personality 150 midterm 2
Dollard and miller
Combined psychoanalytic theory with behaviorism; deep inner drives plus reinforcements social learning theory
Situations (averaged)
Consistency averaged across situations - Reliability issue - Appropriateness of the situation - Averaging cross-situational behaviors helps to deal with both of these issues (aggregation)
Situations (within)
Consistency within situations - Problem of classifying situations - The "personality" of situations
Cognitive and social-cognitive approach "Structure"
Constructs, expectancies, cognitions, schemas
American paradox
Contemporary situation where we have material abundance co-occurring with social recession and psychological depression
person-situation approach
"Humans as an ongoing dialogue between self and environment" Personality consistently changes as a function of relations with others Focuses on threats that are inherently social
Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST):
(pavlovian approach) in this view, characteristics of the nervous system differ systematically between individuals, producing individual differences in conditioning and corresponding individual differences in personality. • Posits that underlying biobehavioral systems influence individual responsivity to both reward and punishment
Walden two
(skinners Utopia) • Applied the principles of operant conditioning to design a society • Sets up a controlling environment by using positive reinforcement • Several communities were founded on behaviorist principles (twin oaks community)
We seek situations that ....
...reinforce our self-conception This makes our social environments and self-concepts seem more stable than they really are
Some situations are so powerful that...
...they override personality effects - A fire in a crowded theater - Extreme nationalism or fascism
Gordon Allport- personality
- "The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought" à sees personality as an organization within the individual. - Each person has unique qualities - Philosophical, humanistic, scholarly approach - Did not like Cattell or Skinner approach - Regularities in behavior arise because The individual views many situations and stimuli in the same way - Many of the individual's behaviors are similar in their meaning
Theophrastus
- Creator of character sketches that can be recognized across time and place. - Was also known for "Penurious Man" (Cheapskate)
The Big Five (Trait Approach)
- Extroversion (surgency) - Agreeableness - Consciousness (lack of impulsivity) - Neuroticism (emo. Instability) - Openness to experience (culture & intellect) - emerged from extensive factor analyses -- research driven, rather then theory based - Inductive approach - Predicts useful and important life outcomes - This does not mean there are only five traits - These traits are extremely broad and contain narrower traits within them (anxiety or depression).
Motives
- Internal psychobiological forces that help induce particular behavior patterns towards a goal. - Needs - more basic then traits - Life-Tasks - Personal Strivings ---Does Linda party due to hi E; or due to fear of loneliness, hi sex drive, or need to affiliate? [needs not traits]
Low self-monitors
- Less sensitive to reactions and expectations of others - Shows more consistent behaviors across situations
Francis Galton
- Measurement of human abilities
High self-monitors
- More sensitive to the social influences that vary across situations - More difficult to see personality effects
Emotional expressiveness
- People differ in their overall expressiveness -tend to beset as charismatic - Extroverted and dominance are related to their expressiveness. - Extroverted is the most readily seen in expressive style. - The most successful communicators are able to read the cues of others and, in return, are spontaneously able to express the appropriate emotions. ** They are nonverbally sensitive, nonverbally expressive, nonverbally self controlled, and motivated to perform for their "audience."
cattel collected these types of data
- Q-data (Questionnaire): - T-data (Test data -observations in a situation) - L-data (Life -e.g. B+ student at UCR):
Proprium (allport)
- The core of personality, layers within the human psyche.
Personality Judgements
- The importance of consensus in determining the reality of personality traits - Friends' judgments vs. strangers' judgments (zero acquaintance)
Eysenck's Big Three and Related Alernatives
- Traits are derived from three biological systems - Extroversion—outgoingness and assertiveness - Neuroticism—instability and apprehensiveness - Psychoticism—tendency toward psychopathology (impulsive, cruel, Low A, Low C)
R.B. Cattell
- Used (and refined) factor analysis - summarizes correlation coefficients - data-driven, not theory-driven - made Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire --reduced many different traits to sixteen traits
Myers - Briggs Type Indicator
- Widely used instrument that attempts to measure Extro/Introversion. There are also sub classifications
Hippocrates
- described human temperament in terms of 4 bodily humors. --Sanguine (blood) - hopeful and cheerful --Melancholoic (Black bile) - sad and depressive --Choleric (yellow bile) - angry and irascible --Phlegmatic (phlegm) - slow and apathetic
Charles Darwin
- replaced demons and spirits with mutation and natural variation. - Individual differences are a topic for scientific study - Individual differences can arise through evolutionary processes
Typology
- small number of "types" (extro and intro) - Each person fits one "type" best - 8 Types (4 functions x 2 attitudes) - Functions: Sensing, Thinking, Feeling, Intuiting
-What does it mean to be self-actualized (maslow h.o.n.)
--The innate process by which a person tends to gain spiritually and realize his or potential --Self-actualized people are spiritually fulfilled, comfortable with themselves, loving, ethical, creative, and productive
Carl Rogers (humanism)
1) Responsibility 2) Rogerian therapy
Phenomenological view
-Focus on individual's perceptions -concept that people's perceptions or subjective realities are considered valid data for investigation
Existential anxiety and dread
-Have to make decisions of our lives (meaning of our existence and making a place for ourselves in this world)
Love 2.0 according to Barbara Fredrickson
-Love as an emotion -Micro-moments (fleeting) of love and connection that you share with anyone
Love according to Erich Fromm (humanism)
-Love is an art -Allows us to overcome our isolation but still maintain our individual integrity -Modern society encourages existential alienation --Using the internet and technology for communication instead of face to face interaction
Henry Murray needs
-Need for Achievement: - Need for Affiliation: - Need for Power: - Need for Exhibition
Responsibility (rogers)
-People have an inherent tendency toward growth and maturation -Becoming one's self --A healthy personality can trust their experience and understand people have different perceptions -People must strive to take responsibility for themselves --Can make ourselves and society better
Idiographic methods (allport)
-Take into account each person's uniqueness → Diaries, interviews, Q-sorts, etc. - Compensate for the limitations of nomothetic methods (univesal/general)
self-efficacy beliefs are the result of what 4 types of information (bandura)
1) our expectancies trying to perform the target behavior or similar behavior 2) watching others perform that or similar behaviors 3) verbal persuasion 4) how we feel about behavior
Modify drinking & drug abuse
-by conditioning • (e.g. Disulfiram (Antabuse) produces a sensitivity to alcohol which results in a highly unpleasant reaction when the patient under treatment ingests even small amounts of alcohol)
Positive psychology arose due to the challenges to the ....
...pessimistic views
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs (humanism)
1)self actualization motives 2)Self-esteem -Respect we have for others -Respect we get respect from others 3)Love and belonging -Relationships with other people (family, social groups, culture) -Intimate relationships 4)Safety -Necessity to live in a world that makes senses -Protect ourselves 5)Physiological needs -Food, water, sex, etc.
Central tenets of gestalt
1. Human beings seek meaning in their environments 2. We organize the sensations we receive from the world around us into meaningful perceptions 3. Complex stimuli are not reducible to the sum of their parts
Rotters 6 psychological needs that develop out of biological needs
1. Recognition status 2. Dominance 3. Independence 4. Protection-dependency 5. Love and affection 6. Physical comfort
Three components of love 2.0
1. Sharing of one or more positive emotion with another person 2. Synchrony between your and the other person's biochemistry and behaviors 3. A reflected motive to invest in each other's well-being that brings mutual care
David Goleman claims that emotional intelligence has 5 components..?
1. being self aware 2. controlling anger and anxieties 3. being persistent and optimistic in the face of setbacks 4. being empathetic 5. interacting smoothly with others
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
A disorder in which a person has atypical attentional processes. -People differ in their attention to things, and this is a stable individual difference. -The term ADHD is used for people with or without the hyperactivity component. -The distinction is made by a subcategorization into 3 distinct subtypes: ---Hyperactive/impulsive type (no inattention) ---The inattentive type (no hyperactivity or impulsivity) ---And the combined type -Individuals with the inattentive type usually go undiagnosed until adulthood -ADD individuals are the inattentive type, they can focus their attention to certain things of their interest, and remain focused longer than others. But have difficulty focusing on other important things. -Amphetamine drugs are used to treat ADHD, it has opposite effects on those with out ADHD ---It calms and focuses ADHDs attention, while it acts like a stimulant to those without it -ADHDs show different brain activity (frontal lobe - striatal region)
walter mischel- Competencies
A person's abilities and knowledge
Positive Psychology
A recent movement within psychology, focusing on desirable aspects of human functioning, as opposed to an emphasis on psychopathology
albert bandura
A social lcognitive theorist whose major work addresses the nature of observational learning as well as the manner in which the inner person and the demands of a situation comine to determine a persons actions. bobo doll= learned agression
Social Learning Theory and who
A theory that proposes that habits are built up in terms of a hierarchy of secondary, or acquired, drives. The social learning approach endeavors to integrate key ideas from other theories, but all within a learning framework. These ideas are important because they led to modern cognitive-social learning and Interactionist approaches to personality. Dollard and miller
Secondary Reinforcement
According to Dollard and Miller, a conditioned reinforcement; a previously neutral stimulus that becomes a reinforcer following its pairing with a primary reinforcer.
Specific Expectancy
According to Julian Rotter, the expectancy that a reward will follow a behavior in a particular situation.
Negative reinforcement
An adverse event that ends if a behavior is performed, making it more likely for that behavior to be performed in the future.
Gestalt Psychology
An approach to psychology that emphasizes the integrative and active nature of perception and thought suggesting that the whole maybe greater than the sum of its parts. (1920s)
Existentialism
An area of human philosophy concerned with the meaning of human existence -How do people perceived their surroundings -Subjective approach -Subjective vs. objective --Being in the world -Phenomenological view
Role Construct Reperatory Test (Rep test)
An assessment instrument designed by George Kelly to evoke a persons own personal construct system by making comparisons among triads of important people in the life of the subject.
Hedonic adaptation
An effect that occurs when the mental scale that people use to judge the pleasantness-unpleasantness of their experiences shifts so that their neutral point, or baseline for comparison, changes.
Humanism
Area of philosophy that emphasizes the personal worth of the individuals and the importance of human values -Emphasizes the creative, spontaneous, and active nature of human beings -"third force" -Relationships with other people
Situations: Interactions and behavior
Behavior is a function of both the situation and personality: A person's behavior will vary with the situation, but anchored by personality
Mirror Neurons
Brain cells that fire in the same way for an individual's own actions and for the observed actions of others Allows people to feel or sense the experience of another
Benefits of being happy
Broaden and build theory of positive emotions a.Broaden thinking b.Build resources ● Social ● Psychological ● Mental ● Physical
Modifying Type A personality
By using operant conditioning people are able to learn to reduce their negative behaviors
behaviorist strengths
Can force a more scientific analysis of the learning experiences that shape personality; requires rigorous empirical study; looks for general laws that apply to all organisms; forces attention to the environmental influences on behavior
Cognitive and social-cognitive approach "Key strengths"
Captures active nature of human thought and uses modern knowledge from cognitive psychology
Mischel's Critique of Personality
Correlation's of behavior with personality are generally .30 or less - Assumes a simple model of personality-behavior relations - Assumes that a correlation of .30 is small
Dialectic tension
Creative people tend to have traits that are seemingly contradictory but that play a role in their creativity
I-it monologue
Describes a utilitarian relationship in which a person uses others but does not value them for themselves
Readiness
Each experience has its effects in context of previous experiences We are more affected by certain environments at certain times in our lives Related to the concepts of "imprinting" and "critical periods" Interactive effect of the state of the person and the nature of the situation
Law and Effect
Edward Thorndike's concept that the consequence of a behavior will either strengthen or weaken the behavior; that is, when a response follows a stimulus and results in satisfaction for the organism, this strengthens the connection between stimulus and response; however, if the response results in discomfort or pain, the connection is weakened. • Learning initially comes through trial and error. We learn to do those actions that bring us rewards or help us to avoid pain.
Expressive styles
Elements such as vocal characteristics, facial expressions and individuals body gestures and movements - Donald Duck, Mickey mouse
Bf Skinner
Emphasized that personality was clearly the result of reinforcement history of a child; life and personality are determined and controlled by environmental events. [IDIOGRAPHIC APPROACH] Studied animals and generalized to humans
Logotherapy
Emphasizes the importance of choosing to find meaning in life ● Find this in post-traumatic growth
Robert sears
Examined psychoanalytic constructs in terms of the real, observable behaviors of parents and children. He described personalities as "potentialities for action" that included motivation, expectations, habit structure, the nature of instigators to behavior, and the environmental events produced by that behavior. He studied the child-rearing antecedents of of dependency and aggressiveness in children. o Childhood personality was measured by teachers ratings, behavioral observation, and doll play. o Child-rearing practices were obtained by maternal report(a major methodological limitation because mothers reports may be distorted) o He found that the amount that the parent reported punishing the child for dependency was highly related to both dependency and aggression in the child. o Overall, the study found that although many child-rearing practices were weakly or not at all related to personality characteristics in children • Dollard and millers theory that many Freudian disorders and neuroses resulted from parenting practices of punishments • That punished children for undesirable behavior • Was somewhat supported by the data There is no simple answer to to what it means to be a person • There is no single comprehensive theory that has been established and universally adopted throughout personality psychology o Rather there are system of ideas and insights that derive from various intellectual traditions and historical movements of ideas.
Human potential movement
Existential-humanistic movement in which people are encouraged to realize their inner potentials through small group meetings, self-disclosure, and introspection
John b watson
Father of behaviorism Thoughts and feelings elicited through introspection are unobservable and unscientific. He had a dislike of using human subjects; he much preferred using animals • Founded behaviorism • Applied conditioning principles to humans • Rejection of introspection
Children's play differences (characters associated with Field Ind.)
Field-independent children are more likely to favor solitary play over social play
Cognitive and social-cognitive approach "Leading Theorists"
G. Kelley, A. Bandura,
Cardinal dispositions
Gordon Allport; personal dispositions that exert an overwhelming influence on behavior
Nuclear Quality
Gordon Allport; term for describing personal dispositions in terms of a person's unique goals, motives, or styles
Central dispositions
Gordon Allport; the several personal dispositions around which personality is organized
Systematic desensitization
Gradually extinguishing a phobia by causing the feared stimulus to become dissociated from the fear response.
Developing a specific cognition
Gratitude Good work habits Social patterns (acts of kindness to others)
First systematic approach to analyze traits arose in...
Greece.
Clark hull
His emphasis was on experimentation, an organized theory of learning, and the nature of habits -Role of primary drive alleviation & Habits ---Complex associations between a stimulus and a response (e.g. seek money as it buys food & drink, but you cannot eat money) -Emphasized both internal states and the environment ---Describes how distant goals can be learned Hull turned the attention to the internal state of the organism during learning, although he still emphasized the reinforcements provided by the environment.
Multiple Intelligences and who?
Howard gardners theory that claims that all human beings have at least 7 different ways of knowing about the world and that people differ from one another in the relative strengths of each of these 7 ways. The multiple intelligence approach is focused on the variety of domains in which people can be intelligent (intrapersonal)
Teleology
Idea that there is a grand design or purpose to one's life
Experiencing person
Important issues are defined by each person for him/herself in the context of the total range of things the person experiences
Habit Hierarchy and who
In social learning theory, a learned hierarchy of likelihoods that a person will produce particular responses in particular situations. dollard and miller
- Need for Power: Henry Murray
N power-need to seek positions and offices in which one can exert control over others (ex: accumalte possessions, control territory)
Caspi's study of the life course
Individuals create their own person-situation interactions by interpreting and seeking out situations "Cumulative continuity" promotes personality consistency - Interpreting situations as similar - Eliciting similar reactions from others - Seeking out similar situations
Kurt lewin
Kurt Lewin came directly out of gestalt tradition -But he focused his efforts in the areas of personality and social psychology rather than perception and problem solving. His approach is both cognitive and Interactionist
Field theory
Kurt Lewin's approach to personality, suggesting that behavior is determined by complex interactions among a persons internal psychological structure, the forces of the external environment, and the relationships between the person and the environment.
Contemporaneous Causation
Kurt Lewins concept that behavior is caused at the moment of its occurrence by all the influences that are present in the individual at the moment.
Ian Pavlov
Laid the foundation for modern learning approaches; he provides a basis for explaining emotional aspects of personality -Studied the salivation of dogs and bell sounds ------Food → unconditioned stimulus ------Salivation → unconditioned/automatic response ------Bell → Neutral stimulus
behaviorist limits
May dehumanize unique human potentials through comparisons to rats and pigeons; may ignore advances from cognitive and social psychology; Explains all differences between individuals as a consequence of their reinforcement histories; Views humans as objects to be trained
Modern behaviorist approaches
Most personality psychologists see a fundamental conflict in a behaviorist approach to personality -It deals only in externally observable entities and is thus limited in its ability to address the essence of personality ---Which is complex, internal, and not directly observable Behaviorist refuse to concern themselves with "unscientific" notions like freedom, dignity, and self-fullfillment. Such things are seen as epiphenomena
Positive psychology
Movement in modern psychology to focus on positive attributions rather than on pathology
Need for Affiliation:Henry Murray
N aff-The need to draw near and win the affection of others (ex: want to come together and spend time with other people)
Deficiency needs
Needs that are essential for survival includes physiological, safety, belonging, and esteem needs
Cognitive and social-cognitive approach "Key Weakness"
Often ignores unconscious and emotional aspects of personality
walter mischel - Expectancies
Outcome expectancies and self- efficacy for our own behavior
cattels 16 traits
Outgoing - reserved Suspicious - trusting More - Less intelligent Imaginative - practical Stable - emotional Shrewd - Forthright Assertive - Humble Apprehensive - Humble Happy-go-lucky - Sober Experimenting - Conservative Conscientious - Expedient Self-sufficient - group-tied Venturesome - Shy Controlled - Casual Tense - Relaxed Tender-minded - Tough-minded
Common Traits (allport)
People have a common biological heritage and people within a culture have a common cultural heritage it makes sense to assume that people have in common many traits. - Americans "dominate" their environment
Longitudinal Study
The close comprehensive, systematic, objective, sustained study of individuals over significant portions of the life span Examples: - Block and Block's longitudinal study at Berkeley - Lewis Terman's Life-Cycle Study
Harry Stack Sullivan (interactionist)
Personality is tied to social situations - Personality is "the relatively enduring pattern of recurrent interpersonal situations"
I-though Dialogue
Phrase used by martin Buber to describe a direct, mutual relationship in which each individual confirms the other person as being of unique value
walter mischel-Encoding strategies
Schemas and methods used to process and encode information. - Personal meanings.
Personal orientation inventory
Self-report questionnaire that asks people to classify themselves on a number of dimensions for the various characteristics of self-actualization of mental health
Situated Social Cognition
Social-cognitive processes that change with the changes in the situation. -How we understand the world depends in part on our goals and feelings at the time.
Humanistic: Structure
Spirit being in the world
Learning Style
The characteristic way in which an individual approaches a task or skill to be learned.
Field Independence
The extent to which an individuals problem solving is NOT influenced by that of the dependence ^^. (Straight rod) • more analytical and allows for more complex levels of restructuring in problem solving. • These individuals are more influenced in their behavior by internalized aspects of the problem solving situation. Witken claimed that people in hunter-gatherer societies tended to be more field independent than peoplein predominantly agrarian societies.
Nondeterministic
The idea that it is an oversimplification to view people as controlled by fixed physical laws
Need for Exhibition-Henry Murray
The need to show one's self before others and to entertain, amuse, shock, and excite others
Murray's Personological System:
The richness of the life of each person and the dynamic nature of the individual as a complex organism responding to a specific environment. Emphasizes the importance of: - Internal needs and motives - Environmental press - Dynamic system, with feedback
Cumulative continuity
The tendency of personality to remain stable over time through consistency of interpretations, environments and reactions
Rogerian therapy
The therapist tends to be supportive, non-directive and empathetic, and gives unconditional positive regard
Dialectic humanism
Tries to reconcile the biological, driven side of human beings and the pressures of societal structure by focusing on the belief that people can rise above or transcend these forces and become spontaneous, creative, and loving
Murray's "Thema"
Typical combinations of needs & presses for each person. Measured with the Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT) (projective) - A person composes a story to an ambiguous picture Narrative approach - Studies motives through biographies
Henry Murray (interactionist)
Viewed personality as the study of human lives across time - Situations encountered throughout ones life Combines unconscious motives and environmental pressures
jean piaget
Was first interested in biology (mollusks), then studied with Carl Jung (like freud) He then turned to focus on intellectual development (his kids); he proposed a cognitive-structure explanation of how children develop concepts about the world around them.
Subjective well-being
When individuals think of their own levels of happiness or their quality of life
Schema
a cognitive structure that organizes knowledge and ones expectations about ones environment; new schemas build on schemas acquired earlier.
Gestalt
a German word for pattern or configuration -The view from the gestalt theory is that the configuration of a complex stimulus is its essence -Component elements of a stimulus or experience cannot be added up to re-create the original ---The essence of the original resides in its overall configuration, which is lost when the subparts are analyzed separately. (triangle example)
Primary Drives
a fundamental innate motivator of behavior, specifically hunger, thirst, sex, or pain.
Rejection Sensitivity
a personality variable capturing the extent to which an individual is overly sensitive to cues that he or she is being rejected by another.
walter mischel - Plans
a personality variable encompassing our intentions for our actions
Chumship
a preadolescent's chums serve as a social mirror for forming identity. - Locates healthy and unhealthy psychological development in the reactions of one's peers. - Sullivan blames society for most problems. , derived from the sociological concept of the social self, pre-adolescent serve as social mirror for identity
Partial reinforcement
a reward that occurs after some, but not all, occurrences of a behavior
Stereotypes
a schema or belief about the personality traits that tend to be characteristic of members of some group
Script
a schema that guides behavior in social situations
Explanatory style
a set of cognitive personality variables that captures a persons habitual means of interpreting events in his or her life.
Little Albert
a study in which Watson got a little boy to fear a rat or anything that resembled a rat (santa claus) through conditioning. (loud noise) then they got him not afraid of it through systematic desensitization.
Behavior Potential
a term used by Julian Rotter to describe the likelihood that a particular behavior will occur in a specific situation
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
a term used by dollard and miller to describe a conflict between primary and secondary drives that occurs when a punishment results in the conditioning of a fear response to a drive.
Approach-Approach Conflict
a term used by dollard and miller to describe a conflict in which a person is drawn to two equally attractive choices.
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
a term used by dollard and miller to describe a conflict in which a person is faced with two equally undesirable choices.
Personal Dispositions
a trait that is peculiar to the individual
Implicit Personality Theory
a type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together; for example, many people believe that someone who is kind is generous as well Observers tend to attribute the behaviors of others to personality - Under-emphasis on the situation's importance - Limited information People overestimate the consistency of their own behavior However, people are generally pretty good judges of personality Situations
Cognitive style
an individuals distinctive, enduring way of dealing with everyday tasks of perception and problem solving
Examples of Murray's Needs
a. Affiliation-Need to be near and enjoyably reciprocate with another. b. Autonomy-Need to be free and independent of others. c. Dominance--Need to control or influence others. d. Exhibition-Need to be seen and heard, to entertain and entice. e. Harm-avoidance-Need to avoid injury, take precautions. f. Understanding---Need to speculate, analyze, and generalize. g. Order-Need for organization and neatness. h. Play-Need for enjoyment and fun. i. Sex-Need to form an erotic relationship.
Other important constructs (humanistic)
a. Self-determination theory --Autonomy --Competence --Relatedness b. Meaning in life --Life purpose --meaning (coherence)
Can people become happier?
a.Yes b.Acts of kindness --Want to do multiple acts of kindness in one day --Increases well-being and more popular c.Expressing gratitude --Better to do this once a week rather than multiple times d.Self-affirmation --Describe personal experience that the value was important to them --Increases in life satisfaction, positive emotion, meaning, need satisfaction, flow --Do once a week for two weeks -----Reductions only in negative emotions -----Non-linear (people started to decline and taper off beyond two weeks) ---------Hedonic adaptation
Self system and who
according to bandura, the set of cognitive processes by which a person perceives, evaluates, and regulates his or her own behavior so that it is appropriate to the environment and effective in achieving goals.
Generalized Expectancy:
according to julian rotter, expectancies that are related to a group of situations
Psychological situation
according to julian rotter, the individuals unique combination of potential behaviors and the value of these behaviors to the individual
trait approach -Leading Theorists:
allport cattell eysenck costa Mccrae
Skinner box
an enclosure in which an experimenter can shape the behavior of an animal by controlling reinforcement and accurately measuring the responses of the animal. (lever)
Reinforcement
an event that strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood of repeating the behavior in the future.
self-efficacy and what does it determine (bandura)
an expectancy or belief about how competently one will be able to enact a behavior in a particular situation. • Self-efficacy determines: o if we even try to act o how long we persist in our behavior o how success or failure affects future behavior
Humanistic: Key strengths
appreciates spiritual nature of a person emphasizes struggles for self-fullfilment and dignity
Act Frequency Approach
assessing personality by examining the frequency with which a person performs certain observable actions.
trait approach -Key Concepts
basic dimension of personality unique personal styles and dispositions
Learning of aggressive behavior
bobo experiments: • children watched a film that showed an adult behaving aggressively toward an inflated plastic Bobo clown. • children who saw aggressive behavior were more likely to behave aggressively.
Failure of self-regulation
breakdown of the self-system -situational and physical factors that interfere with normal self-regulation can disrupt the functioning of the self-system.
Modifying gambling
by altering the reinforcement schedule; or by extinction
Arthur Koestler
charged that behaviorism "has substituted for the erstwhile anthropromorphic view of the rat, a ratomorphic view of man"
Social Cognition
cognition occurring in the domain of social interaction
walter mischel- Behavioral signature
contributes to the apparent consistency of an individual's personality
Expressiveness & Health
it is unhealthy when unexpressiveness is a sign of alienation, depression or repressed anxiety.
T-data (Test data -observations in a situation)
data collected by placing a person into some controlled situation and noting/rating responses.
Q-data (Questionnaire)
data gathered from self-reports/questionnaires.
Cognitive and social-cognitive approach "Key Methods"
decision tasks, attribution experiments, computer simulation of personality
Skinners theory of operant conditioning
emphasized the study of overt, observable behavior, environmental conditions, and the process by which environmental events and circumstances determine behavior. The theory places its emphasis on the function of behavior (what it does) rather than the structure of personality. it is also a DETERMINISTIC theory, in which there is NO free will.
being in the world
existential idea that the self cannot exist without a world and the world cannot exist without a person or being to perceive it
behaviorist methods
experimental analysis of animal learning
Behaviorist structcure
external regularities in reward
trait approach -Key Methods:
factor analysis self reports testing of styles and skills
Career choice (characters associated with Field Ind.)
field-independent people are more likely to be in technological rather than humanitarian occupations
Socialization patterns (characters associated with Field Ind.)
field-independent people are more likely to have been socialized with an emphasis on autonomy over conformity.
Preferred interpersonal distance For conversation (characters associated with Field Ind.)
field-independent people are more likely to sit farther away from a conversational partner
Level of eye contact (characters associated with Field Ind.)
field-independent people make less frequent and less prolonged eye contact with a conversational partner
(who) 7 ways of knowing the world
gardner 1. language 2. logical-mathematical analysis 3. spatial representation 4. musical thinking 5. bodily-kinesthetic intelligence 6. understanding the self 7. understanding of others
trait approach -Key strengths:
good individual assessment techniques captures personality in 5 or so basic dimensions
Subjective happiness
happiness is defined by the person him or herself ■ Frequent positive emotions ■ Infrequent negative emotions ■ Life satisfaction
Motives are functionally autonomous..this means..(allport)
have become independent of their childhood origins
Life Space
in Kurt Lewins theory, all the internal and external forces that act on an individual. -His notion of the "field" can be seen either as a field in the mathematical sense of vector forces or as a playing field (a field of life) -It focuses on the life space and the structural relationships between the person and the environment ---E.g. a persons family life might be one region of the life space and the religion another
Habits
in learning theory, simple associations between a stimulus and a response
Secondary drives and who
in social learning theory, drives that are learned by association with the satisfaction of the primary drives. dollard and miller
L-data (Life -e.g. B+ student at UCR)
info gathered about a persons life, such as from school records.
Humanistic: Key Methods
interviews self-exploration art biographical analysis of creativity
Vicarious Learning
learning achieved by watching the experiences of another person
Observational learning
learning by an individual that occurs by watching others perform the behavior, with the individual neither performing the behavior nor being directly rewarded or punished for the behavior.
Julian Rotter
locus of control approach Rotter says that we tend to weigh generalized expectancies more heavily in new situations and use specific expectancies when the situation becomes more familiar.
Humanistic: Leading Theorists
maslow rogers fromm diener
Humanistic: Key Weakness
may avoid quantification and scientific method needed for science of personality
trait approach -Key Weakness
may reach too far in trying to capture individual in a few ways, may label on the basis of test scores
The social self
me is the social self. Kids develop by imitating the world around them. achieve self-consciousness through becoming aware of self identity-->through imitation and absorbing peoples reactions, language is key component for interaction George Mead
Behavioral activation/approach system(BAS) and Behavioral Inhibition System(BIS)
moderate the effects of reward and punishment and have clear correlations with reliably measured personality traits.
Self-regulation (bandura)
monitoring one's own behavior as a result of one's internal processes of goals, planning and self-reinforcement.
person-situation approach:Leading Theorists
murray sullivan mischel caspi
Need for Achievement: Henry Murray
n Ach-The need to succeed on tasks that are set out by society (ex: enjoy individual challenges, college degrees. They also rise to the top in business)
person-situation approach:Key Weakness
no good way to define situations or to study the many complexities of interactions
cognitive style dimensions
o Color reactors or form reactors: when objects vary in both color or form, which dimension is seen as most important o Generally attentive or inattentive o Analyzers or synthesizers: who concentrate on separate parts of things OR who concentrate on patterns o Evaluative or nonevaluative o People who see the world in complex, sophisticated terms or those who see it in simpler terms
Zero Acquaintance
observation and judgment of someone with who one has never interacted. - Highest agreement for extroversion and conscientiousness
person-situation approach:Key Methods
observing and testing of cross-situational consistency classifying situations
Humans as computers
people as information processors. -Similar to how computers manipulate information --shortcoming of artificial intelligence
optimism
people who have positive outlook on life, tend to do better. But overly optimistic people are maladaptive.
self-regulation processes
people's control over their own achievements and actions -Setting goals for themselves -Evaluating their success at reaching those goals -Rewarding themselves for accomplishing those goals. --includes self-efficacy and schemas --focuses on internal control of behavior -Intrapersonal approach -Close to social psychological approaches
Another prominent approach conceptualizes emotional intelligence as comprising the 4 related abilities of ....?
perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions.
Cognitive and social-cognitive approach "Key Concepts"
perception, observation, human as scientist/ decision maker
person-situation approach:Key Concepts
person-in-situation
george kellys theory of what? and his quotes.
personal construct theory • "a persons processes are psychologically channeled by the ways in which he anticipates events" • "every man is, in his own particular way, a scientist" • individuals make up their own "theories" and then use their personal experiences as the "data" that support or invalidate the theory
positivism
philosophical view of the world that focuses on the laws that govern the behavior the objects in the world
person-situation approach:Structure
predispositions situtations
Walter Mischel
psychologist specializing in personality theory and social psychology. People high in the need for achievement are more future oriented and more likely to delay gratification in order to pursue long-term goals. Critic of trait theory. Competencies Encoding strategies Expectancies Plans Behavioral signature
Interpersonal theory of psychiatry
recurring social situations faced by an individual - The social self (from George Herbert Mead)
behaviorist key concepts
reinforcement conditioning learning extinction
Epiphenomena
secondary phenomena that are derived from real phenomena of experience
Humanistic: Key Concepts
self actualization alienation well-being
Carl Jung
set in motion an influential stream of work on traits when he employed the terms "Extroversion & Introversion" - Typology: - small number of "types" - Each person fits one "type" best - 8 Types (4 functions x 2 attitudes) - Functions: Sensing, Thinking, Feeling, Intuiting - Myers - Briggs Type Indicator: - Widely used instrument that attempts to measure Extro/Introversion. There are also sub classifications
Seligman
sick bastard that shocked dogs learned helplessness learned optimism
behaviorist theorist
skinner dollard/miller pavlov watson hull sears
Harry Harlow study
studied monkeys; he found that the infant monkeys favored soft cuddly things that didn't feed, over the wire feeders. It suggested that contact comfort has a primary drive status. The monkeys needed more than primary drive but also social needs and tendencies (secondary)
Cognitive Intervention
teaching people to change their thought processes; can reduce the depressive effect of pessimism
Emotion Knowledge
the ability to recognize and interpret emotions in the self and others.
Defensive Pessimism
the approach of anticipating a poorer outcome, thus reducing anxiety and actually improving performance in a risky situation.
Radical determination
the belief that all human behavior is caused and that humans have no free will
External locus of control
the belief that things outside of the individual determine whether desired outcomes occur. • believe events are beyond their personal control; chance and powerful others • these individuals tend to be less independent and are also more likely to be depressed or stressed • over the past 40 years, young Americans are more external, increasing cynicism and depression
Human agency and who
the capacity of a person to exersize control not only over her actions, but also over internal thought processes and motivations.
Operant conditioning
the changing of a behavior by manipulating its consequences.
Discrimination and who
the concept that a conditioned response will not occur for all possible stimuli, indicating than an animal can learn to tell the difference between different stimuli • Learning to tell the difference between different stimuli, responding only to the conditioned stimulus and not to similar stimuli pavlov
Classical Conditioning and who?
the concept that after the repeated pairing of an unconditioned stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response and a neutral stimulus, the previously neutral stimulus can come to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus -Conditioning can be used to explain emotional aspects of personality ---e.g., neurotic behavior, phobias, superstitious behavior, etc. pavlov
Outcome expectancy (Rotter)
the expected consequence of a behavior that is the most significant influence on whether or not an individual will reproduce an observed behavior.
Cognitive Complexity
the extent to which a person comprehends, utilizes, and is comfortable with a greater number of distinctions or separate elements into which an entity or event is analyzed, and the extent to which the person can integrate these elements by drawing connections or relationships among them. • People in LOW cc see the world in more absolute and simpler terms, preferring unambiguous problems and straightforward solutions • An important component of cc is comfort in dealing with uncertainty. • People in HIGH cc tend to be relatively more comfortable in dealing with uncertainty, and those in LOWER cc are more orientated toward certainty • The older you get the HIGHER cc.
Outcome expectancy (Bandura)
the extent to which an individual expects his or her performance to have positive result.
Reinforcement Value
the extent to which an individual values the expected reinforcement of an action
Field Dependence
the extent to which an individuals problem solving is influenced by salient (highly noticeable) but irrelevant aspects of the contexts (or field) in which the problem occurs. (the crooked rod) • has a greater sensitivity to the context of a problem and tends to be more holistic and intuitive in problem solving. • Also show greater sensitivity to their social and interpersonal contexts • It was first explored as a personality variable in the 1940s by Herman Witkin and Soloman Asch and hasinspired thousands of studies • Females more than men
Inductive approach
theory emerges from the data.
Internal Locus of control
the generalized expectancy that an individual's own actions leads to desired outcomes. • outcomes are the result of one's own actions./ more achievement oriented. • These individuals are more likely to be achievement-oriented because they see that their own behavior can result in positive effects, and are more likely to be high achievers as well
Illusion of individuality
the idea that a person has a single, fixed personality is just an illusion We become "different" people in different social situations - In each situation we imagine how others think of us and respond accordingly
Social Intelligence
the idea that individuals differ in their level of mastery of the particular cluster of knowledge and skills that are relevant to interpersonal situations • this approach claims that people vary in their abilities to understand and influence other people The social intelligence approach is focused on the social-interpersonal domain
Behaviorism
the learning approach to psychology introduced by John B. Watson that emphasizes the study of observable behavior.
Categorization:
the perceptual process by which highly complex ensembles of information are filtered into a small number of identifiable and familiar objects and entities. -We tend to organize our experiences by assigning the events, objects, and people we encounter into categories -It is omnipresent and it occurs automatically -Positive effects of categorization ---Quickly understand complex information ---Make likely inferences about new things -Negative effects of categorization ---Stereotypes ---Overlook individuating characteristics -Peoples categorization processes are not invariant over different environments; the categories and processes vary with changes in the situation
Extinction and who
the process by which the frequency of the organism's producing a response gradually deceases when the response behavior is no longer followed by the reinforcement pavlov
Shaping
the process in which undifferentiated operant behaviors are gradually changed or shaped into a desired behavior pattern by the reinforcement of successive approximations, so that the behavior more and more resembles the target behavior.
Generalization and who?
the tendency for similar stimuli to evoke the same response --Conditioned responses can occur in response to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (Indian Reservations look like Las Vegas strip) pavlov
Learned helplessness
the term used by Martin Seligman to describe a situation in which repeated exposure to unavoidable punishment leads an organism to accept later punishment even when it is avoidable.
Learned Optimism
the term used by Martin Seligman to describe an optimistic style that people can be trained to achieve.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
the theory that aggression is the result of blocking, or frustrating, a persons efforts to attain a goal.
Turing test
to judge whether a computer can adequately simulate a human: in this test: a human interacts with 2 hidden others and tries to decide which is the human and which is the computer. Personality is difficult to simulate
trait approach -Structure:
traits motives skills
person-situation approach:Key strengths
understands that we are different selves in different situations
Locus of control(LOC)
variable that measures the extent to which an individual habitually attributes outcomes to factors internal to the self vs. external to the self. • one's ability affect outcomes.
Internal conflicts (mental illness explanations) who
• Approach-Avoidance Conflict • Approach-Approach Conflict • Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict dollard miller
bandura - Factors that influence modeling
• Outcome expectancy: people are more likely to imitate behaviors that they believe lead to positive outcomes. • Characteristics of the model: Age, gender, status, competence, etc • Characteristic of behavior: Simple and salient behaviors • Attributes of the observer: self-esteem, dependence, cognitive development
Rollo May (exist. anxiety)
■ Anxiety is triggered by a threat to the core values of existence ■ Alienation
Victor Frankl (exist. anxiety)
■ Importance of personal choice ■ Logotherapy
Happy people are....
○ More likely to have successful careers ○ More likely to have satisfying marriages ○ Less likely to die in automobile accidents ○ More likely to be creative ○ More likely to express positive, adaptive coping
Peak experiences
○ Powerful, meaningful experiences in which people seem to transcend the self, be at one with the world, and feel completely self-fulfilled ○ Flow that comes with total involvement in activity (Mihaly Csikzsentmihalyi)
Organismic
○ Term used to describe theories that focus on the development that comes from inside the growing organism and that assume a natural unfolding, or life course, for each organism
Is there a happy personality?
○ Yes and no ○ 50% genes ○ 10% circumstance/life experience ○ 40% effort
Undoing hypothesis
● Positive emotions aid in the recovery from the deleterious effects of negative emotions
