Personality Final

Skinner described happiness as ....

"a by-product of operant reinforcement."

Practitioners who once wore the label "behavioral therapists" now refer to themselves as....

"cognitive-behavioral therapists."

schemas: New information is processed

"like me" OR "not like me" integrated or rejected

6 Aspects of CBT

(1) direction of session activity/agenda/manual (2) teaching of skills used by patients to cope with symptomś(3) emphasis on current & future experiences (4) an intrapersonal/cognitive focus (5) psychoeducation (6) homework and outside-of-session activitie

Observational Learning (Bandura) how can people learn from this perspective 4 ways

(Beyond Conditioning) People can also learn by: - Observing other people - Reading - Hearing about other people's actions - Vicarious (observational) Learning l Agression (4 step model) Attend, Remember, Enact, Expect (rewards)

Who said this quote: "Anyone who attempted to change a pacifist into an aggressor or a devout religionist into an atheist would quickly come to appreciate the existence of personal sources of behav- ioral control

, Bandura

Social Learning theory

- Includes non-observable concepts (thoughts, values, expectations...) - Comes as a response to behaviorism - Thoughts feelings, motivations, and expectations the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Cognitive approach: 2 Different ways of processing information

- situation (objective) - experience (subjective) based on interpretation of that situation

Researchers generally find that internals are in better health than externals. One study followed 5,114 middle-aged men and women for an 8.5-year period . Locus of control scores taken at the beginning of the study were strong predictors of which participants would suffer from heart attacks and cancer by the end of the study. Results?

nternals were significantly less likely to experience these health problems than externals. Another investigation measured locus of control in 10 year olds. When the researchers contacted these individuals again 20 years later, they found the participants earlier identified as internals were in significantly better health than those identified as externals. Perhaps not surpris- ingly, researchers also find that internals live longer than externals

Initially, behaviorists limited their descriptions to _______ _______. Later, social learning theory expanded the scope of the approach to include ....

observable behaviors; unobservable concepts like thoughts, values, expectancies, and individual perceptions.

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness An efficacy expectation is the extent to which people believe they can perform the actions that will bring about the particular outcome. Simply put, it is the difference between believing that something can happen and believing that you can make it hap- pen. You may hold the outcome expectation that if you spend several hours studying each night and abandon social life on weekends, you will receive good grades this term. However, you may also hold the efficacy expectation that you are incapable of such devoted work and sacrifice.

Biofeedback

operant conditioning equipment used to provide information about somatic processes

Certain conditions or states of mind also make hostile cognitions more accessible and therefore violence more likely. example

or example, an angry person is more likely to interpret information in an aggressive manner than someone who is not experienc- ing anger. Alcohol, which is often involved in violence, and even images associated with alcohol also have been found to increase aggres- sive cognitions. Similarly, frustrated people are likely to have highly accessible hostile thoughts

What, then, was the appropriate subject matter for psychology? Watson's answer was...

overt behavior—that which can be observed, predicted, and eventually controlled by scientists.

Bandura rejects the behaviorist's depiction of human beings as >>>>>

pas- sive recipients of whatever stimuli life throws their way.

We form expectancies based on...

past experience of being rewarded (or not)

Like many personality theorists, Kelly was a practicing psychotherapist who applied his ideas about personality to treating psychological problems. However, unlike many theorists, Kelly rejected the notion that psychological disorders are caused by

past traumatic experiences. Rather, he argued, people suffer from psychological problems because of defects in their construct systems.

Bandura draws an important distinction between learning and ________

performance Behav- iors learned through observation need not be performed. This idea again clashes with traditional behaviorists, who maintain that we cannot learn something until we have actually engaged in that behavior. But think for a moment of some of the behaviors you could perform if you wanted to, even though you never have.

Because possible selves guide many of our choices and reactions, they can be useful in

predicting future Behavior researchers have used measures of possible selves to look at such varied behaviors as binge drinking, academic performance, weight loss, and adherence to an exercise program. Other research has tied possible selves to problem behaviors. One team of investigators examined possible selves in juvenile delinquents. Signifi- cantly, more than one-third of the juvenile delinquents had developed a criminal pos- sible self. In addition, very few of these adolescents possessed possible selves for more conventional goals, such as having a job. Because possible selves are indicative of our goals, fears, and aspirations, we should not be surprised if many of these youthful offenders were to become adult criminals.

Well formed schemas allow for

pride processing

according to the cognitive approach, Differences in personality are based on differences in the ways we ______ ______

process information

Varying Viewpoints Cognitive

processing information; schemas; subjective perception

learned helplessness

psycholo- gists initially demonstrated this effect in dogs that failed to escape from electric shocks after first experiencing inescapable shocks. The dogs learned they were helpless in one situation and inappropriately generalized that perception to the new situation. Not long after the demonstrations of this effect with animals, researchers found that people also sometimes generalize helpless feelings to controllable situations. Similar- ities between learned helplessness participants and depressed patients led some psy- chologists to propose learned helplessness as a model for understanding depression.

internals tend to be happier than externals. why? 3

psychological disorders: People suffering from psychological disorders tend to be more external than internal (particularly depression) achievement: One indicator of well-being in Western society is how much we achieve in school and in our careers. Although high achievers are by no means shielded from psychological problems, we often point to a deteriorating job performance as a reason for concern. Similarly, improved performance in school or work is often seen as evidence that a therapy client is getting better. When researchers use locus of control scores to pre- dict achievement, they consistently find that internal students receive higher grades and better teacher evaluations than externals psy- chotherapy results.

What therapy did Albert Ellis develop

rational emotive therapy

reinforcement values:

reinforcement values: that is, how much we think we will like each of the possible consequences we expect.

Other social learning theorists point out that people often provide their own _________.

reinforcers It is rewarding to live up to your internal standards or to reach a personal goal even if no one else knows about it.

Pavlov dog experiment unconditioned response

salivate

Pavlov dog experiment conditioned response

salivating at bell not food

Most of our daily actions are controlled by _______________

self- regulation

Every year millions of Americans seek professional help to stop smoking or lose weight. Although many of these people go several weeks without cigarettes or suc- ceed in dropping a few pounds, only a small percentage permanently end their habit or keep the lost pounds off. What is it about these few successful cases that sepa- rate them from the others?

self-efficacy.

successive approximations

small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior

Thus began the transition from traditional behaviorism to a number of approaches known collectively as _______ ________ ______

social learning theory.

Behaviorism->_________ -> ______

social learning; cognitive

Bandura refers to his approach as a _________-__________ ______

social- cognitive theory.

negative schema,

sometimes referred to as a depres- sive schema, is a cognitive structure containing memories about and associations with depressing events and thoughts. People processing information through this schema attend to negative information, ignore positive information, and interpret ambigu- ous information in a depressing way. They also recall depressing memories easily and often associate current sad experiences with sad incidents from their past.

Conditioning Principles in Psychotherapy- Must identify a ______ ______ to focus on

specific behavior of focus

according to the cognitive approach, The ways we process info are

stable (consistent)

This process, called _____ _____, helps explain why personality characteristics generalize across situations.

stimulus generalization

Personal Constructs (PC)

suctures we use to predict and interpret experiences

systematic desensitization

systematic desensitization, the old association between the feared stimulus and the fear response is replaced with a new association between the stim- ulus and relaxation.

Varying Viewpoints Biological

temperament & heritability; genetics

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves When people are asked if a word describes a celebrity—a question that also requires some thinking—they don't recall the words as well as when they are asked about themselve

the law of effect:

that behaviors are more likely to be repeated if they lead to satisfying consequences and less likely to be repeated if they lead to unsatisfying consequences. Thorndike's cats repeated the required behaviors because their actions led to the satisfying consequences of escape and food.

Although negative thoughts are usu- ally seen as symptoms of depression, cognitive psychologists argue ....

that these thoughts may also cause people to become depressed The result can be a vicious cycle in which depression leads to negative thoughts which then lead to more depression.

Ivan Pavlov

the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov demonstrated that animals could be made to respond to stimuli in their environment by pairing these stimuli with events that already elicited a response, a process that became known as classical conditioning.

positive reinforcement

the behavior increases because it is followed by the presentation of a reward.

Repertory Grid Technique

the essential procedure consists of two steps. First, the test taker creates a list of elements. The items on this list can be anything the person encounters in life, but most often the list consists of specific people the test taker knows. Second, the test taker's personal constructs are elicited by comparing and contrasting various ele- ments on the list.

Internal Locus of Control

the generalized expectancy is that: people can affect what happens to them good and bad experiences are generally of our own making

External Locus of Control

the generalized expectancy is that: what happens to you and others is outside of your contro

Thorndike (1911) formulate __ ___ ___ _____

the law of effect

behavior potential and example

the likelihood that a given behavior will occur in a particular situation To get an idea of Rotter's approach, imagine someone has just insulted you at a party. How do you respond? You have several courses of action to choose from. You might attempt to top the remark with something clever and witty. You could calmly say the behavior was out of line and ask for an apology. You could get angry and hurl an equally rude insult at the offender, or you could simply leave the scene. Each of these responses has a different likelihood of occurring, what Rotter referred to as its behavior potential.

General Aggression Model 5ish

the model begins with a social encounter that has the potential for triggering aggression. This encounter might be an insult, a threat, a shove, or any action that could be interpreted along these lines. How we respond to the event depends first on the kind of person we are and the kind of situation we are in. However, according to the model, these personal and situational factors are rele- vant only to the extent that they activate aggression-relation thoughts and emotions. When aggressive thoughts are easily accessible, acts of violence become a real possibility. a modern theory of aggression suggesting that aggression is triggered by a wide range of input variables that influence arousal, affective stages, and cognitions

external locus of control (what is the extreme)

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate. Extreme: They maintain that much of what happens to them is the result of forces outside their control, including chance.

internal locus of control (what is the extreme)

the perception that you control your own fate extreme: These individuals believe that most of the time what happens to them is the result of their own actions or attributes.

negative reinforcement

the removal or lessening of an unpleasant stimulus when the behavior occurs

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

However, studies suggest that although negative thoughts decline as people recover from an episode of depression, ....

the underlying cognitive net- work often remains in place

Finally, aggressive cognitions not only trigger aggressive behavior scripts, but also affect

the way we interpret situations.

according to Kelly, Past experiences with an unloving par- ent or a tragic incident may explain why people construe the world as they do, but ...

they are not the cause of the person's problems.

People do not alter their behavior until...

they make a decision to expend the necessary effort

guided mastery and example

this procedure, the therapist arranges the situation so that the client is almost guar- anteed a successful experience. The treatment is broken down into small steps that can be accomplished with only a slight increase in the client's effort. A client with a fear of driving might begin by driving a short distance on a secluded street (Bandura, 1997). This step is followed with gradually longer drives on busier streets. With each successful experience,

discriminate

to differentiate; to make a clear distinction; to see the difference

Social learning psychologists also helped to bridge _________ and ________ approaches to personality by incorporating into their theories a number of concepts once deemed unscientific by Watson.

traditional behaviorism ; cognitive

Varying Viewpoints Psychodynamic

unconscious drives, intrapsychic processes; developmental stages; early life experience

What activates these potentially dangerous thoughts and emotions?

ust about any aspect of the situation that we associate with violence can do the job. Visual images like weapons, fists, and blood certainly can tap into hostile thoughts. But these cog- nitions also can be activated by any sound, smell, or sight that we happen to asso- ciate with aggression. There also are times when hostile thoughts and feelings are more accessible than usual. People recently exposed to violent images, such as scenes from violent movies or violent video games, have highly accessible hostile cognitions

Perhaps social-cognitive theory's most important contribution to the understanding of human behavior and personality is the concept of ...

vicarious or observational learning

Bipolar (personal constructs)

we arrange information we encounter in an "either-or-manner" Based on polar opposites (black & white) friendly vs. unfriendly; tall vs. short

Neurotic Paradox

when extinction doesn't undo an association/learning Best explanation = after a fear is established from Classical cond., Operant cond. sets in and maintains it Classical cond. - child falls off a tall play structure Associate height with pain = fear of height association Operant cond. - avoiding the source of fear is rewarded by reducing anxiety Get rewarded (by reducing anxiety about heights) by staying away from heights The pattern of self-perpetuating behavior in which children who are overly anxious in various situations, even while being aware that the anxiety may be unnecessary or excessive, find themselves unable to abandon their self-defeating behaviors.

Anxiety results

when our constructs don't make sense of our experiences

LOC and caretaking with arthritis

. One team of investigators looked at depres- sion levels in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The external patients became less depressed when their spouses provided them with a lot of sup- port and assistance. However, internal patients showed an increase in depression when their spouse gave this same amount of assistance. The researchers speculate that the spouse's care was seen as helpful by the externals but as an indication of dependence by the internals.

Operant Conditioning Applications: Acting immature steps 4

1. A behavior therapist would probably interview parents and teachers to determine which specific immature behaviors they wanted to reduce. 2. Next, the therapist would want to determine a baseline of behavior frequency 3. Once we know how often the behavior occurs under the current system of rewards and punishments, we change the contingencies. If it's a desired behavior, the environ- ment is altered so the client is rewarded for it. If it's undesired, punishment is intro- duced or reinforcement is reduced. 4. Ideally, appropriate responses are reinforced at the same time undesired behavior is extinguished or punished.

People with Depression do what with info 5

1. Attend to negative info 2. Ignore positive info 3. Interpret ambiguous info as negative 4. Associate bad current experience with bad past experience 5. Recall depressing memories easily

Happy People do what with info 3

1. Attend to positive info 2. Dismiss negative info 3. Interpret ambiguous info as positive

Two variables for which behavior is acted out according

1. Expectancy 2. Reinforcement value

Most violent video games contain features that psychologists find especially wor- risome. what are they?

1. First, in most games, players do not merely watch the action. They pay close attention and actively engage in practicing violent acts. Participants who play violent video games are more aggressive than participants who simply watch someone else play 2. Second, virtually all violent video games are designed to reward violence. The more thugs, monsters, evil-doers, and police you kill, the higher your score.

limitations of punishment 4

1. First, punishment does not teach appropriate behaviors; it can only decrease the frequency of undesired ones. Rather than simply punish a child for hitting another student, it's better teach the child alternative ways to deal with frustrating situations. 2. Second, to be effective, punishment must be delivered immediately and consistently. 3. Third, punishment can have negative side effects. Although parents intend to suppress a certain act, a child might associate other behaviors with the punishment. A child who is punished for hitting a toy against a window may stop playing with toys altogether. 4. Pun- ishment can also create negative emotions, such as fear and anxiety, strong enough to interfere with learning appropriate responses

limitations of classical conditioning 2

1. For a new S-R association to persist, the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli must be paired occasionally or otherwise reinforced. When Pavlov presented his conditioned dogs with just the bell tone, the dogs salivated less and less until finally the dogs failed to salivate to the tone at all. This gradual disappearance of the conditioned S-R association is called extinction. 2, Moreover, two events presented together will not always produce an associationCertain stimuli are easily associable, but it may be impossible to create some S-R bonds through classical conditioning.

Depressive Cognitive Triad People with Depression:

1. Have negative thoughts about themselves 2. Are pessimistic about the future 3. Interpret ongoing experiences in a negative manner

Pavlov discovered, new associations formed through classical condition- ing tend to extinguish once the pairing is removed. Why, then, do phobias not just become extinct on their own without psychological intervention? 3 explanations

1. One answer is that operant conditioning may take over. Imagine a 3-year-old girl who falls off a tall slide. The pain and fear she experiences are paired with the slide, and those feelings re-emerge the next time she approaches the playground. Her anxiety increases as she gets closer and closer to the slide. Quite likely, she'll decide to turn away and try the slide some other time, thereby reducing the anxiety. Psychologists also use conditioning principles to explain why some people develop fears after a traumatic experience whereas others do not Sometimes previous learning can protect us from developing phobias. A boy who has had many pleasant experiences with dogs is not likely to develop a fear of the animal when one untrained dog snarls at and bites him. Behaviorists explain other problem behaviors in terms of reinforcing the wrong behavior. A socially anxious girl may have found the only escape from the criticism and ridicule she received at home was to avoid family contact as much as possible (negative reinforcement), a behavior she then generalized to other people

Why do internals do better in school?

1. One reason is that they see themselves as being responsible for their achievements. Internal students believe studying for tests pays off, whereas externals are less likely to feel that their efforts affect their grades. 2. Internals and externals also respond differently to feedback. Inter- nal students are likely to attribute high test scores to their abilities or to studying hard, whereas externals who do well might say they were lucky or that the test was easy. I 3. Internals also are better at adjusting their expectancies following feedback, which means they have a better idea of how to prepare for the next exam. 4. Because they believe academic success is up to them, internal students also pay attention to information that will help them reach their goals. 5. Internal students also are more ambitious than external students.

Who are people who are more likely to react aggressively 3

1. Ppl recently exposed to violent content 2. Currently frustrated ppl 3. Ppl frequently exposed to violent content/images

Depression tendencies 3

1. Remember sad experiences more easily 2. Tend to generate one negative thought after another 3. Focus on the negative aspects of experience/situations

Where do efficacy expectations come from, and how can therapists change these expectations in their clients

1. The most important of these is enactive mastery experiences. 2. vicarious experiences 3. verbal persuasion. 4. Physiological and affective states

what are the three principles about behavior that behaviorist online?

1. Variables determining behavior can be discovered and changed 2. Observable and measurable 3. External, deterministic, and able to be manipulated

Self-Discrepancies what are the three

1. actual self 2. idea self 3. ought self

what is are 3 limitations of punishment

1. punishment does not teach the desired behavior Leaves a gap does not replace the unwanted behavior with a desirable behavior 2. Punishment must be delivered immediately and consistently More often the punishment is about letting out aggression for the punisher 3. Negative feelings that accompany the punishment associated with the the punisher At most, punishment can temporarily suppress behavior

Although today the action may consist of a space monster being killed by a superhero's laser beam instead of a bank robber felled by a bullet from a sheriff's gun, one estimate claimed the average American child will view about ________murders and more than ______ other acts of violence on television before leaving elementary school

8,000 ; 100,000

locus of control and suicidal tendencies

A dramatic example of how locus of control is related to depression was demon- strated in a study of suicidal patients (Melges & Weisz, 1971). Patients who had recently attempted suicide were asked to relive the events that took place immedi- ately before the attempt. Patients were left alone with a tape recorder and asked to describe in the present tense what had happened to them during this time. Analysis of the recordings revealed that patients described themselves in more external terms as they became more suicidal. Other studies find that suicide attempters often expe- rience an increase in events outside their personal control just prior to the attempt and that external adolescents and college students report more suicidal thoughts than internals

group contingency intervention and example

A group contingency intervention offers rewards to all members of a group when the entire group meets the behavior goal. For example, to reduce the amount of swearing on the playground, an elementary teacher might reward each member of the class with a treat at the end of each day she hears no swear words during recess. Group contingency interventions have been found to especially effective with school-aged children

verbal persuasion.

A less effective way to alter efficacy expectations is through verbal persuasion. Telling someone who is reluctant to stand up to the boss "you can do it" might con- vince the person to assert his or her rights. However, this expectation will be easily crushed if the actual performance isn't met with the expected result.

Rational Emotive Therapy: RET

Aims to distinguish how people turn wants into needs Emotional problems due to irrational beliefs

The evolution from traditional behavioral views of personality to more cognitive approaches is probably best illustrated by the work of ______ _______

Albert Bandura

Who coined self-efficacy?

Albert Bandura

Social Cognitive Theory

Albert Bandura Enhanced traditional behaviorism with a cognitive approach Humans are not passive recipients of environmental stimuli

rational emotive therapy: who developed it

Albert Ellis,

But how do psychologists determine what a person's self-schema looks like?

Although examining something as abstract as self-schemas presents a challenge, cog- nitive personality researchers have developed some creative procedures to test their hypotheses. Essentially, these psychologists look at how people perceive and use infor- mation presented to them. For example, answer the following question yes or no: Are you a competitive person? When faced with this question on a personality inventory, some people answer immediately and decisively, whereas others have to pause to think about what it means to be competitive and whether they possess those qualities. In taking the various personality tests in this book, you probably found some items were easy to answer and some for which you simply couldn't make up your mind. Accord- ing to a self-schema analysis, the items that were easy to answer are those for which you have a well-defined schema. People who say yes immediately when asked if they are competitive have a strong competitiveness schema as part of their self-schema. We might also say that competitiveness is component of their self-schema. This structure allows these individuals to understand the question, retrieve relevant information, and respond immediately. People without a strong competitiveness schema are unable to process the information as quickly.

vicarious experience

Although not as powerful as actual performances, vicarious experiences also alter efficacy expectations. Seeing other people perform a behavior without adverse effects can lead us to believe that we can do it too.

Given what we know about the effects of violent movies and television, many psy- chologists and other professionals are concerned about the impact of all this exposure to simulated violence in video games. Not surprisingly, a large number of research- ers have examined this issue. what did the studies find

Although psychologists continue to debate the size of the effects, results from numerous investigations point to a connection between playing violent video games and some disturbing behaviors, particularly aggression

self-regulation

Although we often strive to obtain external rewards, we also work toward self-imposed goals with internal rewards. Amateur runners push themselves in races, even though few expect to win. The reward comes from the feelings of accom- plishment and self-worth they get from setting a personal record or perhaps for just finishing the race. Of course, self-regulation also includes self-punishment. When we fail to maintain personal standards, we often degrade and feel bad about ourselves.

But how do these hostile thoughts lead to aggressive acts?

Among the hostile cog- nitions potentially activated in this process are aggressive behavior scripts. behavior scripts represent ways to act that we have learned and sometimes practiced. Although there are many possible sources, we often learn aggressive scripts by watching aggressive models. Aggressive scripts that have been practiced are even more likely to be acted out. People practice aggressive scripts when they physically rehearse the behavior, such as during karate drills or target practice.

behaviorists strengths 2

Among the strengths are its empirical base and the use- ful therapeutic procedures it has generated.

Strengths of the cognitive approach

Among the strengths of the cognitive approach is its solid empirical background. The cognitive approach also fits nicely with the current trend in psychology toward cognitive explanations of behavior.

Learning vs Performance

An important distinction between learning and performance Behavior learned through observational methods needs not be performed Performance is dependent on the expectations of consequences Rewards or Punishment

Psychological problems what is the heart

Anxiety

Anxiety comes from.... and ____ ______

Anxiety comes from lack of predictability & faulty constructs

LOC and Israeli soldiers suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder

As a general rule, clients tend to become more internal as they pass through successful psychotherapy (Strickland, 1978). Consider the case of Israeli soldiers suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder following their experiences with intense combat (Solo- mon, Mikulincer, & Avitzur, 1988). These men suffered from a variety of symptoms often found after a profoundly stressful experience. When tested shortly after com- bat, the soldiers scored fairly external on locus of control measures. However, as they recovered from their trauma over the next 3 years, they became increasingly internal. When the soldiers came to appreciate the control they could exercise over many parts of their lives, they took an important step toward recovery.

how many schemas are there

As many as there are categories that you believe exist

reactive aggression

As the name suggests, this research focuses on the angry and aggres- sive way some boys respond to even mild frustrations or provocations. These are the boys who react to a little teasing by threatening to beat up the teaser and who are likely to turn an accidental bump in the hallway into a fist fight.

Vicarious (observational) Learning l Agression (4 step model)

Attend, Remember, Enact, Expect (rewards)

Aversion therapy

Aversion therapy is another example of classical conditioning used to alter prob- lem behaviors. Here therapists try to rid clients of undesirable behaviors by pairing aversive images with the behavior. For example, for a client trying to quit smoking, the image of a cigarette might be paired with images of becoming nauseated and vomiting.

who invented social- cognitive theory.

Bandura

Bandura (1965) demonstrated this learning-performance distinction in a classic experiment with important social implications. Bobo doll. Explain

Bandura (1965) demonstrated this learning-performance distinction in a classic experiment with important social implications. Nursery school children watched a television program in which an adult model performed four novel aggressive acts on an adult-size plastic Bobo doll: The children saw one of three endings to the film. Some saw a second adult reward the aggressive model with soft drinks, candy, and lots of praise. Others saw the model spanked with a rolled-up magazine and warned not to act aggressively again. A third group was given no information about the consequences of the aggressive behavior. Next, each child was left alone for 10 minutes of free playing time. Among the many toys in the room were a Bobo doll and all the materials needed to perform the aggres- sive acts they had seen. An experimenter watched through a one-way window to see how many of the four acts of aggression the children would perform spontaneously. Each child was then offered fruit juice and small toys for each of the four aggressive acts he or she could perform for the experimenter. This last step was included to see if the children could perform the behavior—that is, had they learned the responses from watching the model? Nearly all the children in all three groups could perform the behaviors when asked. However, whether they chose to perform the behavior when left alone depended on the consequences they expected. Although all the children had learned how to act aggressively, the ones who had seen the model rewarded were significantly more likely to perform the behaviors than those who had seen the model punished.

schemas are based on how we

Based on how we see our selves currently (and over time)

_____ _____ _____. ___ makes up the core of your self- schema.

Basic information about you This includes your name, information about your physical appearance, and information about your relationships with significant people, such as with a spouse or parents.

Personal Construct Systems

Because I tend to use the same constructs when meeting people, I probably have a characteristic way I interact with others that is different from yours. In other words, relatively stable patterns in our behavior (i.e., our personalities) are the result of the relatively stable way we construe the world. To get a rough idea of your own personal constructs, ask yourself what you tend to notice about people when you first meet them. The first few thoughts that come to mind are probably some of the constructs you typically use to make sense of other people and their behavior.

Aggression Model

Begins w/ social encounter Person interprets encounter as potentially aggressive or threatening

Behaviorism assessment tools

Behavioral assessment includes a variety of techniques, including direct observation, self-monitoring, and observation by others. Each of these techniques can provide useful data for determining baseline frequencies, the conditions under which the target behavior occurs, and the success of the treatment procedure.

how are phobias similar to little Albert

Behaviorists argue that many of our seemingly irrational fears may have been developed in a similar manner. We may not recall when bridges or snakes were ever associated with an existing fear, but these associations could have taken place a long time ago or even without our awareness.

Behaviors and attributes most important to you at the core of_______ and examples

Behaviors and attributes most important to you at the core of self-schema name, important relationships, physical features...

Biofeedback

Biofeedback is another example of operant conditioning used to treat psychological problems. Biofeedback requires special equipment that provides information about A woman suffering from anxiety might use a machine that tells her when she is tightening and relaxing certain facial and back muscles, a reaction she is otherwise not aware of. After several muscle relaxation sessions with the immediate feedback of the machine, she may learn to reduce tension on her own and thereby overcome her anxiety. In operant conditioning terms, the woman was reinforced for producing the response that lowered her muscle tension, as indicated by the machine. As with other reinforced behaviors, she soon learned to make the relaxation response.

who is more likely to be aggressive: boys or girls

Boys are more likely to be aggressive than girls

Behaviorism

Cause & effect account of people's consistent behavior patterns Behavior patterns = Personality the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

punishment not working: spanking example

Children who are spanked by their par- ents may associate the parent with the pain of the spanking. Another side effect is that undesirable behaviors may be learned through modeling. Children who are spanked may learn that physical aggression is okay as long as you are bigger and stronger.

Classical Conditioning of the Dogs what is the 1. Neutral Stimulus: 2. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) : 3. Unconditioned Response (UCR) 4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) : 5. Conditioned Response (CR) : 6. Second Order Conditioning:

Classical Conditioning Neutral Stimulus: Bell Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) : Food Unconditioned Response (UCR) : Dog salivates (pre-existing) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) : Bell u After repeated PAIRED associations... Conditioned Response (CR) : Dog salivates to bell u CR = UCR Second Order Conditioning: pair a green light with the bell INTENSITY OF RESPONSE DISSIPATES Extinction - disappearance of conditioned S-R association

Classical vs Operant Conditioning

Classical cond. begins with an existing Stimulus-Response bond ..occurs only with behaviors that are automatic/reflexive Repeated pairings with a neutral stimulus results in association Operant cond. begins with behaviors the person performs spontaneously Rewards & punishment

Classical conditioning in psycho therapy

Classical conditioning: Traditionally use physical stimuli (can use imagery) - Systematic desensitization (oft for phobias) - Aversion therapy

example of systematic desensitization

Clients and therapists begin the treatment by creating a list of imagined scenes ranging from mildly arousing to highly anxiety provoking. A man afraid of heights might begin his list with a scene of himself standing on a 2-foot-high footstool. The next scene might be walking up a flight of stairs, followed by a scene of him standing on an 8-foot ladder. Highly anxiety-provoking scenes are placed at the end of the hierarchy, such as looking out from the top floor of a skyscraper or flying in a small airplane.

Cognitive scripts are also more likely to lead to aggression when

Cognitive scripts are also more likely to lead to aggression when people ruminate about the events that led to their aggressive thoughts If cooler heads prevail and tensions are allowed to pass without incident, violence can be avoided. Unfortunately, violence-prone people often are slow to forgive and forget. Because these individuals continue to revisit the provoking incident in their minds, they remain angry and their hostile thoughts and aggressive scripts remain highly accessible

What kind of info can people access quicker from memory

Con- sequently, we would expect people to retrieve information from memory more readily when they have a strong schema for a topic than when the information is stored in a less organized manner.

locus of control cancer diagnosis

Consider a study in which recently diagnosed cancer patients were tested for level of depression. For external patients, the more severe the diagnosis, the more depressed they became. However, the severity of the disease had no impact on the depression experienced by internal patients. These patients believed they could still control the course of the disease, and this belief shielded them from giving up and becoming depressed about their situation.

rational emotive therapy

Consistent with the tendency to blend cognitive and behavioral treatments, toward the end of his career, Ellis referred to his approach as rational emotive behavior therapy. According to Ellis, people become depressed, anxious, upset, and the like because of faulty reasoning and a reliance on irrational beliefs. Ellis described this as an A-B-C process. Activating experience. However, when clients seek out psychother- apy, they usually identify the reason as the C, the emotional Consequence. In this case, you are probably feeling depressed, guilty, or angry. Of course, an emotional reaction to breaking up is entirely appropriate. But if your reaction is severe and starts inter- fering with your ability to go to work or attend classes, you might benefit from some cognitive counseling. A Cognitive Therapy based on Albert Ellis' theory that cognitions control our emotions and behaviors; therefore, changing the way we think about things will affect the way we feel and the way we behave.

LOC and Well Being Who is happier? Ext or Int?

Consists of many factors Happy & Unhappy people at all points of LOC spectrum BUT... Internals > Externals

ACTUAL SELF (AS)

Contains all the info about the kind of person you are Or believe you are

Depressive thoughts -> _______ _______

Depressive feelings

Cognitive Approach basic principles

Differences in personality are based on differences in the ways we process information Different ways of processing information situation (objective) experience (subjective) based on interpretation of that situation Systematically attend to certain features And ignore others The ways we process info are stable (consistent)

Rotter's Locus of Control different cultures

Different cultures have diff locuses of control

is there a set set of schemas

Different for each individual

operant conditioning example

Edward Thorndike found that animals were less likely to repeat behaviors that met with negative consequences than were animals given no punishment.

Thorndike's cats experiment

Edward Thorndike put stray cats into "puzzle boxes." To escape from the box and thereby obtain a piece of fish, the hungry cats had to engage in a particular combination of actions. Before long, the cats learned what they had to do to receive their reward.

Expectancies and example

Expectancies are what we believe will happen if we act a certain way. Before you decide to stay up all night studying for an exam, you probably ask yourself what the likelihood is that the all-nighter will help you do better on the test. Most often, we base our expectancies on how things turned out when we took similar actions in sim- ilar situations.

Outcome expectation

Extent people believe actions will lead to a certain outcome

Efficacy expectation

Extent people believe they can bring about the outcome

LOC & Physical Health Internal and external

External LOCs Believe there is little they can do to: Avoid disease Improve their health once diagnosed When ill Depend on professionals to make them well Internal LOCs Believe their health is largely in their hands: See a relationship b/t what they do and their health More likely to eat well and exercise Consider Goodness of Fit

The goal of rational emotive therapy is twofold.

First, clients must see how they rely on irrational beliefs and the fault in their reasoning. Second, the therapist works with the client to replace irrational beliefs with rational ones.

Although research has established a link between locus of control and depression, we need to add a few notes of caution when interpreting the findings. 3

First, the vast majority of people scoring on the external end of locus of control scales are happy and well-adjusted. Second, because the relationship is correlational, it is difficult to make strong statements about external locus of control causing the disorder. It may be that externals are susceptible to depression, but it is also possible that depressed people become more external. Third, the strength of the relationship between locus of con- trol and depression may vary from culture to culture. One team of reviewers found the tendency for externals to experience more depression than internals is weaker in collectivist cultures in which personal demonstrations of masterful accomplishments are less likely to be valued (

Possible selves serve two important functions. What are they

First, they provide incentives for future behavior. The second function of possible selves is to help us interpret the meaning of our behavior and the events in our lives.

example between the distinction between learning an performance

For example, although you have probably never picked up a pistol and shot another human being, you've observed this behavior in movies often enough for it to be part of your behavioral repertoire. You might even know to stand with your feet apart and to hold the weapon at eye level with both hands in front of you, just like the actors portraying police do. Fortunately, most of us will never perform this behavior, but it is one we have proba- bly learned through observation.

cognitive therapy social anxiety example

For example, imagine a man who suffers from intense social anxiety. A cognitive therapist might explore the kinds of thoughts the man tells himself when he anticipates a social encounter. In other words, this man hasset himself up to fail. At the first awkward moment, he will conclude that things are going as poorly as anticipated, and all the nervousness and embarrassment he dreads are likely to follow. A cognitive therapist might help the man to replace these self- defeating thoughts with more appropriate, positive ones. This is not to say the man should expect that everything will always go well. Rather, he should be prepared for some disappointments and failures and learn to interpret these in appropriate ways.

example of shaping

For example, you might reward the withdrawn patient for getting out of bed and sitting among the other patients. Once this behavior is established, you might reinforce him only when he is near or in the art therapy room. From here, rewards might be limited to time spent in the room during the sessions and later to time spent attending to and participating in the sessions.

Bandura's Four-Step Model of Aggression: Step one Attend explained

For observational learning to take place, people must first attend to the significant features of the model's behavior. We can sit in front of violent TV programs all day long, but the aggressive models will have little or no impact unless we pay attention to them. Children who watch television a lot have probably seen so many TV char- acters punched in the face or shot that only the most graphic and spectacular action grabs their attention.

what do we use in experiences that we encounter for the first time

Generalized Expectations

Rotter's Locus of Control 2

Generalized expectancies Internal - the generalized expectancy is that: people can affect what happens to them good and bad experiences are generally of our own making External - the generalized expectancy is that: what happens to you and others is outside of your control

who came up with personal constructs

George Kelly

George Kelly approach to personal

George Kelly's approach to personality begins with a unique conception of humankind. He called it a man-the-scientist perspective. Like scientists, people constantly generate and test hypotheses about their world. Just as scientists try to predict and control the things they study, we all want to predict and control as many events in our lives as possible. Not knowing why things happen or how the people around us might act can be quite unsettling.

Self Regulation

Goes beyond external reinforcement and punishment Most of our daily actions are controlled by self- regulation Self-imposed goals with inner rewards The rewards = feelings of self-worth and competence the exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards

what did John b Watson argue?

He argued that if psychology is to be a science, psychologists must stop examining mental states. Only the observable was reasonable subject matter for a sci- ence, and because subjective inner states and feelings cannot be observed or measured in an agreed-upon, accurate manner, they have no place in psychology. The sooner psychology abandons these topics, Watson maintained, the sooner it can become a respectable member of the scientific community.

did b f skinner deny the existence of internal thought/feeling

He did not deny the existence of thoughts and inner experiences. Rather, Skinner challenged the extent to which we can observe the inner causes of our behavior.

learned helplessness with depression

However, investigators soon found the simple model used to explain animal behavior was insufficient for understanding learned helplessness in people. Human research participants reacted to some uncontrollable situations with helplessness, but not to others. Feelings of helplessness generalized to some tasks, but not every task. People exposed to inescapable noise sometimes became less motivated, but occasion- ally motivation increased The limitations of the original model led some investigators to argue that nega- tive life experiences alone are not sufficient to produce depression. Rather, how we interpret the event is also important. In particular, how we explain the reasons behind negative experiences may be the key to determining our emotional reactions to them

attributional style or explan- atory style

However, psychologists have also observed sta- ble patterns in the way people explain the causes of negative events. That is, each of us comes to rely on certain kinds of attributions to explain why things happen to us. For example, we all know someone who blames himself or herself for every unfortunate incident, even when there is nothing that person could have done to cause or avoid the problem.

Pavlov dog experiment extinction

However, researchers have also uncovered several limitations of classical condi- tioning. For a new S-R association to persist, the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli must be paired occasionally or otherwise reinforced. When Pavlov presented his conditioned dogs with just the bell tone, the dogs salivated less and less until finally the dogs failed to salivate to the tone at all. This gradual disappearance of the conditioned S-R association is called extinction. Moreover, two events presented together will not always produce an association (Rescorla, 1988). Certain stimuli are easily associable, but it may be impossible to create some S-R bonds through classical conditioning.

Rotter's social learning theory

Human behavior is more complex than conditioning principles with "lower animals" Embraced "unobservable" concepts In any situation we have different options for behavior Behavioral potential Two variables for which behavior is acted out Expectancy Reinforcement value

example of neg reinforcement

If you do not put on seatbelt your car beeps

A-B-C process (Ellis)

If you were to seek that counseling from someone like Ellis, you would be asked how you could logically go from A (the experience) to C (the emotion). Why should a personal setback or loss cause such a strong negative reaction? The answer is that you must be using a middle step in this sequence, B—the irrational Belief.

Bandura identifies several features unique to humans that must be considered to fully understand personality. what are they 2

Imagination and Self-Regulation

In response to this question, several investigators have conducted long-term field studies to gauge the impact of exposure to violence and aggressive behavior outside the laboratory. What was the methods and results 2 experiments

In each case, the researchers use the amount and kind of television children watched at one point in their lives to predict how aggressive the children will be at a later date. Like the labo- ratory studies, these investigations find significant evidence indicating that watching a lot of aggressive television leads to more aggression in children and adults. One team of researchers began their investigation by determining how much tele- vision a group of 8-year-old children watched They then waited 22 years before measuring aggressive behavior in these same individuals at age 30. The researchers found a significant relationship between the amount of television the participants watched as children and the likelihood that they would have been con- victed for criminal behavior by age 30. As shown in Figure 14.5, the seriousness of the criminal act was directly related to the amount of television watched. The more TV the 8-year-old had watched, the more serious the adult crime. Another investigation measured the amount of television boys and girls watched at age 14 and incidences of aggression over the next 8 years (Johnson, Cohen, Smailes, Kasen, & Brook, 2002). As shown in Figure 14.6, the percentages of men and women who engaged in some act of aggression (assault, physical fights resulting in injury, robbery, crime committed with a weapon) increased dramatically with an increase in television viewing.

Rotter's Locus of Control are valuable in what situation

In novel situations we have no data/experience to draw on

cognitive-affective units

In recent years, these psychologists have introduced a large number of these cognitive variables to account for individual differences in the way people act

summarize findings about violent tv and real life violence

In short, frequent exposure to aggressive models on television appears to increase aggressive behavior over the short run and many years later. Some of this relation- ship can be explained through Bandura's observational learning model. However, a close examination of the model suggests imitation may be only part of the picture. In many studies, the aggressive acts displayed by participants are different from the acts modeled in the films the participants are shown. That is, exposure to an aggres- sive motion picture increases aggressive acts, but not necessarily the acts shown in the movie.

"black box" metaphor

In the early days of behaviorism (Chapter 13), psychologists sometimes used a "black box" metaphor to describe the relationship between stimuli and responses. In this model, features in the environment (e.g., a loud noise) cause behaviors (e.g., running away). But what happens inside the organism between the stimulus and response is unknown and unknowable, that is, a black box.

punishment

In theory, the frequency of a behavior is reduced when it is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as an electric shock, or the removal of a positive stimulus, such as taking away toys. The effects of punishment can be demonstrated in laboratory animals, and ther- apists have had some success applying this technique in special cases.

But what about situations we encounter for the first time where we have no basis for forming an expectation?

In these cases, we rely on generalized expectancies—beliefs we hold about how often our actions typically lead to reinforcements and punish- ments. Rotter (1966) proposed that each of us can be placed along a continuum called locus of control.

what does social learning theory include that behaviorism does not

Includes non-observable concepts (thoughts, values, expectations...)

Priming of aggressive thoughts

Increased accessibility of aggressive thoughts A readiness to interpret and act... Aggressive thoughts increase likelihood of aggressive behavior

negative cognitive style 2 components

Individuals who possess a negative cognitive style tend to attribute their problems to stable (endur- ing) and global (widespread) causes. They also tend to anticipate the most dreadful consequences possible and often believe problems they encounter are the result of or reflect their own personal shortcomings. A tendency to attribute negative life events to internal, global, and stable causes

personal constructs Initial polar opposites are... and example

Initial polar opposites are evaluated further (the gray area) Eg: intelligent - unintelligent academically intelligent - common sense intelligent

Who started the behaviorist movement?

John B. Watson In 1913, a young and brash psychologist named John B. Watson published an article titled "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." This article signaled the beginning of a new movement in psychology called behaviorism. By 1924, with the publication of his book Behaviorism, Watson had made significant progress in his effort to redefine the discipline.

Research on locus of control developed out of .......

Julian Rotter's concept of generalized expectancies

personal constructs

Kelly called the cognitive structures we use to interpret and predict events personal constructs No two people use identical personal constructs, and no two people organize their constructs in an identical manner.

Kelly maintained that differences in personality result largely from

Kelly maintained that differences in personality result largely from differences in the way people "construe the world."

man-the-scientist perspective.

Like scientists, people constantly generate and test hypotheses about their world. Just as scientists try to predict and control the things they study, we all want to predict and control as many events in our lives as possible. Not knowing why things happen or how the people around us might act can be quite unsettling.

aggressive behavior scripts

Like scripts for plays or movies, these behavior scripts represent ways to act that we have learned and sometimes practiced. Although there are many possible sources, we often learn aggressive scripts by watching aggressive models. Even though you may never have punched someone in the face, you have seen the behavior modeled often enough in various media outlets that you probably could act out this script if you needed to.

Schemas are

Mental short cuts

Rational Emotive Therapy: RET model three part

Model: A = Activating experience B = Irrational Belief C = Emotional Consequence B explains how we get from A - to - C

limitation of most studies on violence and video games

Most of the studies that find a link between violent video games and aggression have been limited to a short time frame. That is, measures of aggression are taken during and shortly after participants play the game. However, other investigations have looked at the long-term effects of playing violent video games, and the findings to date suggest the impact of the games may be widespread and long-lasting.

Why doesn't extinction always work

Neurotic Paradox - when extinction doesn't undo an association/learning Best explanation = after a fear is established from Classical cond., Operant cond. sets in and maintains it Classical cond. - child falls off a tall play structure Associate height with pain = fear of height association Operant cond. - avoiding the source of fear is rewarded by reducing anxiety Get rewarded (by reducing anxiety about heights) by staying away from heights

how is cognitive therapy diff than humanist

Not healing in itself (opposite of Humanist)

what leads to anxiety

Not knowing why things happen or how the people around us might act can be quite unsettling.

Not surprisingly, negative schemas go hand-in-hand with

Not surprisingly, negative schemas go hand-in-hand with other depression symp- toms, such as sad mood and decreased activity.

vicarious or observational learning

Occurs when a learner is motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person perform and be reinforced for doing so

Pavlov dog experiment second order conditioning

Once the new S-R association is established, it can be used to condition still another S-R association. If you were to pair a green light with Pavlov's bell tone, after a while the dogs would start to salivate when the green light came on. This process of building one condi- tioned S-R association on another is called second-order conditioning.

Like other assessment procedures, the grid technique also has its limitations. 4

One concern is that, unlike other personality measures, the Repertory Grid Technique does not generate a simple test score. Although various number-generating systems have been developed, the procedure still allows for a large degree of interpretation on the part of the therapist. Another limitation concerns the many assumptions underlying the test. - One assumption is that the constructs used during the test are relatively per- manent. - A related assumption is that the people on the list are representative of the kind of people clients are likely to deal with in their daily lives. Constructs used only for unique people that clients rarely encounter are of little use in understanding how clients deal with the majority of people with whom they interact. Kelly was particularly concerned about what he called the "most precarious" assumption underlying the procedure. That is, that people are able to describe the constructs they use. Kelly recognized that words may not exist to adequately describe many constructs. And even when clients find appropriate words, therapists may inter- pret those words differently.

intervention programs against aggression

One of these prevention programs was conducted in a number of schools in North Carolina, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, and Washington. Researchers find that physically aggressive boys and girls often exhibit disruptive behavior early in life, which allows investigators to iden- tify young children at risk of becoming aggressive later in life. At-risk kindergarten students in this study were randomly assigned to either the Fast Track intervention program or to a control condition. The intervention started in the first grade with home visits and "enrichment" programs that included, among other aspects, social skill training, academic tutoring, and lessons on developing friendships. The inter- ventions continued until the students were in the 10th grade. Initial reports indicate that the program is a success. Students in the Fast Track condition were significantly less likely to commit antisocial acts like assault and theft than children in the control condition. Most noteworthy, the reduction in antisocial behavior was associated with changes in the student's thoughts. Students in the Fast Track program were less likely than control condition students to attribute a classmate's actions to something provocative. These students also were better able to think of constructive solutions to social prob- lems and were better able to recognize the bad outcomes that were likely to follow if they became physically aggressive.

One potential difficulty in interpreting this research concerns the possibility that the children watched television

One potential difficulty in interpreting this research concerns the possibility that the children watched television because they were aggressive, not the other way around. Not surprisingly, research shows that aggressive people prefer aggressive tele- vision programs (Bushman, 1995). However, when researchers control for the child's initial aggressiveness level, the findings still suggest that watching television causes the later aggressive behavior. Moreover, when researchers account for other possible influences on aggressive behavior, such as neighborhood violence, childhood neglect, and family income, they still find the association between television viewing and aggression

LOC and mammograms

One study looked at the effectiveness of campaigns encouraging middle-aged women to obtain a mammogram. Half the women received a brochure and a phone call that were targeted to internals. The brochure was titled "The Best Thing You Can Do for Your Health," and contained messages like, "You hold the key to your health." The other half received messages targeted to externals. The bro- chure was titled, "The Best Thing Medical Science Has to Offer for Your Health," with messages like, "Health care providers hold the key to your health." As shown in Figure 14.9, internal women were more likely to get a mammogram within the next 6 months when they received the internally worded messages. In contrast, external women were more likely to get a mammogram when receiving the externally ori- ented message.

To better understand these reactions, some psychologists examine the way these boys interpret the events that preceded their physical aggression. Explain this research

One team of researchers presented a series of hypothetical situations to boys with a history of reactive aggression. In one scenario, another student breaks the boy's radio while the boy is out of the room. For each situ- ation, the boys were asked why the other student did what he did and whether the act was intentional. the boys with a history of reactive aggres- sion were more likely to see the act as intentional and hostile than were nonaggressive boys. Another way to say this is that the aggressive boys had chronically accessible hostile thoughts that led them to interpret even harmless acts as threatening. Not sur- prisingly, researchers find that these types of interpretations often lead to aggression

what type of conditioning utilizes positive and negative reinforcement

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning in psychotherapy

Operant conditioning Contingencies of rewards and punishments Token economy Biofeedback - equipment used to provide information about somatic processes

PCs are only relevant to... and example

PCs are only relevant to specific events or situations Wouldn't use PC of intelligent-unintelligent RE a table Would use the construct(s) stable-unstable, tall-short, etc.

what is another name for classical conditioning

Pavlovian conditioning

Self efficacy in Psychotherapy

People do not alter their behavior until they make a decision to expend the necessary effort Outcome expectation - Extent people believe actions will lead to a certain outcome Efficacy expectation - Extent people believe they can bring about the outcome

Bandura's Four-Step Model of Aggression Step 2: remember explained

People must also remember information about the model's behavior. You are unlikely to recall any specific behavior you saw on television a few weeks ago unless that act was quite gripping. And if you can't recall what the model did, you are not likely to imitate the model. Unfortunately, not all aggressive acts we witness fade from memory. Practice and mental rehearsal can keep the action fresh in our minds. Children who play with toy guns and plastic combat equipment may embed the actions of their aggressive heroes permanently into their memories.

Bandura's Four-Step Model of Aggression

People must go through each of four steps before exposure to aggression leads them to act aggressively. They must attend to the aggressive action, remember the information, enact what they have seen, and expect that rewards will be forthcoming.

Watson's View of Personality

Personality = "...our habit system" (Watsons views) We are conditioned to respond to certain stimuli in predictable ways Explains the consistency in personality

ACCORDING to behaviorists, personality is ...

Personality was "the end product of our habit systems."

Classical Conditioning Applications in therapy

Phobias: Therapists often use classical conditioning to eliminate or replace S-R associations that cause clients problems. Although these techniques traditionally use physical pair- ing of objects and reactions, psychologists find that mental images can also be classi- cally conditioned

Physiological and affective states

Physiological and affective states can also be a source of efficacy expectations. A woman who has difficulty talking with men may find her heart beats rapidly and her palms perspire as she picks up the phone to call a male acquaintance. If she interprets these physiological responses as signs of anxiety, she may decide she is too nervous to go through with it. However, if she notices how calm she is just before dialing, she may decide she is more courageous than she realized

Possible selves

Possible selves are cognitive representations of the kind of person we might become someday. These include roles and occupations we aspire to, such as police officer or community leader, as well as the roles we fear we might fall into, such as alcoholic or divorced parent.

Aggression is likely when situation includes 3

Provocation (Displacement) Frustration Cues associated with violence (word/noises)

Psychotherapy ____ ______ are the cause of mood disorders and self-defeating behaviors

Psychotherapy Inappropriate thoughts are the cause of mood disorders and self-defeating behaviors anxiety and depression come from anx. and dep. thoughts Focus on current issues

why is the relationship important in Cognitive therapies

Relationship is important b/c it's the source of learning

Researchers have developed a number of procedures to study negative sche- mas. explain

Researchers sometimes ask depressed and nondepressed individuals to answer questions about a series of words. In one study, depressed patients responded to a list of adjectives by pressing a YES or a NO but- ton to indicate whether the word described them (Derry & Kuiper, 1981). Half the words were related to depression (e.g., bleak, dismal, helpless), and half were not. The researchers then surprised the participants by giving them 3 minutes to recall as many of the words as they could. The results of the study are shown in Figure 16.6. As predicted, depressed patients remembered the depression-associated words better, whereas two groups of nonde- pressed participants recalled the other words better.

reinforcement values party example

Returning to the party example, you may have a high expectation that declaring the rude comment out of line will result in an apology. But if you don't expect the apology will make you feel any bet- ter, it's unlikely you will select that option.

Skinner's view on conditioning

Saw classical as conditioning useful BUT limited and overly simplistic Operant Conditioning better able to explain behavior in humans

example of discriminating with personality

Similarly, the polite child may come into contact with adults who respond to friendly behavior with harshness. Soon the child will learn to discrim- inate between people who are friendly and people who aren't.

B. F. Skinner identified his approach as

Skinner, who identified his approach as radical behaviorism

what theory did Albert Bandura create

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning theory considers conditioning AND internal events thoughts and attitudes Behavior - environment - behavior interactions

criticisms of the cognitive approach

Some critics of the cognitive approach have complained that many of the concepts used by cognitive theorists are too abstract. Others have ques- tioned whether it is always necessary to introduce cognitions to explain behavior. The cognitive approach also suffers from the lack of a general model.

what is a negative form of schema

Stereotyping based on brief, observable data (e.g., how a professional dresses)

example of reciprocal determinism (racquetball)

Suppose someone you don't like asks you to play racquetball. You can just imagine what a dismal afternoon you would have with this person. Thus, your internal expectation will probably cause you to reject the invitation. But what would happen if this person offered to buy you that new, expensive racket you've been eyeing if you play with him? Suddenly the exter- nal inducement is powerful enough to determine your behavior, and you say, "Let's play." Now imagine further that you have one of the most enjoyable sets of racquetball ever. You're evenly matched with this person, and he even cracks a few jokes to make the afternoon fun. You actually look forward to playing with him again. The behavior in this case has changed your expectations, which will affect future behavior and so on.

Template matching

Template matching - expectations for events If template matches experience = keep it (it makes good predictions) If NOT = adjust with new info for better prediction next time

____ _____ are one of the most common targets of biofeedback treatments.

Tension headaches

depres- sive cognitive triad

That is, depressed people typically (1) have negative thoughts about themselves; (2) are pessimistic about the future; and (3) tend to inter- pret ongoing experiences in a negative manner.

Behavior-environment-behavior interactions

That is, not only does the environment influence our behavior, but also that behavior then determines the kind of environment we find ourselves in, which can then influence behavior, and so on. The way people treat you (environment) is partly the result of how you act (behavior). And, of course, how you act is partly a result of how people treat you

template matching

That is, our ideas about the world are similar to templates that we place over the events we encounter. If they match, we retain the templates. If not, we modify them for a better prediction next time.

The Repertory Grid Technique has been widely used by therapists and clinical psychologists to

The Repertory Grid Technique has been widely used by therapists and clinical psychologists to obtain a visual map of how clients and those suffering from various psychological disorders construe the world

classical conditioning

The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov demonstrated that animals could be made to respond to stimuli in their environment by pairing these stimuli with events that already elicited a response, a process that became known as classical conditioning.

How do we explain individual differences within this cognitive framework?

The answer is that each of us possesses a different set of mental representations. In addi- tion, how easily we access certain kinds of information stored in memory varies from individual to individual. As a result, two people often react to the same situation differently. What one person hears as a clever retort someone else might take as an insult.

behaviorists weaknesses 2

The criticisms include an inappropriate attention to important causes of behavior. People have also criticized the way behavior therapists interpret problems into observable behaviors.

limitations of research on link between media and violence

The effects typically are short-lived, and the opportunity to hurt another person provided by the experimenter is unique. Therefore, it is reasonable to wonder how much these studies tell us about the impact of aggressive movies and television shows in real-life situations.

Bandura's Four-Step Model of Aggressions step four expect explained

The final step in the process requires individuals to expect that the aggressive act will lead to rewards and not to punishment. Researchers find that elementary school bullies often believe their aggressive acts toward other children will result in higher social status and popularity

One team of researchers mea- sured how often young adolescents (average age 13 years) played violent video games and how often they engaged in violent behavior 30 months late. results?

The investigators found a significant increase in violence (hitting, threatening to hit, pulling hair) among participants who frequently played violent video games. Yet another study found the rate of delinquent behavior in teenagers between 12 and 18 years old (e.g., physical assaults, stealing, damaging property) was highest among those who played violent video games

Role Construct Repertory Test

The most common version of the grid technique is the Role Construct Repertory Test, more commonly known as the Rep Test. A shortened version of the basic Rep Test procedure is presented on pages 392-393. Therapists begin by asking clients to provide a list of 24 people from various personal experiences—for example, a teacher they liked, the most interesting person they know, and so on. The therapist then pres- ents clients with three of the names from this list and asks, "In what important way are two of these people alike but different from the third?" A client might say that two of them are warm people and that the third person is cold. In Kelly's terms, this client has used a warm-cold construct to categorize the three people. The process is repeated with three different names from the list. Perhaps this time the client will divide the people along an outgoing-shy or a generous-miserly construct. Kelly suggested that about 20 trials, or "sorts," provide the therapist with a useful sample of the client's principal constructs. An assessment instrument designed by George Kelly to evoke a person's own personal construct system by making comparisons among triads of important people in the life of the person being assessed

what are the "rewards" in self regulation

The rewards = feelings of self-worth and competence

OUGHT SELF (OS)

The self you believe you should be Oriented to fulfilling obligations set by outside sources (i.e. parents) Discrepancies b/t AS and OS = agitation, anxiety, guilt

Bandura's Four-Step Model of Aggression step three enact explained

The third step in the observational learning process is that people must enact what they have seen. Remember that Bandura draws a distinction between learning and performance. One reason we don't carry out every aggressive act we recall is that we may lack the ability to do so.

Researchers have generated a wealth of experimental data concerning the impact of viewing aggression on performing aggression. what are the results?

The vast majority of these studies find the causal link irre- futable: Viewing aggression increases the likelihood of acting aggressively, especially over a short time span Most of the data come from controlled laboratory experiments. Typically, participants watch a segment from either a violent or an arousing but nonviolent program or movie. Then, they are given the opportunity to act aggressively against another individual, often by admin- istering what they believe to be electric shocks or loud noise that will hurt the other person. In almost all cases, participants who watch the violence act more aggressively than those who see the nonviolent clip.

Therapy occurs

Therapy occurs during and outside of sessions Homework

Reciprocal Determinism (Bandura) 3 factors

There are both internal and external determinants of behavior: External factors (environment, rewards, punishments) AND Internal factors (beliefs, thoughts, expectations) AND Behavior are parts of a system of interacting influences Not only can environment influence behavior, but behavior impacts the environment Potential environment Actual environment the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

video games and violence: One study followed teenagers over a 4-year period and examined whether the kids played violent video games or not. results?

They found the more participants played video games that glori- fied risk, the more likely the teenagers were to engage in high-risk behaviors like binge-drinking.

Every time someone flushes a toilet in the apartment building, the shower becomes very hot and causes the person to jump back. Over time, the person begins to jump back automatically after hearing the flush, before the water temperature changes.

This example is classical conditioning because jumping away from hot water is an automatic response. • The hot water is the US • The jumping back is the UR • The toilet flush is the CS • The jumping back to the flush alone is the CR

. You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it.

This example is classical conditioning because nausea is an automatic response. • The flu sickness is the US. • The nausea is the UR. • The new food is the CS. • The nausea to the new food is the CR.

. A professor has a policy of exempting students from the final exam if they maintain perfect attendance during the quarter. His students' attendance increases dramatically.

This example is operant conditioning because attendance is a voluntary behavior. • The exemption from the final exam is a negative reinforcement because something is taken away that increases the behavior (attendance).

John Watson conducted an experiment with a boy named Albert in which he paired a white rat with a loud, startling noise. Albert now becomes startled at the sight of the white rat.

This is classical conditioning because a startle response is an automatic behavior. • The loud noise is the US. • The startle is the UR. • The white rat is the CS. • The startle response to the white rat is the CR.

. An individual receives frequent injections of drugs, which are administered in a small examination room at a clinic. The drug itself causes increased heart rate but after several trips to the clinic, simply being in a small room causes an increased heart rate.

This is classical conditioning because the increased heart rate is an automatic response. • The drug is the US. • The accelerated heart rate is the UR. • The small room is the CS. • The accelerated heart rate to the room is the CR.

You check the coin return slot of a vending machine and find some change. You find yourself checking other vending machines over the next few days.

This is operant conditioning because checking the coin slot is a voluntary behavior. • The change would be a positive reinforcement because it was given and led to an increase in the behavior.

. Your hands are cold so you put your gloves on. In the future, you are more likely to put gloves on when it's cold.

This is operant conditioning because putting gloves on is a voluntary behavior. • The consequence is a negative reinforcement because the coldness is taken away and the behavior of putting on gloves increases.

LOC and health

Those who believe their health is largely in their own hands will do what they can to get better. Those who attribute poor health to bad genes or fate may see little reason to make the effort. Researchers generally find that internals are in better health than externals.

what three things does social learning theory focus on that behaviorism does not

Thoughts feelings, motivations, and expectations

Although researchers often find a connection between locus of control and health, some investigations find weak or no health differences between internals and externals. Why might this be so?

To answer this question, we need to return to Rotter's theory. Recall that Rotter said behavior was a function of both expectancy and reinforcement value. That is, I might expect that studying for a test will result in a good grade. How- ever, if I don't value that grade, I am still unlikely to make the effort. Psychologists make similar predictions when they apply Rotter's model to health behaviors (Wallston, 1992; Wallston & Smith, 1994). That is, believing that your actions can affect your health is not enough. You also need to place great value on good health. Of course, everyone wants good health. But if you think about some of the people you know, you probably can identify those who place health at the top of their concerns and those who don't. According to the theory, people who place a high value on their health and who believe there is something they can do to control their health are the ones who watch what they eat, exercise, and get regular checkups. You might believe that daily exercise leaves you feeling fit and full of energy. But if you don't particularly value these effects (especially if you value less exhausting activities more), it's unlikely you'll enroll in a fitness program.

how to reduce Tension headaches with biofeedback

To reduce these headaches, psychologists use electromyography monitors to inform clients about muscle constriction that they otherwise might not be aware of. Studies find the procedure is highly effective in reducing the frequency, intensity, and dura- tion of tension headaches (Nestoriuc, Rief, & Martin, 2008). Moreover, the procedure was relatively quick and efficient. Participants averaged fewer than 11 biofeedback sessions, and the improvements were seen in follow-up assessments 15 months later.

are Personal constructs the same for different people

Unique and specific to each individual - no two people PCs are identical

when is shaping useful

Useful for teaching complex behaviors

George Kelly Man-the-Scientist: People generate and test hypotheses about the world. Explain 2 outcomes

WHY?: aim to predict and control experience... Template matching - expectations for events If template matches experience = keep it (it makes good predictions) If NOT = adjust with new info for better prediction next time

who was more extreme behaviorist: Watson or skinner

WaTSON Watson had tremendous faith in the power of conditioning. His most outrageous claim, which he admitted went "beyond my facts," was that given enough control over the environment, psychologists could mold a child into whatever kind of adult they wanted. "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in," he wrote. "I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant—chief, and yes, even beggarman and thief" Skinner, who identified his approach as radical behaviorism, took a small step away from the more extreme position Watson advocated.

Little Albert Watson

Watson began with the S-R association between a loud noise and fear found in most infants. That is, whenever Watson would make the loud noise, Albert would cry and show other signs of fear. Next, Watson showed Albert a white rat, each time accompanied by the loud noise. Soon Albert responded to the white rat with fear responses (crying, crawling away) similar to those he had made to the loud noise, even when the noise was not sounded. Watson's point was that what appeared to be an abnormal fear of white rats in an infant could be explained by the past conditioning of the child.

Expectancies about our behaviors

We are likely to produce a behavior when we EXPECT is to bring us rewards

According to Kelly, when do we become anxious

We become anxious when our personal constructs fail to make sense of the events in our lives. We have all had this experience on occasion.

Shaping

What to do when a desired behavior is not emitted by the subject We use shaping, or the method of successive approximations We reward small increments toward the final (desirable) behavior Successive approximations Useful for teaching complex behaviors

enactive mastery experiences

Where do efficacy expectations come from, and how can therapists change these expectations in their clients? Bandura identifies four sources. The most important of these is enactive mastery experiences. These are successful attempts to achieve the out- come in the past. Sky divers suddenly struck with fear before a jump may tell them- selves that they've done this many times before without incident and therefore can do it again.

IDEAL SELF (IS)

YOUR mental image of the person you would like to be Your dreams, aspirations, goals Discrepancies b/t AS and IS = disappointment, dejection, sadness

locus of control

a person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Aggressive thoughts increase likelihood of...

aggressive behavior

Classical conditioning begins with

an existing stimulus-response (S-R) association

Reactive Aggression

angry, hostile aggression in response to frustration or provocation Escalate minor insults and personalize accidents See others' actions as intentional and hostile

Kelly placed ________ at the heart of most psychological problems.

anxiety

Self-Schemas

are cognitive representations of ourselves that we use to organize and process self-relevant information (Markus, 1977, 1983). Your self-schema consists of the behaviors and attributes that are most important to you. Because each part of your life is not equally important, not everything you do becomes part of your self- schema. If both you and I occasionally play softball and write poetry, we can't assume that these two activities play an equally important role in our self-schemas. Softball might be an important part of how I think of myself, but not poetry, whereas the opposite might be the case for you.

Numerous investigations find support for the notion that the __________ people make for negative experiences play a large role in determining whether they become depressed

attributions

Classical cond.

begins with an existing Stimulus-Response bond ..occurs only with behaviors that are automatic/reflexive Repeated pairings with a neutral stimulus results in association

Operant cond.

begins with behaviors the person performs spontaneously Rewards & punishment

behaviorism made _________ the primary focus of psychology

behavior

What is social learning theory a response to?

behaviorism

Unlike classical condi- tioning, which begins with an existing S-R bond, operant conditioning begins with...

behaviors the organism (human or lower animal) emits spontaneously.

Pavlov dog experiment conditioned response

bell

Kelly described personal constructs as ______

bipolar. That is, we classify relevant objects in an either/or fash- ion within our constructs. When I meet someone for the first time, I might apply the personal constructs friendly-unfriendly, tall-short, intelligent-unintelligent, and masculine-feminine to construct my impression of this person.

ocial learning psy- chologists also recognized that people can learn simply...

by watching someone else or even hearing about another person's behavior.

example of stimulus generalization with personality

child rewarded for acting politely around relatives will probably act politely around new acquain- tances. The polite response has been generalized from the stimulus of the relative to the new stimulus, the stranger. When we observe polite behavior consistently across situations, we say this pattern is part of the child's personality.

"Past experiences with an unloving parent or a tragic incident may explain why people construe the world as they do, but they are not the cause of the person's problems." What theory is this and what does it counter

cognitive Theory comparisons: very different view from psychoanalysis Kelly's time focus = present & future orientation

Schemas

cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information

People with a negative cognitive style are sometimes described as having a ______ _____ to depression

cognitive vulnerability

Cognitive therapies are

collaborative

Shaping is particularly useful when teach- ing....

complex behaviors.

Operant conditioning

concerns the effect certain kinds of consequences have on the frequency of behavior. A consequence that increases the frequency of a behavior that precedes it is called a reinforcement, and one that decreases the behavior is called a punishment. Whether a consequence is reinforcing or punishing varies according to the person and the situation.

Watson was convinced that a few key __________ _________ would suffice to explain almost any human behavior.

conditioning principles

Varying Viewpoints Behavioral/Social Learning

conditioning, consequences, observation & imitation, & cognitive processes; environmental determinism

Consistent use of PCs (personal constructs)=

consistent way of understanding people

George Kelly

contitive approach Man-the-Scientist People generate and test hypotheses about the world WHY?: aim to predict and control experience... Template matching - expectations for events If template matches experience = keep it (it makes good predictions) If NOT = adjust with new info for better prediction next time he believed (personal construct theory) our personality consists of our thoughts about ourselves, including our biases, errors, mistakes, and false conclusions

Finally, we should also note that the link between cognitive style and depression may be affected by _______

culture . Recall from earlier chapters that people in collectivist cultures tend to emphasize their role in the community, whereas people in individ- ualistic cultures focus on their personal aspirations and accomplishments. One team of researchers found that college students in China (a collectivist culture) had a more pessimistic cognitive style than American students (Lee & Seligman, 1997). Consis- tent with their individualistic emphasis, the Americans were more likely to attribute successes to their own efforts and failures to other people or unfortunate circum- stances. However, investigators comparing American and Chinese students also find that the kinds of explanations that predict depression in the United States also predict depression in China That is, although the way people in two cultures typically explain events may be different, the cognitive style that leads to depression is the same.

PUNISHMENT

decreasing a behavior by administering an aversive stimulus following a behavior OR by removing a positive stimulus

EXTINCTION

decreasing a behavior by not rewarding it

Varying Viewpoints Trait

descriptive characteristics; we all have traits, but differ in where we fall on a continuum; generic likelihoods

According to behaviorists, all behavior is ___________

determined

Discrimination

differing behaviors between rewarded and non-rewarded situations ' Swearing Starting to slip into social learning theory because we are getting into expectations

Bandura argues that _______ expectations are better predictors of behavior than outcome expectations

efficacy

Social Learning Theory Behavior - ____________ -__________ _________

environment - behavior interactions

cognitive therapy for depression and anxiety

eople become anxious and depressed because they harbor anxiety-provoking and depressing thoughts. Consequently, the goal of most cognitive therapies is to help clients recognize inappropriate thoughts and replace them with more appropriate ones.

Client role in Cognitive therapies

express concerns, define goals, learn & implement learning

LOC and psychological disorders: People suffering from psychological D/Os tend to be more

external

reciprocal determinism

external determinants of behavior, such as rewards and punish- ments, and internal determinants, such as beliefs, thoughts, and expectations, are part of a system of interacting influences that affect not only behavior but the various parts of the system as well. Put more simply, each part of the system—behaviors, external factors, and internal factors—influences each of the other parts.

self regulation goes beyond _______ _________ and ____________

external reinforcement and punishment

Bandura also argues that most behavior is performed in the absence of ... Our daily actions are largely controlled by what he calls_____ -_______

external reinforcements and punishments. self-regulation

Rotter's Locus of Control: These generalized expectancies have implications... 2

for psychological and physical well being.

In addition to allowing for rapid processing of schema-relevant information, self-schemas provide a ....

framework for organizing and storing this information. Con- sequently, we would expect people to retrieve information from memory more readily when they have a strong schema for a topic than when the information is stored in a less organized manner.

When you find yourself in a new situation—for example, a health problem you've never experienced before or a living arrangement completely unlike any you've known—you have no way of knowing what will happen if you do this or that. Is there something you can do to improve the situation, or would any effort be futile? Within Rotter's model, you have no information to draw upon...

generalized expectancies In these cases, Rotter argued, you most likely will turn to general beliefs you hold about your ability to influence events.

Therapist role in Cognitive therapies

help define goals, teach, encourage

Generalization

how personality characteristics are consistent (generalize) across different situations Example: polite child

shaping

in which successive approximations of the desired behavior are reinforced.

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

increasing a behavior by administering a reward

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

increasing a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when a behavior occurs

Varying Viewpoints Humanist

inherent human capacity for growth and achievement of potential; personal responsibility; free will

As a general rule, clients tend to become more ______ as they pass through successful psychotherapy

internal

Of course, happiness is determined by many factors. Nonetheless, researchers find that, with a few exceptions, ______ LOC tend to be happier than _______ LOC

internal; external

Consistent with these descriptions, several studies find that ______practice bet- ter health habits and are generally healthier than _______

internals ; externals

Ellis maintained that each of us harbors and relies on a large number of these _____ _____

irrational beliefs.

The reasons for this connection between external locus of control and depression tie back to the research on ________ _____

learned helplessness.

Self-schemas

lf-schemas - who/what you think you are Help us organize and process information about ourselves

Rotter (1966) proposed that each of us can be placed along a continuum called ____ ___ _____

locus of control.

Pavlov dog experiment unconditioned stimulus

meat powder

DEPRESSIVE SCHEMA

memories & associations of depressing thoughts and experiences

Researchers find that some people rely on attributions that make them particu- larly prone to episodes of depression, part of what investigators refer to as a ____ ____ _____

negative cognitive style