain posture against gravity (core strength) require more endurance and generally have a higher percentage of slow-twitch fibres. •Muscles that produce powerful, rapid, explosive strength movements tend to have a greater percentage of fast-twitch fibres. Sport specific training will assist in appropriate development and adaptation of each type of muscle fibre. Fast-twitch muscle fibres benefit most by anaerobic training, such as sprint or interval training and resistance training. Slow-twitch muscle fibres benefit most from endurance type activities that engage the aerobic system, such as running, cycling and swimming.

Pre-performance Carbohydrate loading

There has been much debate about the effectiveness of carbohydrate loading. Theoretically it aims to maximise glycogen stores prior to performance therefore gaining a competitive edge. Carbohydrate is the preferred source of energy for the body therefore athletes increase the amount of carbohydrate they consume leading up to an event in the aim of maximising the body's storage of glycogen. The higher the levels of muscle glycogen, the greater the endurance of the muscles during performance. The process of carbohydrate loading has been modified in recent years as the ability of individuals to go through glycogen depletion then glycogen loading had numerous negative effects on the athlete. New techniques involve consuming a diet high in carbohydrates and tapering training for two to four days before competition, causing glycogen supplies to be at maximal levels. It is also believed that athletes involved in short-term, low-intensity activities do not need to carbohydrate load as a normal diet should provide adequate amounts of glycogen.

Massage

There is a long history of using massage to aid recovery from sporting performance. The main purpose of massage is to assist in reducing training fatigue. It can also be helpful in a preventative way in reducing localised muscle tension that can with time lead to overuse injury. The physiological impacts of massage on the recovery process have still to be fully researched and understood. There is evidence of massage leading to improved mood states and feelings of well being that help physical and psychological relaxation. Some of the claimed benefits include: •waste removal and increased food/oxygen supply leading to faster recovery and earlier return to training •minimising the effects of fatigue •inducing calm and mental relaxation and encouraging effective sleep •reducing muscle tension •temporary flexibility gains •breaking down adhesions to increase muscle elasticity and reduce risk of further injury •realignment of collagen fibres after injury, leading to flexible, stronger scar tissue. Massage can be performed prior to an event or following an event and can be delivered by a masseur or through self-massage. Different techniques can be used such as Swedish massage, trigger point massage, and myofascial release massage. Sports massages are a specialised form of massage where the focus is on reducing tension in the muscles caused by exercise, relieving discomfort and soreness or for injury treatment. Therefore the treatment should specifically suit the needs of the athletes and demands of the sport or activity.

Trait Anxiety

Think of trait anxiety as the level of a person's "self-talk." People who are self-confident are more likely to perform better under pressure. This is because their self-talk is under control, which means that they can stay "in flow", and they can concentrate fully on the situation at hand. By contrast, people who criticize or question themselves are likely to be distracted by their self-talk, which can cause them to lose focus in pressurized situations.

Hydration

Thirst is not an accurate predictor of dehydration. An organised schedule of fluid replacement is required to fully hydrate athletes after performance. Studies have shown that athletes typically replace only about 50% of their sweat loss and often undertake subsequent sessions in a dehydrated state, reducing their performance ability. Alcohol can increase swelling to damaged tissue and increase fluid loss. It should be avoided for at least 24 hours after exercise to allow full recovery. To replenish fluid lost during training or games the athlete should consume approximately one litre of water for every kilogram of body weight lost. The addition of carbohydrates will speed up fluid replacement as well as refuelling muscle glycogen stores. The foods eaten in the 30 minutes immediately after exercise should be medium to high glycemic (external website). Sports drinks are useful because they provide fuel and fluid but should be limited to the 30 minute period following exercise. Solid foods, such as fruit, should be encouraged as they provide additional nutritional value.

Alactacid system (ATP/PC) Efficiency of ATP production

This system is very efficient as chemical reactions occur very quickly and are very simple. The breakdown of PC produces energy, which is used to join ADP and P back together to produce ATP, making this system very efficient in producing energy.

Aerobic glycolysis system Recovery

This system takes the longest time to recover, as fuel stores need to be replenished. After long intensive activity, it may take up to 24 hours for this to occur.

Tissue damage strategies

Tissue damage recovery strategies aim to minimise the level of tissue damage and promote healing. Strenuous activity causes minor muscle fibre tears and the body's response is to repair this damage. Cryotherapy (cold therapy) assists in offsetting this tissue damage.

Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety

To ensure that anxiety does not have a negative impact on performance, an athlete needs to learn to manage their personal anxiety levels. A range of psychological strategies can be used to manage anxiety such as concentration/attention skills, mental rehearsal/visualisation, relaxation and goal setting.

Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety

To manage the negative impact of anxiety on performance, an athlete can learn to manage their personal anxiety levels. A range of psychological strategies available to athletes include concentration/attention skills, mental rehearsal/visualisation, relaxation and goal setting. For more information about each of these strategies click on the following links:

Principles of training

Training programs need to challenge athletes physically if the aim is to improve performance. The principles of training guide the athletes about what will work to produce a training effect. These include progressive overload, specificity, reversibility, variety, training thresholds and warm-up and cool-down. It is also important to understand how these principles relate to each type of training.

Trait anxiety

Trait anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of an individual, that is, a trait related to personality. Trait anxiety varies according to how individuals have conditioned themselves to respond to and manage the stress. What may cause anxiety and stress in one person may not generate any emotion in another. People with high levels of trait anxiety are often quite easily stressed and anxious.

Warm up and cool down: Warm Up

Warming up and cooling down are important components of all training and performance sessions. The warm up aims to prepare the body in readiness for the activity that is to follow by: •stimulating the cardiorespiratory system thereby increasing blood flow to working muscles •increasing body temperature •making the muscles, ligaments and tendons more supple and elastic, and •reducing the possibility of a muscular tear causing injury. A warm up should include three stages: a general warm up; stretching; and a specific warm up and should last for a minimum of 10 minutes. The general warm up involves a gentle use of the large muscle groups in a rhythmic manner that progressively increases in intensity. The stretching stage of the warm up involves stretching the major muscle groups in a slow manner, holding each stretch for 10-30 seconds. This is followed by stretching of specific muscles then dynamic stretching to prepare the muscles for the training or performance. The specific warm up stage involves practising performance-like activities and skills that progressively increase the heart rate and use the muscles and ligaments involved

Aerobic glycolysis system By-products

Water and carbon dioxide are by-products. The body also produces heat.

Cardiac output

When a trained and untrained athlete are working at the same heart rate (beats per minute) the trained athlete will have a much higher cardiac output than an untrained one (can be over double for elite endurance athletes during maximal exercise). This is a direct result of a higher stroke volume in the trained athlete. However the trained person works more efficiently as the body adjusts the heart rate to meet the blood demands, so it is then seen that the cardiac output at rest and during sub-maximal exercise are often quite similar as the extra stroke volume is offset by the decrease in heart rate (this is why trained athletes have a lower exercise heart rate).

Physiological adaptations in response to training

When an athlete begins participates in regular aerobic training the body begins to adapt physically to the demands placed upon it. These adaptations allow the body to function more comfortably at existing levels of stress and respond more efficiently to new levels of stress. This makes the body more efficient and capable of more work. Many of the changes occur in the cardiorespiratory system and lead to an improved ability to deliver oxygen to working muscles. When we talk about these changes, terms such as sub-maximal exercise and maximal exercise need to be explained. Sub-maximal exercise is performed at a level below maximum heart rate and the heart rate remains constant or near constant during the activity. Examples include jogging, cycling or swimming for more than 20 minutes. Maximal exercise is activity which leads to a heart rate that approaches its maximal level, such as sprinting.

How does training affect performance?

When athletes train they are trying to improve the way their bodies function and perform. There are many similarities in the way training programs are designed and the principles that guide their design. To understand how training affects performance it is important to have a knowledge and understanding of the energy systems, types of training and training methods, principles of training and physiological adaptations in response to training.

How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance?

While athletes are encouraged to follow the basic principles of healthy eating (including following the Dietary Guidelines for Australians (external website) and the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating (external website)) there is, a need for athletes to increase their overall kilojoule intake to compensate for the additional amount of energy used in training and performance. The increase in the amount of energy required varies according to the activity being undertaken. By understanding the dietary needs of athletes and planning eating strategies for before, during and after activity, individuals can enhance their recovery and maximise physiological responses from training, and in turn, improve their performance. Athletes also need to be conscious of their fluid intake and consider the place of supplementation and recovery strategies in their training programs. While complete nutritional balance is essential for optimal physical performance, the specific roles of carbohydrates and hydration are the two most important considerations. Athletes need to consider factors such as what to eat and drink, the most appropriate time for food intake and strategies to recoup expended energy as well as training and performance requirements. An athlete's nutritional needs can be broken down into the following three phases. The links below will explore these further.

Physiological adaptations in response to training

While training will cause immediate physiological responses in the body, athletes are looking for adaptations and long term responses to improve performance. These adaptations allow the athlete to achieve higher levels of work. They include changes to resting heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac and cardiac output, oxygen uptake and lung capacity, haemoglobin level, muscle hypertrophy, and effects on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres.

a.How does oxygen uptake (VO²) affect performance?

a.Through training, an athlete’s cardiac output is increased and ventilation rates improve. The athlete’s ability to absorb and utilise oxygen more efficiently during exercise improves. He or she will be able to work harder.

b.How could body weight impact on VO² max?

b.VO² max is usually expressed relative to bodyweight because oxygen and energy needs differ relative to size. It can also be expressed relative to body surface area and this may be more accurate when comparing children and oxygen uptake between sexes.

c.How do VO²2 max rates differ between males and females? Why?

c.Untrained girls and women typically have a maximal oxygen uptake 20-25% lower than untrained men. When comparing elite athletes, the gap tends to close to about 10%. Sex-specific essential fat stores and muscle stores account for the majority of metabolic differences between men and women.

d.Discuss what is meant by a plateau of VO² max. Does it imply that training improvements will cease?

d.The point at which oxygen consumption plateaus defines the VO2 max or an individual's maximal aerobic capacity. VO2 max is more useful as an indicator of a person's aerobic potential or upper limit than as a predictor of success in endurance events. Crucially, once a plateau in VO² max has been reached further improvements in performance are still seen with training. This is because the athlete is able to perform at a higher percentage of their VO² max for prolonged periods. Two major reasons for this are improvements in anaerobic threshold and running economy.

e.Athletes with a lower VO² max are more suited to what sports?

e.Sports suited to athletes with a lower VO² max include: weightlifting, field athletics, volleyball, basketball.

f.Athletes with a higher VO² max are more suited to what sports?

f.Sports suited to athletes with a higher VO² max include: cycling, rowing, track athletics (long distance), cross country skiing.

Flexibility, eg static, ballistic, PNF, dynamic

motion is determined by the ability of the muscles (and tendons) which surround a joint, to stretch or lengthen. Other factors which will affect flexibility include age, gender, temperature (of both the air and body) and current fitness status. Flexibility is important in: •preventing injuries •increasing the ability of muscles to stretch and range of movement around joints •improving coordination among muscle groups •reducing soreness and the tightening of muscles after performance •counteracting the restricting effects of muscle growth resulting from resistance training. To understand flexibility you need to understand the mechanics involved in stretching. Within each muscle there are muscle spindles whose main function is to send messages back from the muscle to the brain about the state of the stretch. The muscle spindle has a protective mechanism, called the stretch reflex, which automatically stops the muscle from overstretching. The degree of force exerted by the stretch reflex mechanism is proportional to the force and speed of the stretch. If these two forces work against each other, the likelihood of the muscle tearing increases. To avoid this, safe flexibility guidelines should be put in place, whereby, after a suitable warm-up muscles must be stretched slowly, and be held in a pain-free position.

•Focus questions

•How does training affect performance? •How can psychology affect performance? •How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance? •How does the acquisition of skill affect performance?

Specificity AEROBIC TRAINING

•aerobic activities such as running, swimming, rowing, cycling suited to the sport/performance •muscular endurance training for muscles involved in aerobic training e.g. legs, arms •include some training of lactic acid system for aerobic events that require short sprints such as triathlon, soccer, etc

Warm up and cool down STRENGTH TRAINING

•aerobic activities that warm up the major muscles of the body to be trained, for example, jogging or cycling for leg workouts or rowing for upper body workouts •stretching of all muscles involved in the workout, including static and dynamic stretching •repeated for the cool down •for strength training it is also advised to stretch each muscle group between sets and at the end of the sets before moving onto another body part/muscle

Reversibility AEROBIC TRAINING

•aerobic losses are slower than strength losses •need to continue training at +70% MHR, 3 times per week to avoid detraining effect •may substitute other aerobic activities to keep cardiorespiratory system working

Variety AEROBIC TRAINING

•cross-training is very effective to reduce boredom and loss of enthusiasm •taking part in other activities such as rowing, cycling, swimming, boxing, as well as circuit, Fartlek and interval training will help increase motivation

Training thresholds STRENGTH TRAINING

•depending on the type of strength training that is being performed (absolute strength, power, muscular endurance, lean body mass) vary level of intensity. •absolute strength requires a very high intensity (resistance) as few repetitions are performed •muscular endurance has a lower intensity (resistance) so more repetitions can be performed

Golf: Cognitive stage

•eyes not on the ball - lifts eye from ball too early •misses the ball completely or just clips top of ball •club hits the ground when taking a shot •unbalanced stance - unable to line up shot correctly resulting in ball being hit in wrong direction (goes to the left or right) •doesn’t follow through and shot lacks force and distance •holds club incorrectly •too much back swing which reduces accuracy of hitting ball (tries to hit it too hard but loses control of club and accuracy) •slices or hooks the ball due to incorrect body positioning •incorrect club choice - ball is hot over or short of ideal distance

Aerobic training - in slow-twitch fibres

•hypertrophy of slow-twitch muscle fibres •increased capillary supply to muscle fibres, improving gaseous exchange & movement of nutrients and waste products •increased number and size of mitochondria (energy factory of cells) enabling more efficient energy production •significant increase in myoglobin content (transports oxygen from the cell membrane to mitochondria)

Anaerobic training - in fast-twitch fibres

•increase and efficiency of ATP/PC supply •increased glycolytic enzymes which improve functioning of the cell •hypertrophy of red-twitch muscle fibres •increased tolerance of lactic acid, allowing performance to be sustained for longer periods •muscle contractions can be made more forcefully and quickly as there are a greater volume of fast-twitch fibres

Progressive overload AEROBIC TRAINING

•increase distance •increase time •increase intensity (decrease time taken to complete set distance) •incorporate hills into training

Progressive overload STRENGTH TRAINING

•increase weight/resistance •increase repetitions •increase sets •decrease rest period between sets

Training thresholds AEROBIC TRAINING

•individuals need to train within the aerobic training zone, being 70 â€" 80% maximum heart rate

Warm up and cool down AEROBIC TRAINING

•large muscle group aerobic activities are required to warm up, such as jogging, swimming, rowing, cycling •stretching, both static and dynamic, are needed of the large muscle groups involved •specific warm up involving the major muscle groups is then followed by activities such as callisthenics (push ups, star jumps) and other movements specific to the activity •stretching and low intensity aerobic work for a cool down

Reversibility STRENGTH TRAINING

•losses in strength are greater than aerobic capacity losses over a given time frame •regular stimulation of specific muscle fibres are needed to avoid a detraining effect, for example twice a week per muscle/muscle group

Variety STRENGTH TRAINING

•there are a variety of exercises for each muscle and muscle group so it is suggested that you change your program at approximately 4 -8 week intervals •you can use different equipment to create variety, for example dumbbells, kettlebells, barbells, resistance bands, medicine balls, and machine weights

Specificity STRENGTH TRAINING

•train the muscles that need to be developed for the sport/performance •train the appropriate type of strength training suited to the sport/performance •train the muscles at the speed of contraction needed for the sport/performance e.g. explosive movements need fast contractions like those involved in plyometrics

examples of activities/sports that would be suited to Continuous

◦long distance running e.g. 10+km, half/full marathon ◦triathlon ◦long distance cycling e.g. Tour de France ◦long distance swimming e.g. 1.6km ◦race walking ◦rowing ◦various sports that last for 30+mins (e.g. soccer, touch football, AFL) can use this method of training to give athletes general fitness base, however they need to be supplemented by other types of aerobic training to meet other needs.

examples of activities/sports that would be suited to Aerobic interval

◦middle distance running events e.g. 800m - 5km ◦sports which require a number of bursts of speed without the need to be continuously running for the whole game e.g. oz tag, rugby league, cricket (batter).

examples of activities/sports that would be suited to Fartlek

◦most long distance sports where a short burst of pace is needed to gain advantage over competitors e.g. in a marathon race where a runner wants to try to break away from the pack, or at the end of a race where athletes can push themselves to finish the race or attempt to beat a competitor in front of them ◦sports which require athletes to be able to do repeated sprints throughout the course of the game e.g. AFL, soccer, touch, water polo.

examples of activities/sports that would be suited to Circuit

◦most sports can be adapted to suit this method of training by manipulating the exercises/stations as well as the time at each station and rest periods. This assists in training particular muscle groups (muscular endurance) and skills as well as aerobic endurance.