Perspectives on Race Exam 1

The number of races, especially their boundaries, remains a subject of dispute partially because of the lack of agreement on

which traits identify a person's race.

Exogamous

↑ gene flow, ↑ genetic variation

Ancestry≠ Geneology≠ Identity

"Drop of blood" ideals are social rules - Actual ancestry is more complicated Social identity (race, ethnicity), political sovereignty, and family history are not encoded in DNA

T. Dobzhansky and E Mayr

"geographic races" - populations

Greek word eugenes

"good birth."

"unmarked" racial category

"white" in the US -unmarked categories represent the "normal" standard against which others are measured

main themes are:

(1) race is a recent human invention (2) race is about culture and not about biology (3) race and racism are imbedded in institutions and in everyday life.

The first U.S. census, taken in 1790, recognized six categories within the population:

(1) the head of each household (2) free white males over sixteen (3) free white males under sixteen (4) free white females (5) all other free persons by sex and color (6) slaves

factors concerning "race"

(1) the possible biological responses to the environment—adaptation (2) our behavior directing gene flow between generations (3) population size or isolation as factors influencing variation between generations and among populations

1) humans do vary biologically

(2) this variation is explained by evolution (and not by race)

ABO Blood Type system

- An example of a Mendelian trait in humans - Distribution of blood types -All humans & many primates can be typed for ABO blood group -4 blood types: A, B, AB, O

Protein

- Chemical compounds made up of chains of amino acids

Cell

- Contains genetic material and other structures - separated from environment by semi-permeable membrane

Heterozygous

- Having different alleles at the same locus

Homozygous

- Having the same allele at the same locus - Two identical alleles

Race is a cultural term: based on shared societal "rules," and how others perceive you based on these rules

- Influences ethnic identity -Limits identity

uses of proteins

- Structural tissues primarily composed of protein - Enzymes

Somatic cells

- Tissues - Humans: 200 types - Full DNA Neurons (46 chromosomes) - Mitosis

Chromosome

- cellular structures that reside within the cell nucleus - contain genetic information (DNA) - Most DNA packaged in chromosomes

Alleles associate with individual-level differences IN a population

- e.g. people with different heights

Gene

- section of DNA molecule that code for a specific protein - Fundamental unit of heredity

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach - 1752 - 1840

-"Father of Physical Anthropology" -Founder of German Anthropology -Monogenist -On the Natural Variety of Mankind (1775) •Refuted existence of "wild men" and "troglodytes" of earlier classifications Proposed system for classifying humans into 5 races based on skull shape: 1. Caucasoid(Europeans) 2. Mongoloid(Asians) 3. American(Native Americans) 4. Ethiopian(Africans) 5. Malayan(Southeast Asians)

Skin color is not as important to self-identification in other countries/societies

-"Races" may be based on behaviors or even acquired traits

China

-1.4 billion people -56+ ethnic groups -largest = Han (all speak Mandarin)

Virginia One Drop Laws

-1822: "mulatto" has ¼African ancestry -1910: "mulatto" has 1/16African ancestry -1924: Virginia passes Racial Integrity Act: "Colored" if have any African ancestry Ascribed status: sorting people into categories at birth, without merit, that they cannot change -"invisible blackness"

Bureau of Ethnology

-1879 -to document and study American Indian history, customs, and language

Virginia's Racial Integrity Act

-1924 -law prohibits marriage between whites and nonwhites -overturned in 1967

critical reasons for the preference for Africans

-Africans were initially considered a civilized and docile people who had knowledge of, and experience with, tropical cultivation -accustomed to discipline, one of the hallmarks of civilized behavior, as well as to working cooperatively in groups -knew how to grow corn, tobacco, sugar cane, and cotton in their native lands -many Africans had knowledge of metalwork, carpentry, cattle-keeping, brick-making, weaving, rope-making, leather-tanning, and many other skills

Samuel George Morton - 1799 - 1851

-American Physician (Philadelphia) -Polygenist -Similar studies to Retzius & Broca -Measured cranial capacity (volume of brain case) to assess "intelligence" -Helped found the idea that race is inherently biological

1900 Karl Landsteiner

-Austrian immunologist -analyze the pattern of agglutination between the blood donor and recipients -found that only certain combinations caused an agglutination of the red cells

Classification vs Biological Anthropology

-Biological anthropologists are more interested in explaining WHY there are differences than they are in classification -Natural selection plays a key role

W. E. B. Du Bois

-Black Reconstruction (1935) -whiteness defined through European ancestry was a calculated racial solution developed by colonial leaders to control the economic and physical threat of laboring-class solidarity -newfound working-class whiteness was based on the betrayal and suppression of shared class interests for the purposes of white supremacy and privilege.

Race is ascribed status in U.S.

-Can be achieved status in other countries -Based on more than just appearance

George Gliddon (1809-1857)

-Egyptologist -applied Morton's methods to cranial studies of the skeletal remains he recovered from Egypt to prove that the pharaoh and the pyramid builders were, in fact, members of the Caucasoid race -added support to the conviction that only the Caucasoids were capable of building higher civilizations

The Eugenics Records Office

-Family pedigrees were combed for evidence of criminality, alcoholism, feeblemindedness, and moral degeneracy, but more attention was directed toward mental ability following the introduction of intelligence tests -Family bloodlines and races were seen as predestined for certain roles in life or had certain limitations.

Franz Boas (1890s)

-Founder of American anthropology -Showed language, race and culture were separate e.g. mappings of Northwest Coast Native American biological traits, cultural similarities and linguistics yielded different results

Pierre Paul Broca - 1824 - 1880

-Founder of French Anthropology -Skull indices indicate personality, social attitudes Craniometry: Measurements tell social status Shape of skull indicates quality of brain -bigger is better Men > Women Eminent Men > Mediocre Men Superior races (Caucasian) > Inferior (Other races) Developed new methodologies

Pierre Paul Broca (1824—1880)

-French neurosurgeon -founder of the first anthropological society in Europe -convinced that the measured shape of the skull was the best indicator of the quality of the brain -craniology based on an interest in racial differences that he believed to be primordial -deduced from his measurements the racial history or even the social status of the group under study -He translated skull dimensions into a series of mathematical indices and then deduced the personality and social attitudes of the long-dead individuals, together with their supposed biological affinities

Discontinuous Distribution of Mendelian Traits

-Frequency of each trait indiscrete categories (no continuity between each category) -Genotype leads to phenotype directly -NO clinal variation- Cannot alter ABO blood group

Biological population

-Gene pool -Allele frequencies -people able to breed with each other

Peter Simon Pallas

-German naturalist -student of Linnaeus -first family-tree diagram used in biology -described a diagram depicting degrees of morphological affinity between several animal groups -This tree, or "biological pedigree," implied organic evolution since its arrangement depicted a close affinity between Homo sapiens and the lower primates, because of anatomical similarities

"Father of Physical Anthropology" - Johann Friedrick Blumenbach

-German physician -1752-1840 -listed five races whose names are still in use today -based on skin color, hair form and facial characteristics, with special attention to the shape of the skull -skull shape was considered most significant and was regarded as a trait highly resistant to environmental influences -The skull that came closest to fitting this image of perfection was one that had been recovered from the Caucasus Mountains in an area near Mount Ararat -Caucasoid eventually became a term commonly applied as a major category that encompassed Europeans, North Africans, and Middle Easterns.

Franz Joseph Gall and Johann Kaspar Spurzheim

-German physicians -"science" based on phrenology

What is a population?

-Group or community that is identifiable within a species

What are two main reasons that humans cannot be grouped into biological races?

-Human variation is continuously distributed around the world. -Humans are genetically similar and have high gene flow.

One drop rule

-Hypodescent social principle -1/64 black = black (one black great x4 grandparent) Became legal principle -Southern state segregation laws (1910-30's)

Our species has a long history of admixture

-Isolated populations rare -Migration, gene flow common even in the past -There were no ancestral racial types

Tropical populations

-Lots of sunlight -require protection from too much UV radiation (too much Vitamin D) -Dark skin protects skin from excessive UV radiation

AAPA Statement on Race and Racism

-March 27, 2019 -"The concept of race has developed hand-in-hand with racist ideologies over the last five centuries, and biological anthropology has played an important role in the creation and perpetuation of both the race concept and racist ideologies."

Two Human Origins Models

-Multiregional continuity -Replacement (Out of Africa)

Which of the following statements about phenotype is TRUE?

-Phenotype is influenced by multiple factors beyond genes. -Phenotype typically refers to the physical appearance of an organism.

The term "race" was applied to varieties of Homo sapiens in the middle of the eighteenth century by Buffon

-Prior to that time, race described breeds of domestic animals—their group membership or descent from a common ancestor -Since then, the term has been used in numerous social and biological contexts and has become encumbered with contradictory and imprecise meanings

AAPA Statement on Race and Racism

-Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation -the Western concept of race must be understood as a classification system that emerged from, and in support of, European colonialism, oppression, and discrimination. -racism has been co-constructed with inaccurate depictions of human variation provided by scientists. -As scientists, we strive to eliminate the influences of bias, racial profiling, and other erroneous ways of thinking about human variation from our study designs, interpretations of scientific data, and reporting of research results.

The idea of race does not explain human variation

-Race-as-genetic-variation is a myth -Race neither explains variation, nor is it a useful genetic construct.

Which of the following processes is an important source of genetic diversity?

-Recombination during meiosis -Sexual reproduction

African populations are contemporaries of non-African populations

-Sub-Saharan Africa has most allelic diversity -Populations in Africa have continued to evolve for the same amount of time that non-African populations have -African populations are no more genetically isolated than non-African populations

Anders Retzius - 1796-1860

-Swedish anatomist -Early use of anthropomorphy Developed cephalic index -Categorize people by single number •Doliochocephalic: long narrow head •Mesocephalic: intermediate •Brachycephalic: round, short, broad •Also prognathic (midface projection) and orthognathic (straight face)

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)

-Swedish botanist -Systema Naturae, first published in 1735. -based his classification system on the assumption that species had been of a fixed type and number since creation -Species were regarded as units of' organisms that could interbreed only among themselves -the number of species was limited, fixed, and unchanging

2- Principle of Independent Assortment (Mendelian Inheritance)

-The genes controlling different traits are inherited separately from one another. -selection for one gene/trait does not affect selection for another

Biological Anthropology

-The study of human biology, biological evolution, and biocultural variation -investigate human biological diversity across time and space Multidisciplinary: -draws on biology, zoology, geology, anatomy, physiology, medicine, etc. Key concepts: -all humans are a product of their evolutionary history -all humans are a product of their individual life history Key ideas: -evolution: complex process by which living organisms developed from earlier forms of life on earth, small changes over long period of time to make complex organisms -adaptation: changes in physical structures that allow an organism or species to survive and reproduce in a given environment, evolutionary modifications that have developed over a long period of time, purpose is to ensure that species can survive in their specific environment

Humans have never had races

-There is no such thing as racial "purity" -Current lack of biological distinctions between human "races" is NOT due to recent mixing/migration (DNA shows that the lack of distinct human lineages is ancient) -Throughout our history as a species, there has been enough interbreeding between regional populations that we are a single lineage

Which of the following statements about human genetic variation are TRUE?

-There is plenty of genetic variation in humans, but most of that variation is between individuals. -Human variance is not distributed into well-defined clumps. -Phenotypic traits often reflect climatic or environmental adaptations rather than shared ancestry. -Different skin colors are adaptive phenotypes that do not necessarily correlate with specific genotypes. -There is more genetic variation WITHIN a human population than between populations.

Meiosis

-Two cycles •4 daughter sex cells (haploid) •Half the chromosomes -Recombination: shuffling of alleles -Produces gametes •sperm, egg

Scientific Racism

-Use of scientific methods to confirm biased beliefs about race -Assume inherent differences between groups of people --> implies hierarchy -eugenics

Variation in Phenotype

-Variability influenced by genotype -Variability influenced by environment

Mendel's Insights

-Visible characteristics do not always represent heritable qualities -Genotype ≠ Phenotype -Hereditary traits are nonreducible particles, not "blended" in sexual reproduction -Mendelian inheritance -Hereditary particles generally function as pairs -recessive and dominant traits

differences between RBC and WBC

-WBC are found not only in the blood serum within the blood vessels but are also distributed throughout most tissues of the body in virtually every fluid surrounding the somatic cells

"constructivist" approach

-a perspective from which to investigate critically the ideological and material manifestations, connections, and consequences of race, racism, and related phenomena -represents the means, not an end, to understanding race.

A polygenic trait is...

-a trait whose phenotype is influenced by multiple genes. -a trait more subject to environmental influences than Mendelian traits.

gene

-a unit of inheritance -arranged along the chromosome body in a cell's nucleus

natural selection - Darwin

-acts to limit and stabilize genetic diversity -characteristics that are adaptive in certain environments that enable them to live longer, with an extended reproductive period -features of a population's environment and behavior that influence reproduction and survival of individuals over the generations who have some reproductive advantage.

Anders Retzius (1769-1860)

-added a new index to cranial studies that described the general shape of the cranial vault -cephalic index -European populations could be divided into three types based on their head shapes: dolichocephalic, mesocephalic, brachycephalic-two types of face form: orthognathic and prognathic -the cephalic index has been a frequently used measurement in studies of human variation even into the mid-twentieth century.

The Genographic Project

-aimed at unraveling the history of human migrations through genetic studies -includes ethical guidelines intended to ensure respect for indigenous people's rights and a "legacy fund" to benefit indigenous and traditional groups

Race and anthropology today

-all humans can interbreed successfully, so we are all one species -present day inequalities are not consequences of biological inheritance, rather contemporary social and educational circumstances

term "white"

-arose in 1700s in America -used to unite European colonists -excluded Native Americans and Africans the term changes meaning according to politics of the time

Samuel Morton (1799—1851)

-believed that skull shape and size indicated race and character. -equated size of skull with intelligence and often reported smaller average cranial volumes for non-Europeans -showed by his measurements that Native Americans had a much smaller cranial volume than did the Caucasoid skulls in his collection -concluded that Caucasoids were the most intelligent of the races

Rhesus (Rh) negative

-blood cells did not react to the anti-Rh factor -inherited as a Mendelian trait

The Bell Curve

-by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray -claims the existence of inherited racial differences in intelligence

tRNA or anticodon

-carries a particular amino acid -When the codon-anticodon bonds are established, the amino acids, carried by the tRNA, form peptide bonds

Social Race Categories

-categorical -qualitative -discontinuous -essentialist

paradigm shift

-change in worldview -how societies can become more just and how science advances.

Proteins

-chemical compounds made up of chains of smaller molecules (amino acids) linked together by peptide bonds (polypeptide chain)

T-lymphocytes

-cytotoxic form destroys foreign cells, either transplanted, inhaled, or ingested -memory to recognize a previous contact with certain foreign substances -inducer or suppressor cells that regulate the antibody production of the B-lymphocytes -inducer T-cells do not make antibodies but communicate by chemical messenger to the B-lymphocytes to stimulate their antibody production

Linnaeus attributed behavioral as well as biological characteristics to each group

-defined Europeans as fickle, sanguine, blue-eyed, gentle, and governed by laws -described Africans as choleric, obstinate, contented, and regulated by customs -characterized Asians as grave, dignified, avaricious, and ruled by opinion -personality profiles together with physical traits -illustrations of biodeterminism

Boyd, in Genetics and the Races of Man (1950)

-defined six races on the basis of certain blood-type frequencies -By 1963 the distribution of the different blood types throughout the world became better known, causing Boyd to increase his original six races to thirteen

1960 Garn offered a classification differing somewhat from that constructed in his work with Birdsell and Coon

-described nine races, that were geographically delimited collections of local races. -local races were defined as breeding populations

Goon, Garn, and Birdsell in Races (1950) used several subdivisions to encompass an expanding knowledge of diversity

-described race as a population that differs phenotypically from all others -distinguished six racial "stocks" that encompassed thirty races -determined on the basis of evolutionary status as reflected in certain features of the skull and body and special surface features, such as dark skin and face form, that appear as special adaptations to the environment.

"what everyone knows about race"

-developed firm beliefs in "racial purity" and a solid conviction that a nation's strength depended on the maintenance of its pure stock -such beliefs were seriously challenged by the end of the nineteenth century as new data accumulated and a clearer understanding was gained of the mechanisms of inheritance and evolutionary processes.

Lewontin 1972: Results repeated multiple times

-distribution of human variation -found that most variation is within a local group (85%) -Some variation occurs between local groups (still within the geographic population) -A small percentage of the remaining variance (6%) occurs between populations -There IS plenty of genetic variation in humans, but most of it is individual variation -Between-population variation exists, but it's minimal -Only 6% of human genes account for the phenotypic differences

Early anthropology was centered on classification

-divisions among people -race (sub-species) -used to justify colonialism, conquest, and slavery NOT anthropology today

crossover

-during an early stage of meiosis -an exchange of parts of nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes -The final result is a realignment of genes.

No guarantee that same alleles will map onto different populations the same way

-e.g. no alleles for height -Cannot explain population differences in average average height using these alleles

"One drop rule"

-early 1900s -a person thought to have any amount of African blood - even "one drop" - is classified as black

human varieties (Linnaeus)

-early categories, later called races -largely determined by comparisons of skin color, face form, and skull shape -Among the living, the traits of stature, hair form, and shape of the nose were used in combination to distinguish between populations more precisely

theory

-empirical tests and experimentation that have led to tested knowledge about a topic, like evolution -starts as a hypothesis, but has been tested and the conclusion is always the same -closest thing to a scientific fact

Latinx (ethnicity)

-even broader than Hispanic -includes portugeuse -includes brazilians -geographic connections

gene flow

-exchanges between different population gene pools so that the next generation is a result of admixture of the parental population -A higher rate of admixture is an important factor that has countered the influence of isolation, reducing the chance of development of unique gene combinations -has the potential for introducing new gene combinations, causing the population to be more heterogeneous

We own the future of race

-explaining how the power of race was used in the past to divide us, we will show how this knowledge provides the power to understand and reunite

"father of gynecology" - J. Marion Sims

-exploited poor white and enslaved black women to develop gynecologic techniques and surgical procedures

Franz Boas

-father of modern anthropology -late 19th early 20th century -came up with cultural relativism -one of the first scientists to examine humans holistically -one of first biological anthropologist

racial definitions emphasize certain common factors:

-first is an assumption about the role of geographic distribution in race/ethnic group formation -second factor is that all agree on the importance of breeding populations that possess a collection of traits that sets such a group apart.

phenotype is influenced by

-genotype -environment -life experiences -epigenetic changes -ontogeny

haptoglobins

-group of serum proteins -combine with the oxygen carrying pigment-protein complex, hemoglobin, when it is released into the plasma upon the destruction of old red blood cells because of disease or age -prevents a loss of hemoglobin through excretion by the kidneys

HDN

-hemolytic disease of the new born -many red blood cells of the developing fetus and newborn are destroyed by maternal antibodies attacking the fetal cells

biological "race"

-historical term for a taxonomic level below species -interbreeding populations separated from other populations for extended periods of time, with little gene flow -in biology, races are genotypically AND phenotypically distinctive -distinctive subpopulation (subspecies) within a larger population -concept not common in modern biology

Does the idea that race is not a biological concept mean that humans don't vary by geography? Does it mean that humans cannot trace ancestry through DNA?

-humans do still vary geographically -can trace ancestry through dna, but it is combined with other things

effective breeding population consists of those

-in their reproductive years -roughly one-third of the total population

endogamy

-inbreeding -an increase in homozygosity

biologists no longer consider special creation or the fixity of species

-instead they consider the fossil record and the natural diversity of biological organisms as evidence of evolutionary change that contributes to the formation of new species or to species extinction -also consider each species in its environmental context

The idea of race was invented

-invented as a way to categorize and rank groups and, by extension, individuals. -idea slowly took hold and became more and more real through European exploration and colonization, and slavery in the Americas.

Bombay blood type

-lack ABH antigens on red blood cells or the soluble form in the serum -red blood cells did not agglutinate when mixed with anti-A, anti-B, or anti-H serum -person will not type as A or B and his or her blood plasma will contain anti-H antibodies. -seldom found in any populations except among Mohorati speakers in and around Bombay, India, and on Reunion Island in the Indian Ocean

1676 rebellion

-led by Nathaniel Bacon -uprising of thousands of poor workers in Virginia was the first major threat to social stability -dissipated after Bacon's death, but British royal commissioners sent out to suppress it realized the population at large had supported it and were "sullen and obstinate." -faced a dissatisfied "rabble" of "400 African and 600 or 700 European bond laborers, chiefly Irish

ABO blood group

-list of the red-cell antigens -type was passed on by Mendelian inheritance -under the control of at least three alleles at a locus on chromosome 9

Northern populations

-little sunlight -require minimal pigmentation to produce Vitamin D (exception example: Inuit populations in Northern latitudes)

DNA

-long, repetitive, chainlike structure made up of alternating phosphate and sugar molecules -attached one of four kinds of organic bases (thymine, adenine, cytosine, or guanine). -length of the two chains can be diagramed as a ladderlike structure; the long parallel structures are formed by the sugar and phosphate backbones while the connecting rungs are the complementary base pairs (double helix)

granulocytes and macrophages

-most common WBC -engulf virus, bacteria, and foreign proteins

Rhesus system

-most often involved in a hemolytic disease of the new born (HDN)

"Great Chain of Being" concept

-natural scientists were able to reconcile the discoveries of these new peoples with current religious dogma through an arrangement of all living creatures in a scale from lower to higher categories, from inanimate to animate, with humans at the top -simplified the study of human variability -Europeans were placed at the top of an ascending order, with newly discovered peoples arranged below -fostered the belief that no two varieties of humans could occupy the same developmental level. -idea of the superiority of one race over another persisted well into the twentieth century

Clinal variation in gene frequencies

-no obvious change from one skin color to the next -continuous, gradual change as we move from one place to another

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

-nucleic acid compound -transporting agent or messenger that copied the code and relayed it to the sites of protein synthesis, the ribosomes

exogamy

-outbreeding -mates are selected from outside of one's extended family or village, reducing homozygosity while increasing heterozygosity.

Specializations within biological anthropology

-primatology: study primates -human paleontology: paleoanthropologists, study human remains of our ancestors to understand how human evolved and why we have certain biological features today -forensic anthropology: study human skeletal remains in a legal context -human population genetics: study genetic composition of different populations, in what ways our genetic code varies between people and why they evolved -human behavioral ecology: applies evolutionary theory to human behavior and cultural diversity, how behaviors are adaptive in different environments

The Sanitary Commission examined and measured thousands of men, including many recently freed slaves and Native Americans inducted into the army during the Civil War.

-results provided an unparalleled opportunity for comparing anthropometric traits of the males of these three groups -perhaps one of the earliest applications of anthropological theory to practical problems relating physique and endurance to job performance

Eugenics Society - Galton

-scientific fact that intelligence was inherited -the only remedy was to alter the relative fertility of the good and bad stocks in the community -solution for overcoming this misperceived threat to the nation was to found an organization dedicated to working toward ending the haphazard marriage customs that allowed or encouraged the reproduction of those deemed unfit -the organization encourage the mating of talented men with talented women, a plan that he concluded would increase the number of eminent men more than tenfold and improve the race

polygenic or multifactorial

-several genes may determine the phenotype through their combined action -the products of two or more genes at different loci interact to contribute to the development of a phenotype. ex. Growth processes and body form, skin color

ethnicity

-shared cultural characteristics of a group -can include: national origin, language, traditions, customs, religious beliefs/practices, race

The major reason that the size and shape of the skull were given so much attention in anthropometric studies was the assumption that

-skull form was the feature of the anatomy most resistant to change and, hence, cranial form was considered a good measure of one's ancestry -because the skull housed the brain, the head's shape and contours were supposed to be indicative of the brain's characteristics and even a measure of its quality -belief that a person's character and intelligence were indicated by the morphology of his or her head

The genetic code consists of a sequence of three letter "words"

-sometimes called 'triplets', sometimes called 'codons' -Each code word is a unique combination of three letters that will eventually be interpreted as a single amino acid in a polypeptide chain -There are 64 code words possible from an 'alphabet' of four letters.

Hispanic (ethnicity)

-spanish-speaking -diverse national origins -diverse appearances physically

What do biological anthropologists do?

-study past people -study ancient human ancestors -study living humans and their relatives (primates)

hypothosis

-suggested explanation for something, untested

Herbert Spencer

-the "distorter" of Darwinian evolution theory -misapplied the concepts of "struggle for existence" and "natural selection" to the social issues confronting Victorian England -The growing gap in education, health, and behavior between the classes could be explained in biological terms -People in a social hierarchy rise to the top because of superior heredity, while people less well endowed fall behind; nurture could not overcome nature.

Johann Gregor Mendel

-the founder of the science of genetics -best known for his extensive experiments on cross-pollination of common varieties of garden pea, Lathyrus -hypothesis that an organism's characteristics were inherited as discrete units or elements and not through a blending of parental traits -Law of Independent Segregation -The relative frequency of these traits = Mendelian ratio

the first laws designed to establish and patrol racial boundaries and hierarchy did not appear until

-the middle of the 17th century -new "racial worldview" -races are in fact political entities resulting from our social actions

Mutation

-the ultimate source of all genetic variation in a population and may provide a species with an ability to respond to a variety of environmental conditions -may affect changes in the way organisms metabolize certain substances, resist parasites, or produce antibodies against infectious diseases. -mutations apparently occur at a low rate in humans

phenotype

-the visible type or trait -physical characteristics and traits

Race is both stable and protean.

-understanding how race differs among diverse groups provides a deeper understanding of each group and about the idea of race itself.

Carleton Coon, combined evidence from the paleontological record with classifications of living Homo sapiens.

-using a mixed criteria of morphological traits, blood types, and skin color, he divided our species into five races.

Human biological variation is real, obvious, wonderful, and necessary

-variation is patterned within individuals and among individuals and groups. -requirement for the survival of our species.

sampling error or genetic drift

-when the total number of individuals is very small, there is the possibility that not all gene combinations will be represented in the next generation -larger the number of matings, the greater the probability that all genetic combinations will be reproduced, so the gene frequencies will remain stable from one generation to the next. -fewer the matings each generation, the smaller the sample of the total gene pool, a greater chance that certain genes will not be passed on because of the small size of the sample

Humans are genetically similar compared to other species

0.1% of our genome differs from person to person -individual chimpanzees have more genetic differences within a population than humans from different continents

five key reasons why race ≠ human variation

1- Evolution, rather than race, explains human biological variation 2- Human variation is continuous. (There is no clear place to designate where one race begins and another ends.) 3- Human biological variation involves many traits that typically vary independently 4- Genetic variation within so-called races is much greater than the variation among them 5- There is no way to consistently classify human beings by race.

challenges of using mtDNA in ancestry

1- some regions of the mtDNA are less susceptible to change, while others fix mutations at higher rates 2- the fact that all thirty-seven genes are closely linked limits the usefulness for evolutionary studies 3- difficulty in calibration of mutation rate

4 branches of anthropology

1-Cultural Anthropology 2-Archaeology 3-Linguistic Anthropology 4-Physical Anthropology Each study a different aspect of humankind and how it affects the other branches

Hindu caste categories

1. Brahmins - priests and scholars 2. Kshatriyas - ruling and warrior caste 3. Vaisyas - the merchants 4. Shudras - menial workers and artisans 5. Dalit - "untouchables" • Caste system divisions 2000+ years •Rules of endogamy limited interbreeding -Extensive genetic admixture prior -Cultural system affects population genetics Social consequences of race: 1.Different environmental variables affect people in different social groups 2.Different biological effects on people indifferent social groups

Before a cell divides....

1. DNA strands unwind and separate 2. DNA polymerase enzymes use strands as templates for assembling new, complementary strand of DNA -Proofreading by enzyme at each step

Functions of DNA

1. Make proteins (with ribosomes) 2. Coordinate activity or proteins to produce our bodies 3. Replicate

Preconditions for Natural Selection

1. Variation 2. Competition -Differential survival and reproduction. 3. Inheritance -The variation is heritable.

In everyday language, race often has two sub-components:

1.Imprecise shorthand for (assumed) genetic ancestry 2.Membership to a cultural group or ETHNICITY But the biological assumptions don't follow biological rules of inheritance

African laborers were forcibly brought to Virginia beginning in

1619 -status was defined by wealth and religion, not by physical characteristics such as skin color. -but this changed: with the development of the transatlantic slave trade, landowners began replacing their temporary European laborers with enslaved Africans who were held in permanent bondage -social structure emerged based primarily on skin color

Gregor Mendel

1822-1884; Austrian scientist & Monk -laws of inheritance -"factors"

Morton's Studies

1830s & 1840s: Morton set out to prove that Europeans were naturally superior -brain size had a direct relationship with intelligence Collected 100's of human skulls Measured skulls & developed classification tables -His tables assign the highest brain capacity to Europeans, with the English highest of all -(2) Chinese (3) Southeast Asians and Polynesians (4) AmericanIndians (5) Africans & Australian aborigines

William Bateson

1861-1926; English geneticist -Promoted Mendel's ideas years after

slavery officially ended in the South in

1865 -"race" as social status and the basis of our human identities remained

Chinese Exclusion Act

1882 -bans Chinese from entering the United States and prevents them from becoming citizens

Plessy v. Ferguson

1896 -Plessy, a black, is jailed after boarding a railroad car reserved for white people only -his case reaches the U.S. Supreme Court, which decides against him, ruling that states may provide blacks with "separate but equal" facilities for transportation, education, and public accommodations such as hotels and theaters.

Karl Landsteiner discovered A, B and O blood types in

1900

The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act)

1924 -limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States through a national origins quota -completely excluded immigrants from Asia and severely restricted immigrants from countries such as Italy that were not yet well represented in the United States. -The quota provided visas to two percent of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States

How many races for Linnaeus?

4 (+3 imaginary)

Homo sapiens have how many chromosomes?

46 22 pairs = autosomes 1 pair = sex chromosomes (allosomes)

Humans inherit 23 chromosomes from each parent

46 total in every cell

How many races for Blumenbach?

5

US Census Says

5 categories: -white -native american or alaska native -asian american -black or african american -native hawaiian or other pacific islander can check more than one can check other based on self-identification synonym with geographic/genetic ancestry

How many races for T. Huxley?

9 -depended on geography

How many races for Garn?

9 (+ 2 lower levels)

Humans share the vast majority of our DNA in common

99.9%

Founder Effect

A small group of individuals becomes separated from the population and forms new population ex: Afrikaners, South Africa Native American groups bloodtypes Dunkers -PA: Starting size = 28 -outside marriage discouraged (endogamous) -Drift in blood type frequencies

What occurred approximately 70,000 years ago that had significant effects on the current genetic diversity of humans?

A volcanic eruption caused massive climate change and reduced the human population.

Regardless of ethnicity, most people are O+, followed by

A+

a male is born with a pair of XX chromosomes

About 1 in 20,000 male births -sterile since they lack the region of the Y-chromosome necessary for sperm production

The origins of modern humans can be traced back to _______ through DNA.

Africa

Which continent has the greatest human genetic diversity?

Africa

researchers using RFLPs of mtDNA offered data that traced all geographic populations back to

African origins -hypothesis was that modern Homo sapiens evolved in Africa approximately 200,000 years ago and expanded in numbers, migrating into other parts of the Old World -all living humans could trace their mitochondrial DNA back to a female (or females) living 200,000 years ago on the continent of Africa

Monogenism

All humans have a single origin and common descent -Races viewed as the result of environmentally determined degeneration from Europeans

Which of the following traits are influenced by both environmental and genetic factors?

All of the above Skin color Height Disease

frequencies of blood types

Allele O (62.5 percent) A (21.5 percent) B (16 percent) alleles A and B are usually greater than zero and seldom rise above 25 percent. where type B is highest, type O is lowest

Natural selection leads to adaptation

Alleles in gene pool increase in frequency if they increase an individual's chance of surviving and/or reproducing

1- Principle of Segregation (Mendelian Inheritance)

Alleles separate and children inherit one copy from each parent. -Genes occur in pairs = alleles meiosis

Physical Anthropology

Also called biological anthropology, physical anthropology is the study of human evolution and variation, both past and current.

Rh Blood Types

Another typing system: Rh factor - Present (+) - Absent (-) -Discovered in 1940 by K. Landsteiner & A.Wiener Complex; involves 45 different antigens on red blood cell surface Conceptualize it in the form of two alleles: D,d

Carolus Linnaeus created a classification scheme for human races based on:

Behavioral and physical characteristics.

Which of the following statements is TRUE about race and ethnicity?

Both race and ethnicity are culturally-constructed categories.

The boundary between archaic and modern sapiens is ill defined

Brain size, dento-facial size and form, and cultural artifacts are often used

1758

Carolus Linnaeus -publishes the 10th edition of Systema Naturae, his comprehensive framework for sorting the natural world -designates four basic races of humans, as well as two additional types - Monsters and Feral (or wild) people

The Bottleneck Effect

Catastrophic event severely reduces population -The random assortment of survivors may have different allele frequencies ex. toba eruption

Where are genes located?

Chromosomes -DNA structure discovered in J 1953 by Watson, Crick, & Franklin

St. Augustine - 354-430 A.D.

De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos: people born everywhere, no matter how strange they appear to us, are descended from Adam •i.e., all humans descended from a single ancestral stock

Punnett Squares

Diagram of all possible genotypes for offspring of two parents -the probability of a trait expressing itself in offspring's phenotype

Early History of Racial Classification of Humans

Early attempts implied a hierarchy -inherent sets of social & behavioral traits Traditional racial classification goes hand in hand with 19th century racism: -race of the investigator at top -"inherited inequality of races" Used to justify colonialism, conquest, & slavery

Today, the net worth of the average white family in the U.S.A. is how approximately much compared to the average black family?

Eight times as much

Hippocrates - 460 - 377 B.C.

Environmental influences on human variability noted in Corpus Hippocraticum •e.g. Body build and temperament of different peoples related to climate and lifestyle

Which species has the most genetic variation?

Fruit flies

ABO Genotypes and Phenotypes

Genotype: AA, AO = type A blood (dominant to O) Genotype: BB, BO = Type B (dominant to O) Genotype: AB = type AB (codominance) Genotype: OO = type O (recessive allele)

Anthropology

Greek: Anthropos (human) and logy (the study of) -Integrated: multiple different scientific and humanistic approaches to the study of humankind -Holistic: combine different sources of information to study humans as a whole

Herodotus ~484 - 425 B.C.

Historiae argues for an environmental cause of variability between human groups •e.g. Egyptians have strong skulls due to "exposure," Persian skulls are brittle due to the use of hats

Rh+

Homozygous dominant (DD) & heterozygous dominant (Dd)

Rh-

Homozygous recessive (dd)

Polygenism

Human races all have different origins and separate creations

Replacement (Out of Africa) Model

Humans dispersed throughout Asia and Europe replacing H. erectus and descendants Place of origin: Modern humans had localized origin (Africa) Interbreeding: No interbreeding with hominins (Neanderthals) they replaced Evidence: mtDNAevidence for African origin

3- Principle of Dominance (Mendelian Inheritance)

If two alleles are different, the trait for only one of these will be visible, while the other will be hidden. Dominant traits are controlled by an allele that can be expressed in the presence of another recessive allele. -Dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles. Recessive traits are not expressed in heterozygotes. -For a recessive allele to be expressed, there must be two copies. Codominance is the expression of two alleles in heterozygotes. -both influence the phenotype

According to Dr. Ibram Kendi in the Invention of Race podcast, when was the idea of "whiteness" and "blackness" first written about in the historical record?

In the 15th century, when Portugese slave traders grouped together different ethnic groups across Africa.

B frequencies are high in

India -among the highest in the world

Rudyard Kipling's poem on American imperialism (above) was influenced by a moral philosophy commonly used to justify American expansion during the 19th century. What was the name of this belief?

Manifest Destiny

Steps of Meiosis

Meiosis I •Recombination (Crossing Over) -exchange of genetic material between paired chromosomes Meiosis II •2 cells from Meiosis I split apart again •4 new daughter cells

Keys to genetic diversity

Meiosis: - Chromosomes in gametes are uniquely recombined mixture of maternal and paternal DNA Sexual reproduction - Haploid sex cells unite from two different individuals

Evolutionary Synthesis

Mendel's theory of heredity + Darwin's theory of natural selection Why do genes change infrequency? How do genes vary within and across populations? What is the source of individual differences within a population? What is the source of differences between populations?

Gene Flow

Migration

Rh mother-fetus incompatibility

Mother Rh-(dd) Fetus Rh+ (DD or Dd) - Inherits Rh factor from father maternal antibodies can cross placenta to destroy fetal red blood cells

The ultimate source of all human genetic variation is:

Mutations in DNA sequences

The actual patterns of DNA variation in humans shows that African populations contain:

Nearly all of the common DNA variants found in Asians and Europeans, plus novel variants that are not found in either Europeans or Asians.

When did we become human?

No one timeframe or event Homo erectus -2 mya- 500 kya Homo sapiens ~300 kya (anatomically modern) -Morocco -Herto and Omo (Ethiopia) -Ngaloba (Tanzania) -Florisbad (South Africa)

All members of a race can be identified and distinguished from other races by their:

None of the above Blood group Ancestry Genes Skin color

What does skin color tell you about a person?

None of the above It indicates his or her biological race. It offers insight into his or her predisposition to disease. It provides information about his or her cultural heritage.

Natural Selection

Nonrandom shift in proportions of heritable variants

Ripley (1899) determined that European populations consisted of three races:

Nordic, Alpine, and Mediterranean.

Meiosis:

Paternal and maternal chromosomes get separated -during cell division (gamete production), genes separate. Each gamete randomly has only one allele. -During fertilization, each parent contributes a single gamete. -The full number of chromosomes is restored.

Genetic Drift

Random shift; loss of alleles

Which of the following is NOT a force of evolution?

Recombination

Components of Blood

Red blood cells - Erythrocytes - Majority of cells White blood cells - Leukocytes Platelets - Thrombocytes Plasma

Multiregional Continuity Model

Single evolving species for last 2 million years Place of origin: Can't trace human origins to one single population or area Interbreeding: Gene flow extensive throughout Old World hominin populations Evidence: -intermediate fossils -Genetic record shows admixture with regional populations like Neanderthals

Skin pigmentation, Vitamin D, and survival

Skin pigmentation levels control Vitamin D production Vitamin D not common in nature -the human body synthesizes it in the skin with the help of UV radiation -necessary for directing the body's use of calcium Too much Vitamin D is toxic; too little causes vit-D & calcium deficiency -skin color helps us regulate how much vitamin D we get

Adaptation

Solution to environmental problem -contextual

Types of Eukaryotic Cells

Somatic cells Gametes

Mendelian Genetics

Start with "True Breeding" Parental Generation -The two variants in the parent (P) generation had to always produce ONE phenotype Finding: Purple is dominant and white is recessive Dihybrid Cross: Cross between individuals that differ on TWO traits

Gould's Test of Morton's Study

Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002) -Mismeasure of Man(1981) -Blind re-analysis of Morton's data Discovered fully overlapping measurements among the skull samples

Which of the following statements is true?

The sickle cell trait became prevalent in African and a few other parts of the work where malaria is common because the trait offers resistance to malaria.

Cultural Anthropology

The study of cultures and societies of human beings and their very ancient past. Traditional cultural anthropologist study living cultures and present their observations in an ethnography (detailed description of practices and beliefs of certain groups) -become a little more introspective in recent years, like studying homelessness and drug addiction

Linguistic Anthropology

The study of language, especially how language is structured, the evolution of language, and the social and cultural contexts for language -what are the origins of different languages? -how have they changed over time? -how do words change depending on how you say them, where you say them, and who you say them to?

Archaeology

The study of past societies and their cultures, especially the material remains of the past, such as tools, food remains, and places were people lived

Beliefs vs. Scientific Principles

Types of knowledge - Religious knowledge - Empirical knowledge evolution offers a consistent and testable explanation for the origins and diversity of life = empirical knowledge

Skin color evolved as the body's way of adapting to:

UV radiation

What are the three key components needed in a population in order for natural selection to operate?

Variation, competition, and inheritance

In areas with low UV exposure, indigenous people are lightly pigmented because of the risk of ___________ deficiency.

Vitamin D

Greater genetic variance within compared to between groups

We are a young species -200-300,000 years old -Not long enough to develop biological races. Admixture across populations -migration

Race is powerful, but not based in genes or biology, rather on

a deeply held cultural and therefore changeable concept.

Exogamy refers to:

a disassortative mating practice (i.e., marrying someone who is different from you).

subspecies

a distinct evolutionary lineage within a species -current genetic differentiation due to barriers -historical continuity with rest of species -no subspecies within the human populations

A biological definition of race is:

a genetically and phenotypically distinctive taxonomic level below a species (subspecies).

Earnest Hooton in Up From the Ape (1946) defined race as

a group whose members present individually identical combinations of specific physical characters that they owe to their common descent. -divided Homo sapiens into three physical groups or main races and subdivided these into an array of subcategories -sorting criteria were primarily skin color, hair color, eye color, and hair form

Before 1900, transfusions were used only as

a last resort in an attempt to save the patient's life -the transfused blood would often cause shock and even death because of agglutination of the incompatible antibodies and red cells

The first time the term "white," rather than "Christian" or an ethnic name appears in the public record is in

a law passed in 1691, which prohibited the marriage of Europeans ("whites") with Negroes, Indians, and mulattoes

Mendelian laws apply only to traits that are controlled by

a single locus (controlled by one gene) -4500 traits

phrenology

a widely popular pseudoscience of the nineteenth century that examined and recorded the skull's contours, supposedly a map or diagram of an individual's latent abilities and talents.

microevolution.

accumulation of change in gene frequencies in a population from one generation to the next

Major plasma constituents

albumin -group of large protein molecules that combine with and transport a number of substances fibrinogen -blood-clotting agents globulin fractions

allele

alternate forms of the gene for a particular characteristic -some alleles are dominant to others

human races exist solely because we created them

and only in the forms in which we perpetuate them.

type-A and type-O blood cells will react with the

anti-H serum

immunoglobulins

antibodies that attack the foreign substances entering the body, usually bacteria or proteins

genetic testing has shown that every human geographic population differs genetically from

any other population -2 million+ genetic populations

variable expressivity

autosomal dominant traits may be more severe than in other persons

past peoples were ethnocentric

believed themselves culturally superior to others and sometimes exhibited the nasty habit of painting others as uncultured and brutish or savage, even to the point of justifying enslavement and killing on this basis. ethnocentric and later racial logics differed significantly: -Prior to the inception of race, people were much less likely to link cultural practices instinctively and irrevocably to physical differences -people were not necessarily inclined to believe that phenotypic diversity across groups represented inherent or essential differences in ability or character -before race, people more readily saw through phenotypes to find deeper, behavioral similarities, if not common ground -where they deemed others to be culturally backwards in language, religion, food, adornment, or other behaviors, they tended to view these deficits as correctable

The newly accumulated data on a particular segment of society led to the assumption that many crimes were committed by

biologically inferior persons -Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909) -expounded the theory of the "born criminal" -convinced that the presence of certain physical traits that deviated significantly from the general population norm were atavistic remnants of our "ape" past and that these traits were indicators of a "savage" form of behavior -"abnormalities"—such characteristics as receding forehead, large ears, square and projecting chin, broad cheekbones, left-handedness, deficient olfactory and taste organs, and exhibitionism evidenced by addiction to decorating the body with tattoos. -Persons displaying five or more of these conditions could be considered a type with a hereditary propensity toward sociopathological acts

Racial traits (e.g. skin color) are not caused by the same genes that cause

blood type

Mendelian population

breeding population

DNA molecules store the necessary instructions for

building a protein macromolecule. -These instructions are copied from the DNA molecule into the form of an RNA molecule -Each of these RNA copies (often called 'messenger RNA' or 'mRNA') move away from the DNA templates and enter the cytoplasm of the cell -convert the biological information (the instructions) into the correct linear sequence of amino acids that will become a functioning protein.

Race-based slavery in the Americas was without historical precedent, the foundation of the

burgeoning "Atlantic World" economy -one major difference between American "slave societies" and those other "societies with slaves" was in the extent of social alienation between the enslaved and those who "owned" them

polypeptides

chains of amino acids

Biological variability appears to result from the

combined influences of human behavior and natural forces that have been at work throughout evolution

skin color does not equal

common ancestry

polygenic

controlled by multiple genes

John Dalton

developed the atomic theory of matter

Type O is recorded most frequently in

disease associations second most frequent association is type A

Certain blood types may cause an individual to be more or less susceptible to

disease-causing organisms

what are 2 big sources of variation in human populations (keys to genetic diversity)?

dominant and recessive genes

The ability to digest lactose is:

due to a mutation that preexisted and was selected for in certain dairy-producing populations.

leukocytes (white blood cells)

during infection their number rises dramatically as the body's defense against invading organisms.

type-O women produce fewer children than expected when the fathers were

either type A or B.

Marrying within your social group is an example of a(n)_______________marital practice, which results in a __________ degree of genetic variation within the group.

endogamous; lower

_______________ is an assortative mating practice that, over time, can lead to decreased diversity within a group, such as Indian castes.

endogamy

frequencies of blood types DO differ between

ethnic groups

race is a category commonly confused with

ethnicity -people often inherit the cultural identity of their genetic ancestors -racial categories are cultural constructions, which ten to be defined along the lines of cultural differences -cultural pressure for appearances/indicators of a social group

ethnicity vs. nationality

ethnicity: identity, culture -traditions, language, dialect -some common ancestry nationality: country of citizenship -political boundaries labels can include both ex: Spanish American -spanish - ethnicity -american = nationality

____________ is the change in allele frequencies in a population over time.

evolution

Biological anthropologists study human variation using an

evolutionary approach -population level (group) variation -individual variation

Human variation and race are both real, BUT the idea of race as a way to describe and study biological variation is

factually and theoretically inaccurate and outmoded

Australopithecines

first fossil discoveries in South Africa

antigens

foreign substances that may stimulate the synthesis of antibodies in the host's body

Franz Boas and race

founder of modern American anthropology -reported significant changes in cranial shape and size between Eastern and Southern European immigrants and their United States-born children -revealed that cranial development was responsive to environmental conditions, discrediting the notion of stable racial "types" defined by heritable racial traits

translocation

fragment from one chromosome will attach to a chromosome of a different pair (nonhomologous) causing an abnormally long chromosome of one pair while another, with the missing piece, is shorter.

erythrocytes (red blood cells)

function is to transport oxygen to the tissues and a yellowish fluid, the plasma.

Traits in population are coded by

genes -Differences in these molecules influence observable variation - but don't explain ALL variation

immunoglobulins

group of antibodies specific for certain foreign antigens introduced as mold, pollen grains, or the proteins of an infectious organism

it is impossible to evaluate nation, state, or race on the basis of

heredity

"Race" originated as a folk ideology about

human differences and was constituted of beliefs and attitudes about these differences. -beginning in the 1690s and continued over the 18th century -coincides with numerous laws establishing American slavery

The earliest rationale for racial slavery did not invoke differences in physical features, but rather

identified Africans as uncivilized heathens (not christian)

biological determinism

ideology that attributes differences in human behavior and ability

Members of different ABO blood groups are generally distributed in populations:

in complex patterns of varying proportions.

In humans, genes mostly located

in the nucleus on chromosomes

In colonial Virginia, until the late 1600s, ________________ - not slavery - is the dominant form of labor

indentured servitude -white and black servants work side by side

What is the naturalistic fallacy?

informal logical fallacy which argues that if something is 'natural' it must be good

race is not a biological concept, but

it is a real social concept

Race is not just a social construct,

it is a social contract that has changed our minds, our bodies, and our world

Phenotypes, the measurable result of the interaction of genes and environment, tend to vary by

location -our DNA sequences also vary by geographic location.

Asia, India, and Mesopotamia = major plague centers

lowest frequency of O.

regions of the world where plague has the longest history are the very regions where type O is found at the

lowest frequency today

consanguineous matings

marriages of relatives of some degree -children are smaller in body size, have a higher frequency of congenital abnormalities, and exhibit greater mortality during the first six years of life

Zygosity

matching or different alleles

mRNA

messenger RNA

mtDNA vs nuclear DNA

mtDNA -there are about 100 per cell -small size -high mutation rate -shorter, organized in rings nDNA -only a single nucleus -long double helix

mulatto =

multi-racial

forces for change in a population's gene frequencies are

mutation, natural selection, genetic drift (a sampling error), and gene flow.

Do humans have biological races?

no

Do racial categories in humans paint an accurate picture of genetic diversity?

no

Excluding your close family members, are you more likely to be genetically similar to someone who looks like you than someone who does not?

no

If we examine someone's DNA alone, can we tell what race they belong to?

no

Is skin color an accurate indicator of someone's ancestry?

no

Chromosomes are found in the _____________ of eukaryotic cells.

nucleus

Where is DNA located in a eukaryotic cell?

nucleus -mitochondria

deletion mutation

one or more bases is deleted from a section of DNA code

insertion mutation

one or more bases is inserted into a section of DNA code

race:

only within a scientific context to mean a group or complex of breeding populations sharing a number of traits, recognizing that there are no "ideal types."

People who identify as Hispanic and Asian are more likely to be B+ compared to

other ethnicities

genotype

paired combination of alleles, one carried at a locus on each of the chromosomes of the pair -"blueprint" or set of instructions for building and maintaining a living creature -found within almost all cell -coded language (the genetic code) -"inheritable" -not static

skipping of generations is an event that occurs when a gene is

partly or incompletely penetrant.

trait that is the result of the genotype combination is the

phenotype

genotype: Hp1Hp1

phenotype: Haptoglobin 1-1

genotype: Hp1Hp2

phenotype: Haptoglobin 1-2

genotype: Hp2Hp2

phenotype: Haptoglobin 2-2

genotype AA or AO

phenotype: type A blood antibodies: anti-B

genotype AB

phenotype: type AB blood antibodies: none

genotype BB or BO

phenotype: type B blood antibodies: anti-A

genotype OO

phenotype: type O blood antibodies: anti-a, b

Areas that had suffered through many outbreaks of the epidemic over the centuries have a proportionately higher A and B frequency today than regions where

plague had never been reported.

race is a hierarchal classification based on

political power

individual variability within a population

polymorphic

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), together with nuclear DNA (nDNA), codes for the production of

polypeptide units that regulate the functioning of the oxidative processes of the mitochondria

distinctions among the human groups

polytypic

What is the level of selection when evolution occurs?

population level

Darwinian evolution by natural selection proposes that:

populations change over time based on the environment.

Until the early 18th century, the image of Africans among most Europeans was generally

positive

From the beginning, the idea of race was tied to

power and hierarchy among people, with one group being viewed as superior and others as inferior.

the term "caucasian"

probable ancestry -caucasoid = tern used in forensic anthropology based on skeletal anatomy -skin color not a factor race -caucasian = colloquial synonym for white -skin color significant factor

When DNA polymerase makes mistakes in replication, what is that called?

proofreading

monogenists

proposed that races represented variation within a single human species.

antibodies

protein molecules that have the ability to attach to certain other chemical molecules on the surfaces of microorganisms

Antibodies =

proteins in plasma -used by immune system to detect "foreign" stuff -antigens from another person are introduced to your blood, your antibodies destroy them

Physical features became markers of

racial (social) status in the 18th century What colony leaders were doing was establishing unequal groups, called races, and imposing different social meanings on them.

Hereditarian theory was the foundation of the U.S. eugenics movement that inspired ideals of

racial hygiene in Nazi Germany -the Holocaust forced the retreat of scientific racism

The ability to perceive the range of colors in our environment is determined by three protein pigments

red, green, and blue

population:

refer to that geographically and culturally determined collection of individuals who share a common gene pool

Polygenists

saw human races as separately created species -Catholicism was a major early barrier to widespread acceptance of polygenism in particular, and also to scientific arguments for human origins.

Differential Fertility

selection at the prezygotic stage -antibodies in vaginal secretions that react with sperm specific for type A, thereby reducing the probability of fertilization fetal loss due to antibodies A and B in the type-O mother -some mothers make an anti-A and anti-B that can easily diffuse through the placenta membranes and enter the fetal bloodstream -they can disrupt development and may even cause fetal death

Haplogroups

short sections of DNA that can be matched to a specific population

women who carry fetuses with ABO blood types incompatible with their own have a greater risk of

spontaneous abortion

types of point mutation

substitution, insertion, deletion

Antigens =

sugars on exterior of red blood cells ex: type A blood has A antigens, type B blood has B antigens, type O blood has no anitgens

Southern blotting

technique that separates the different fragments in an electric field and preserves them on a nitrocellulose filter

The first "savages" that the English had created in their minds were

the "wild Irish."

up until thirty years ago, theories that claimed _____________________ as a homeland for humans

the Middle East

Almost all traits are produced by

the action of proteins.

biodeterminism

the attribution of types of behavior to certain racial groups

Race emerged specifically to justify the new American form of dehumanizing slavery and

the characterization of Native Americans as (sometimes "noble") savages undeserving of their lands

Interpopulation contact through migration, trade, or warfare has had a major influence on

the genetic variability of many populations

Eugenicists believe in controlling reproduction to improve

the germ plasm of the population: what today we would call the human gene pool.

the smaller the size of the effective breeding population (ratio of males and females of reproductive age to total population)

the greater the chance of gene frequency change between the generations

Cultural relativism

the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another culture

An individual's ABO blood type is normally determined by:

the inheritance of one of three possible alleles from each parent.

In his experiments with pea plants, Mendel found that plant height was inherited separately from the color of the seed. This finding is an example of:

the law of independent assortment.

Genes influence traits, but the more complex the trait

the more complex the cause

Anthropometry:

the physical measurement of human body form

Reliance on folk taxonomy as a guide prevents an understanding of

the range and degree of human biological variability though much of this variability is readily apparent

The characteristics of a European, whose features and skull shape differed from the ideal Caucasoid type, were explained as

the result of climate, diet, or even social class.

Within the blood plasma of each person there are antibodies related to

the type of red blood cell antigen

The Hindu caste system began approximately 2000 years ago, with the present-day result that:

there are increasing biological differences between socially created caste groups.

fittest species

those who produce the most offspring

The idea of race is real in the sense that it influences

thoughts and actions

The Constitution of the United States listed enslaved Africans as

three-fifths of a person -Thirteenth Amendment changed this

albinism

total or near total lack of melanin

Adaptation is an outcome of natural selection.

true

Matrilocal populations have lower male genetic diversity than female genetic diversity.

true

Meiosis involves crossing over, where alleles can recombine in an arrangement not found in either parent, while mitosis does not.

true

Polygenism is a 18th century racial ideology that purports different groups of humans have separate origins.

true

more recently discovered fossils have extended the antiquity of the human genus, Homo, back in time to nearly

two million years ago -identified Africa as the homeland of the earliest ancestors -earliest skeletal evidence of Homo sapiens is considered to be found in East Africa. -anatomically modern Homo sapiens is said to have evolved in Africa. -These humans then migrated out of Africa throughout Eurasia replacing or interbreeding with the less evolved forms to produce the founders of modern populations.

type-B mothers were reported to have a significantly higher average number of offspring than

type-0 mothers for all male parent blood types

if the male parent is heterozygous AO or BO, then there is a significantly greater number of OO children produced by a

type-O mother

Darwin clarified how evolution occurs in populations, but never read Mendel's work

understood mechanisms of evolution, but not the units of inheritance

cDNA

used as a probe to locate the gene sequence on a chromosome fragment

Genetic drift variation

variation within populations = decrease variation between population = increase

gene flow variation

variation within populations = increase variation between populations = decrease

Most malarial infection in the Western Hemisphere is caused by the

vivax parasite

Gregor Mendel:

was a little-known botanist who independently carried out research on the discrete inheritance of biological traits.

we do not identify human races,

we create them

what we see as real is often due to

what our worldviews predispose our minds to see

sundown town

where black people had to be out of town by dark or face arrest, threats or violence.

substitution mutation

where just one base gets substituted for another base e.g. sickle cell disease

From the 18th through the early 20th centuries, Americans were fascinated with the idea of "civilizing" and "elevating" Native Americans by

wiping out indigenous cultural practices.

Anatomically modern humans originated in Africa

~300,000 years ago

Mutation Example: Lactose

• Most mammals lose ability to digest milk • Lactase Persistence: Mutation in humans keeps gene switched "on" in adulthood -Naturally selected for in past populations multiple times because it enhanced fitness

Cell Structures

• Nucleus • Ribosomes - protein synthesis - Binds with mRNA from nucleus • Mitochondria - produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - mtDNA - Haplogroups and ancestry

Carolus Linnaeus - 1707 - 1778

• Swedish zoologist • Monogenist • Classification to understand natural laws of Scala Naturae ( ladder of nature) -behavioral and physical characteristics assigned to the races 4 races: Americanus (native american) -red, choleric, erect Europaeus (white) -white, sanguine, blue-eyed, gentle, governed by laws Aslaticus (asian) -yellow, grave, avaricious, ruled by opinion Afer (africans) -black, obstinate, contented, regulated by customs imaginary populations: Ferus: Wild man, walks on all fours, hairy Troglodytes:"Cavemen" Monstrous:Giants, mutants, abnormal people

Aristotle - 384-322 B.C.

•"Grades of development" of all living things •Great Chain of Being •Environmental causes of physical variation in humans •e.g. "wooly" hair of Aethiopians due to arid climate, straight hair of Scythians due to moist air

Race in Indonesia

•300+ ethnic groups •700+ languages spoken •Lots of ethnic diversity •"Race" is a complex relationship between cultural history, current religion, and national origins -islam is huge influence on race -"Indonesian" vs. "not" •Chinese Indonesians: <1% population -Pribumi= first on the soil "Native" Indonesians

Andreas Vesalius - 1514-1564

•Anatomist •Noted a relationship between "race" and the shape of the skull

South Asian Castes

•Caste System = Stratification system based on birth -Fixed groups (like race) •Castes are hereditary, endogamous, ranked -usually associated with occupation -Linked to skin color

DNA Structure

•Double helix - "twisted ladder" structure •Ladder rungs - base pairs - weak hydrogen bonds •Sides of ladder - Sugar- phosphate back •Nucleotide •Codon

Survival of the "fittest"

•Herbert Spencer - "survival of the fittest • Thomas Malthus - "Struggle for existence" Social Darwinism ≠Natural Selection -no moral or "good" traits -Eugenics movement based on misinterpretation of evolutionary principles

Exceptions To Mendel's Principles

•Incomplete •Pleiotropy dominance •Environmental effects on gene expression •Codominance •Polygenic traits •Linkage

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

•Non-random process •Traits are heritable •Some individuals survive and reproduce in greater proportion than others because they possess certain traits

Mitosis

•One cycle •2 identical daughter cells (diploid) •Growing, repairing •Produces somatic cells

Leonardo da Vinci - 1452-1519

•Questioned environmental hypothesis for human variation •Argued for heredity as source of variation and "power of the mother's seed"

Race in USA & Brazil

•Two largest "multiracial" societies in the Americas •Both USA and Brazil racially stratified -legacy of slavery --> racial inequality •Brazil: 45% nonwhite families, 25% white families live below poverty line •U.S.: 30% nonwhite families, 8% white families live below poverty line "white" and "nonwhite" definitions differ

Race in Brazil

•Up to 500 racial labels •Lots of admixture/interbreeding (like U.S.A.) •Few hypodescent rules (unlike U.S.A.) •Class based on skin color (like USA) -dark skin equated with low status (hard labor), but "money lightens"

Matrilocal

↑ Y-chromosome diversity↓ mtDNA diversity =women stay to get married, men leave to get married

Patrilocal

↓ Y-chromosome diversity↑ mtDNA diversity =males stay to get married, women leave (migrate) to get married

Endogamous

↓ gene flow, ↓ genetic variation

Gametes

- sex cells - Half DNA(23 chromosomes) - Meiosis

The Carlisle Industrial Training School

-First Native American boarding school -Seeking to "Americanize" Native American children

Petrus Camper

-facial angle -measurement of the relative flatness of the face In 1799, physician Charles White will use the facial angle to rank animals and people in a hierarchial scheme, with Europeans at the top.

pleiotropic

-genes that are known to influence more than one trait

skin color is adaptive

-melanin -melanocytes (basal layer of the skin) -skin color is due to the activity if the melanocytes -basically works like sunscreen

endonucleases

-restriction enzymes -cut the DNA molecule at specific points along the chain -enabled investigators to separate much of the entire one-meter length of the human genome DNA into many shorter fragments

Each population reflects

-the experiences of its ancestors -gives evidence of elements in its environment that have been shaping it through time

2 reasons humans cannot be divided into races:

1) much greater genetic variance within rather than between groups -85-95% of variance WITHIN populations 2) variance is not distributed into well-defined clumps -clinical variation in gene frequencies

Ku Klux Klan founded

1866

How many races for Hooton?

3 (many levels)

The cephalic index is:

An antiquated method of categorizing people based on skull proportions.

ABO Blood System

Classification system for humans based on variation in antigens/antibodies in the blood

_________________________________ is the physical expression of two different alleles in heterozygotes. In other words, both alleles for a trait are visible in the phenotype (e.g., Type AB blood has both A and B antigens present on the red blood cells).

Codominance

Gregor Mendel

Conducted breeding experiments with common garden pea plants -Hybridizations/crosses

haploid

Contain one copy of each chromosome (23)

diploid

Contain two copies of each chromosome (46)

Eukaryotes

DNA organized in nucleus e.g. protists, multicellular organisms

The Dunkers of Pennsylvania are endogamous descendents of German immigrants. Over time, the frequencies of blood types within the group have changed. This random change in allele frequencies is an example of:

Genetic drift

Lewontin's Conclusions About Human Variation

Humans have lots of individual genetic variation -Any 2 unrelated humans differ by 3 million DNA variants The largest amount of variation is between individuals within local populations -e.g. national, linguistic Human phenotypes, when analyzed in combination, do not clump into discrete clusters Populations always have had admixture, and now differences are even smaller -"racial" phenotypes show a mixture of ancestry

DNA Base Pairs

Humans have ~3 billion bases - 99% same in all people Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) Thymine (T)

The Assimilation Model: Middle Ground

Humans originated in Africa Humans migrated and interbred with older populations outside of Africa Current variation we see is product of: 1. single African origin 2. localized genetic mixing

Homer - 1200 - 850 B.C.

Iliad and Odyssey acknowledge variability •e.g. "Aethiopians" = People at the eastern and western edges of the known world

Can scientists determine a person's race by looking at his or her DNA?

No

Native American haplotype links to

Northeast Asia

Mutation

Novel DNA

Law of Independent Segregation

One element, or heredity particle, was dominant over the other, and they segregated independently in each generation

Which two populations are most likely, on average, to be genetically similar?

Saudi Arabians and Ethiopians

Prokaryotes

Single-celled organisms e.g. bacteria, algae

An example of an ascribed social rule of descent in the USA is:

The One Drop Rule

A catastrophic event that severely reduces the genetic diversity in a population is an example of:

The bottleneck effect

evolution

The change in the frequency of particular genetic variants in a population over time

codominance

The expression of two alleles in heterozygotes -BOTH influence the phenotype

a single-stranded nucleic acid (RNA) is transcribed from one strand of the DNA molecule, the sense or template strand. This mRNA is complementary to all those triplet regions between a start-and-stop triplet sequence and includes the coding (exon) and noncoding (intron) regions of a gene complex. The introns are excised from the primary mRNA and the exons are joined before the mature mRNA is released to the site of protein synthesis, the ribosomes.

The mRNA begins to attract a tRNA that carries one amino acid specified by the codon—anticodon sequence. A series of these are attached along the strand, and the adjacent amino acids react to form peptide bonds resulting in a long chain that becomes the protein. The mRNA normally replicates from the DNA, a complementary chain of triplets that must be modified by removal of those noncoding portions, the introns, since the DNA carries many more triplet units than are used in the protein synthesis process

What did the publications of Louis Agassiz, Samuel Morton, and Josiah Nott have in common?

They used scientific principles to justify beliefs about a hierarchy of races.

Small Early Populations (bottleneck of the human species)

Toba eruption -74,000 years ago volcano erupted in Sumatra, Indonesia -Triggered climate changes that drastically reduced the human population -Leave Africa 100kya

Experiencing racism can lead to serious health consequences that affect the distribution and concentration of disease in populations.

True

race as a social/historical/cultural construct:

a system of ideas, identities, and material relations that emerged slowly in the context of Western European imperialism and colonial expansion, beginning in the 15th century.

positive assortative mating

a tendency for "like" to marry "like" -similar heights, IQ, geography

Hypodescent

automatic assignment of mixed children to the race of lower status

As discussed in class and in Part II of the video Race: The Power of an Illusion, an American physician from Philadelphia named Samuel Morton:

correlated human skull size with intelligence.

Human phenotypic traits do not ___________ into categories

covary -hair color, skin color, eye color

Ancestry and past natural selection for certain blood types may or may not map onto

current ethnic categories

Biological anthropology does not have a history of scientific racism.

false

Humans have the greatest number of chromosomes of all animal species.

false

True/False: In the 1980's, S.J. Gould reanalyzed Samuel Morton's data on average cranial capacity for different racial groups. He concluded that Morton's conclusions were correct.

false

mtDNA is inherited through the

female line

Race

is a powerful idea about biological variation that was has been used to separate and rank groups. -history, culture, identity, and biology

The presence of a recessive allele:

is usually masked in the phenotype.

"A species is a reproductive community of populations (reproductively isolated from others) that

occupies a specific niche in nature." Mayr

race is an unscientific category with an assumed biological component,

often confused with ancestry

The human genome contains enough DNA for over

one million genes -the real number of genes is closer to thirty thousand or even less -large excess of DNA is replicated and transmitted between generations of cells but is not used in the coding of protein synthesis

Prior to racial slavery, ___________ is the primary currency of difference

religion

race is real because of

the everyday ways in which we interpret differences and invest meaning into them