ph110 final study guide

1. Know all information regarding how alcohol inhibits an antidiuretic hormone. (review chapter 4

(1)alcohol inhibits the release of the antidiuretic hormone vasopressin, which causes an increase in the excretion of urine. (2)The Increase in urine is to counteract some alcohol-related effects (3)during alcohol withdrawal, heavy drinkers exhibit an increased vasopressin release, resulting in greater water retention. (antidiuretic: the suppression of urine production.)

1. Know all information about meprobamate and methaqualone

1) Meprobamate was patented as a new unique CNS depressant in 1952. FDA approved meprobamate in 1955 physicians widely prescribed it, as it was thought to be a safer alternative to barbiturates. 1) Methaqualone was introduced in 1965(unites states) with a warning of an unknown addiction potential despite previous issues in other countries. Physicians overprescribed the hypnotic drug that they believed to be safer than the barbiturates. 1973, methaqualone was put on schedule 2 1985, it was no longer prescribed and was a schedule 1 drug.

1. Know about the Pharmacology Cannabinoid Chemicals (Hint how many are unique with the Cannabis plant and what are they called

70/400 primary chemicals are unique to the cannabis plant. THC was synthesized and isolated in 1964. THC and CBD are the 2 most researched cannabinoids. THC is the active ingredient. CBD: cannabidiol, a nonpsychoactive cannabinoid that is being tested to treat several illnesses, including epilepsy pharmacology: (1)When THC is smoked, it is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream, and is (2)first distributed to the brain and then (3)circulates to everywhere else. peak mood-altering and cardiovascular effects occur together, usually within 5 to 10 minutes. Oral (1)THC is absorbed slowly and poorly when taken orally. Less than 20% is able to affect the brain due to it being (2)broken down by the liver enzymes. The peak effect of edibles does not occur until roughly 60-90 minutes after ingestion. The high lipid solubility of THC means that it (like its metabolites) is selectively taken up and stored in fatty tissue to be released slowly Excretion is primarily through the feces.(poop) All of this has two important implications: (1) There is no easy way to monitor (in urine or blood) THC/metabolite levels and relate them to behavioral and/or physiological effects, as can be done with alcohol, (2) the long-lasting, steady, low concentration of THC and its metabolites on the brain and other organs might have effects not yet determined. THC has a long half-life of elimination, and its metabolites can be found in the body for up to several weeks after THC enters the body

1. Lastly, please remember to review all (1-18) chapter ending questions

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1. Review all chapter ending questions for chapter 12

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1. Review all the chapter ending questions for chapter 4

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1. Review all the chapter ending questions for chapter 5

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1. Know all information about ergotism. Review chapter 14

A disease caused by eating grain infected with the ergot fungus. There are both psychological and physical manifestations. LSD was originally synthesized from ergot fungus. The ergot fungus grows on grains, and when infected grains are consumed ergotism is contracted. ergotism: headache, vomiting, diarrhea, and gangrene of the fingers and toes.

1. know all information about sinsemilla pages 334-335 what type of method does it produce? ( hint review the definition on page 335

A process for growing marijuana that is especially potent in its psychological effects because of a high THC content; from the Spanish for "without seeds." removing the male plants prior to pollination so that the female plants *produce more flowers and no seeds.*

1. Know all information about Amanita Muscaria (hint / what is it associated with)

Amanita muscaria mushroom is also called "fly agaric" because when flies drink its juice, they are put into a stupor for 2-3 hrs. one of the common poisonous mushrooms found in forests in many parts of the world 5 to 10 Amanita mushrooms eaten results in severe effects of intoxication, such as muscular twitching, leading to twitches of limbs and raving drunkenness, with agitation and vivid hallucinations. Later follow many hours of partial paralysis with sleep and dreams. suggested that Amanita muscaria use formed a basis for the cult that originated about 2,000 years ago and today calls itself Christianity. psychedelic is excreted unchanged in the urine. the active agent in this mushroom was thought to be muscarine, Muscimol can act as an agonist at GABA receptors, which are inhibitory and found throughout the central nervous system. Muscimol has been given to humans, resulting in confusion, disorientation in time and place, sensory disturbances, muscle twitching, weariness, fatigue, and sleep. muscimol is created by drying the mushrooms.

1. What is Amyl nitrite still used for in today's society?

Amyl nitrite used in mid-1800s as treatment for chest pain. Inhaling the vapors relaxes blood vessels, including the coronary arteries. This increases blood flow and briefly lowers blood pressure. Amyl nitrite is still used in emergency medicine as a treatment for cyanide poisoning.

1. Know the entire section of "Life Cycle of a Neurotransmitter "specifically, what happens with the Neurotransmitter molecules (chapter4)

An action potential is a rapid depolarization of Na+ and K+ which causes surrounding areas to depolarize. (this entire process is an action potential) Action potential arrives at the axon terminal(1) Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open(2) Ca2+ enters the cell(3) Ca2+ signals to vesicles(4) Vesicles move to the membrane(5) Docked vesicles release neurotransmitters by exocytosis(6) The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors(7) Neurotransmitter molecules are made inside the cell from which they are to be released. Through actions on synthesis, storage, release, reuptake, or metabolism, drugs can alter the availability of the neurotransmitter in the synapse The second main way a drug can exert its effects is directly on the receptor. A drug can act as an agonist by mimicking the action of the neurotransmitter and directly activating the receptor, or it can act as an antagonist by occupying the receptor and preventing the neurotransmitter from activating it. mimics the actions at receptors and produces many of the same behavioral and physiological effects.

1. Know what cocaine can be used for from a medical purpose point a view.

Cocaine is a good local anesthetic and is still used for medical procedures, even in the United States.

1. What therapy is currently being used to treat Amphetamines? Review pages 136 and 137

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is probably the most widely used treatment for cocaine and amphetamine use disorders. This approach uses cognitive therapy techniques with behavioral-skills training. Individuals learn to identify and change behaviors that may lead to continued drug use

1. Know all information about Parkinson's disease including the definition

Damage to the basal ganglia, as in Parkinson's disease, produces muscular rigidity and tremors. The basal ganglia are responsible for the integration and selection of voluntary behavior. A degenerative disease of the (1)extrapyramidal motor system, specifically involving damage to the (2)nigrostriatal dopamine system. Early symptoms include muscular rigidity, tremors, a shuffling gait, and a masklike face. Occurs primarily in the elderly. (1)In anatomy, the extrapyramidal system is a part of the motor system network causing involuntary actions (2)The main function of the nigrostriatal pathway is to influence voluntary movement. THIS IS THE PATHWAY THAT ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS ACT ON

1. What was the main focus of LSD? Review pages 311-313

Dr. Albert Hofmann first synthesized LSD in 1938 Hofmann recorded his LSD-induced experiences in 1943 Hofmann's discovery also spurred a tremendous amount of research on LSD between the early 1950s and 1970s Hoffman believed LSD is a valuable psychotherapeutic tool.

1. Know about the advantages and disadvantages between benzodiazepines and barbiturates ch 7

Few differences occur between the 2 classes of drugs, benzos vs barbiturates. When benzos bind to their receptor, it has an inhibitory function that stops GABA from being released. So Gaba's euphoric and sedative effects are blocked from happening Benzos reduce anxiety and produce less drowsiness than barbiturates. Overdoses only occurred when paired with other depressants. Physical dependence occurs when the drug leaves the system faster than the body can adapt. **The concerns of barbiturates involve overdoses either intentional or accidental. Short-acting is more likely to lead to short-acting dependence.** benzodiazepines are safer than barbiturates.

1. What characteristics are associated with ADHD? Review pages 137-138

Inattentive characteristics: 1)Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes 2)Often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play 3)Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly 4)Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties 5)Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities 6)Is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli 7)Is often forgetful in daily activities Hyperactivity: 1)Often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat 2)Often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected 3)Often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate 4)Often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly 5)Is often "on the go" or often acts as if "driven by a motor" 6)Often talks excessively Impulsivity: 1)Often blurts out answers before questions have been completed 2)Often has difficulty awaiting turn 3)Often interrupts or intrudes on others

1. Know all information about psychological dependence

The term psychological dependence is generally meant to describe the emotional and mental processes that are associated with the development of, and recovery from, a substance use disorder or process addiction. Most people who have used either barbiturates or benzodiazepines have not developed habitual use patterns. sedative drugs can serve as reinforcers of behavior but that the short-acting barbiturates are probably more likely to lead to dependence

1. Know all information about Antecedents of Drug use

Use Is Not Abuse: Most users of any given substance do not use it in ways that can be defined as either abuse or dependence. Every Drug Has Multiple Effects: every psychoactive drug acts at multiple sites, both in the brain and on other organs. Amount Matters: a drug's effects are often increased with higher drug concentrations, but additional effects tend to show up as well. Psychoactive Drug Effects Are Powerfully Influenced by the User's History and Expectations: Experienced users may react differently than new users. Experienced users may also report more of the positive effects of a drug, partly because of associations from their prior use. Drugs, Per Se, Are Not Good or Bad: There are no "bad drugs." When drug abuse, drug dependence, and deviant drug use are talked about, it is the behavior, the way the drug is being used, that is being referred to. It sits there in its bottle and does nothing until we put it into a living system.

1. Know what occurs within the human body after an individual takes a drug through oral administration. For example, what happens with the absorption of the drug and how is it broken down within the human body along with its distribution (chapter 5)

When administered via smoking, then this is inhalation .Smoking is the fastest route of administration because it is a direct route to the brain. It is first delivered to the lungs(1) and then is delivered to the CNS(2). when a drug is swallowed or consumed then this is a route of oral administration. The drug, once swallowed, travels to the digestive system(1) then is absorbed into the small intestine(2). Through the small intestine, it makes its way to the liver(3) in which the drug is able to enter the bloodstream and circulate through the body(4). When drugs are sniffed or snorted this is insufflation. The membrane inside of the nose is lined with blood vessels which allows for drugs to bypass and enter the bloodstream. Peak occurs within a few minutes. When a drug is injected, then it has a direct route into the blood stream. think like taking the freeway. However with Injection, blood vessels can collapse and introduce infections such as HIV. Subcutaneous is into the skin, or under the skin. intramuscular is into the muscle. When injected into the muscle, the drug is absorbed faster because of better blood supply to muscles. topical: Topical application of a drug to the skin is not widely used because most drugs are not absorbed well through the skin. However, for some drugs this method can provide a slow, steady absorption over many hours.

1. Know about Actaminophen on page 278-279 and its relationship with Tylenol and Datril.

acetaminophen (a set a min o fen): an aspirin like analgesic and antipyretic. two related analgesic compounds: phenacetin and acetaminophen. phenacetin usage correlated with kidney lesions and dysfunction. acetaminophen had the same effects of phenacetin in reducing fever and headache, without causing unwanted side effects. Acetaminophen has been marketed as an OTC analgesic since 1955 Tylenol and Datril's marketing push brought attention to acetaminophen.

1. Know the difference between acute and chronic along with their definition.

acute: referring to drugs, the short-term effects of a single dose. chronic: referring to drugs, the long-term effects from repeated use. In medicine an acute condition is one that comes on suddenly, as opposed to a chronic or long-lasting condition.

1. What happens to an individual after they smoke marijuana? what do they crave? chapter 15

anandamide: a chemical isolated from brain tissue that has marijuana-like properties. anandamide is endogenous meaning it is made inside the body. increase levels of regular use may not develop tolerance. DSM-5 has no listing of Cannabis withdrawal syndrome does exist. THC and other cannabinoids are known to bind to two receptors, designated CB1 and CB2. CB1 receptors include the nucleus accumbens, which is involved in reward. craving for the drug. disrupts cognitive performance -less dramatic effects in frequent users. euphoria, mellowness, hunger, and stimulation. infrequent users... intense effects also may report negative effects. Norepinephrine influences the level of arousal and attentiveness. It also can control food intake and Dopamine is reward pathway these are affected.

1. Know all information about how the FDA actually classifies pills, powders etc.? review pages 263-264

class of pills, capsules, liquids, and powders that are thought of and used in the same way as drugs. FDA has agreed that these products are not drugs, but foods. Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act "intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of disease in man" is a drug. 1994, passed the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA). 1)FDA could declare a product to be "adulterated" only if it presents "a significant or unreasonable risk of illness or injury." 2)redefined dietary supplements to include a variety of substances such as herbs, amino acids, and concentrates and extracts of herbs. result of 1994 DSHEA was that dietary supplement manufacturers were now free to market a wide variety of products

1. Know all the different forms that relate to Cocaine. (Chapter 6)

coca paste: coca leaves are mixed with an organic solvent, such as kerosene or gasoline. After thorough soaking, mixing, and mashing, the excess liquid is filtered out to form coca paste. often mixed with tobacco. freebase: extracting cocaine into ether, in which it can be heated and the vapors inhaled. freebase is dangerous due to the fire and fumes being being explosive. This form of cocaine usage declined in the mid-1980's. crack or rock: mixing cocaine with household products such as baking soda and water can allow for it to dry into a smokable lump. this form of cocaine replaced freebase by the mid-1980's. cocaine hydrochloride: the most common form of pure cocaine, it is stable and water soluble. It is so stable that it cant be smoked for its vapors. Recreational users of this form of cocaine either "snort" (sniff) or inject the drug intravenously(IV).

1. Know about the Preparations from Cannabis (hint what is the primary psychoactive agent

delta-9 is a primary activated ingredient in cannabis THC), is concentrated resin in different parts of the plant. The highest concentration is found in tiny hairs called trichomes. most abundant on females. By scraping off the tiny hairlike trichomes and packing them together, a more concentrated product called hashish can be made. (65% THC give or take) removing the male plants prior to pollination so that the female plants produce more flowers and no seeds is called sinsemilla. THC doesn't dissolve well in water, so soaking plant material in ethanol then filtering and evaporating it allows for a better extraction. However, it is dangerous because of the explosiveness of butane. EXTRACT EDITABLE plant material that is baked into goods such as cookies or brownies, extracts can also be baked into foods as well. This allows for the oral consumption and administration of cannabis.

Know all information about dextromethorphan pages 282, table 12.3 along with any other information in this chapter regarding dextromethorphan

dextromethorphan: an OTC antitussive (cough control) ingredient. High school and college students have been "getting high" with large doses of OTC cough suppressants containing dextromethorphan (DM). 4 to 8 ounces of usage include visual and auditory hallucinations.12 The altered psychological state may last for several hours. DM has been the standard ingredient in OTC cough suppressants and was a non-opiate alternative to codeine. DM is not an opioid-like narcotic, produces no pain relief, and does not produce opioid-like effects. DM Interacts with a receptor from the opioid family known as the sigma receptor. Dextromethorphan can be obtained in cough medications. At high doses, dextromethorphan produces hallucinogenic effects through a different mechanism, by blocking the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor.

1. Know all information about DMT

dimethyltryptamine. Hallucinogen DMT is one of the most important naturally occurring psychedelic compounds, and it occurs in many plants tolerance to its psychological effects does not develop. Mao(enzymes) metabolizes(breakdown) DMT when it is taken orally, and that rapid breakdown happens before DMT reaches the brain......... HOWEVER, DMT in ayahuasca contains harmaline which inhibits(stops) the rapid breakdown of DMT, thus allowing DMT to reach the brain. entheogen.

1. Know all information about Marinol and what form it comes in. Chapter 15 (hint oral capsule)

dronabinol. The prescription form of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. In 1985, FDA approved oral THC for nausea during chemotherapy. referred to by the generic name dronabinol or the brand name Marinol. THC in oil in a gelatin capsule. FDA approved for two indications: (1) nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy (2) appetite stimulation in patients with AIDS.

1. Know all the definitions on page 5

drug: any substance, natural or artificial, other than food, that by its chemical nature alters structure or function in the living organism Illicit drug: a drug that is unlawful to possess or use Deviant drug use: drug use that is not common within a social group and that is disapproved of by the majority Drug misuse: refers to the use of prescribed drugs in greater amounts than, or for purposes other than, those prescribed by a physician or dentist. drugs or chemicals such as paints, glues, or solvents, misuse might mean any use other than the use intended by the manufacturer. Abuse: use of a substance in a manner, amounts, or situations such that the drug use causes problems or greatly increases the chances of problems occurring. Addiction: controversial and complex term that has different meanings for different people. Some people want to reserve the term only for those whose lives have been completely taken over by substance use. Drug dependence: refers to a state in which the individual uses the drug so frequently and consistently that it appears that it would be difficult for the person to get along without using the drug.

Know specifically about Enkephalin in chapter 13.

enkephalins: morphinelike neurotransmitters found in the brain and adrenals. potent painkilling effects enkephalins are endogenous opioids. (made inside the body). does not cross the blood-brain barrier Opioid receptors bind with naturally occurring opioid-like products of the nervous system and endocrine glands, (products being endorphins and enkephalins.) Enkephalins are small peptides containing only five amino acids,

Know all information about Enkephalins, endorphins and dynorphins .

enkephalins: morphinelike neurotransmitters found in the brain and adrenals. potent painkilling effects endorphins: morphinelike neurotransmitters found in the brain and pituitary gland. Endorphins act as analgesics, which means they diminish the perception of pain. They also act as sedatives. dynorphins and other substances have some actions similar to those of morphine. involved in learning and memory, emotional control, stress response and pain

1. know the definition of gateway along with reviewing gateway substances

gateway: one of the first drugs (e.g., alcohol or tobacco) used by a typical drug user. gateway substances: alcohol,cigarettes,marijuana.

Know all information about Psilocybin along with Psilocybin and Mystical Experiences. (hint look at the history along with what history that has been most recent regarding Psilocybin) Pages 316-317

information: The active hallucinogenic chemical in Psilocybe mushrooms. little danger of dying from an overdose of psilocybin psilocybin, an indole that the discoverer of LSD, Albert Hofmann, isolated in 1958 and later synthesized. effects: psilocybin dose-dependently induces intense changes in mood, perception, and thought. individuals describe the experience as pleasurable, enriching, and nonthreatening. reported acute negative drug reactions are strong feelings of dysphoria and anxiety. lasting no more than a day after psilocybin administration. history: 1963 The good Friday experiment involved Walter pahnke, and Roland Griffiths using double-blind methods to investigate acute and longer-term psychological effects of psilocybin. They found that psilocybin acutely increased mystical experience.

1. Mescaline produces what effects within the human body after it has been taken Chapter 14

little danger of dying from an overdose of mescaline. cause strange experiences, alter consciousness, and lead to a particularly vivid kaleidoscope of colors, takes 4,000 times as much mescaline as LSD to produce that effect mescaline was the primary psychoactive agent found in peyote mescaline is believed to be the agent responsible for the vivid colors and other visual effects. Mescaline is readily absorbed if taken orally but does not pass the blood-brain barrier unless high dosage is taken. The max potency of mescaline is found at 30-120 minutes in the brain. Most of the mescaline is excreted unchanged in the urine. A dose that is psychoactive in humans causes pupil dilation, pulse rate and blood pressure increases, and an elevation in body temperature. catechol psychedelic.

1. How does MDMA affect the human body? (hint what does the drug increase from a psychological perspective Page 322

methylenedioxy methamphetamine Schedule I MDMA (sometimes referred to as Ecstasy or molly the drug increases sociability and euphoria. Physiologically, it increases blood pressure, pulse, and body temperature but decreases appetite and sleep. There are also reports of the drug causing teeth grinding (bruxism). negative consequence of MDMA is damage to brain cells negative or depressed mood states in the days immediately following MDMA administration. MDMA administration causes a substantial release of serotonin, followed by a marked reduction of the neurotransmitter.

Know about nitrous oxide and what you kind find it in

nitrous oxide, was first used in the early 1800s Nitrous oxide is also one of the safest anesthetics when used properly Nitrous oxide is still used for light anesthesia, especially by dentists. Nitrous oxide is also found as a propellant in whipping-cream containers.

1. Know about each chemical pathway that is involved with the Brain.

one of two major dopamine pathways; may be involved in psychotic reactions and in drug dependence. one of two major dopamine pathways in midbrain; cells from substantial nigra course together past the hypothalamus and terminate in the striatum; loss of cells along this pathways leads to Parkinson's Disease

1. Know the definition of reinforcement along with reviewing pages 18 and 19.

reinforcement: a procedure in which a behavioral event is followed by a consequent event such that the behavior is then more likely to be repeated. The behavior of taking a drug may be reinforced by the effect of the drug

1. Know all information about paraldehyde

synthesized in 1829 and introduced clinically in 1882. CNS depressant with little respiratory depression and a wide safety margin. nonbarbiturate sedative-hypnotic. 1950s, major drug in use for severe patients in mental hospitals was paraldehyde. extremely noxious taste and an odor that permeates the breath of the user.

1. Know all information about the two branches associated with the ANS system (specifically the sympathetic and parasympathetic and what they do)

the body's internal environment is monitored and controlled by the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which regulates the visceral, or involuntary, functions of the body, such as heart rate and blood pressure. ANS is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches parasympathetic: the branch of the autonomic system that stimulates digestion, slows the heart, and has other effects associated with a relaxed physiological state. sympathetic: the branch of the autonomic system involved in fight-or-flight reactions. norepinephrine is the neurotransmitter involved in this system.

Know what the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) did with LSD CH 14

the growing public perception that this class of drug produced unpredictable effects led to a virtual moratorium on government funding to support LSD research in humans. Secret Army/CIA Research with LSD various militaries, including the U.S. military, experimented with LSD and other psychedelics. Between the 1950s and 1960s, hundreds of soldiers and civilians were unwittingly administered doses of these drugs The important point here is that administering any psychoactive drug to individuals without their knowledge is not only unethical but can also be extremely dangerous.

Know about the history of the Opium Wars associated smoking in China and what resulted during the 1839-1842 Opium War?

wars were fought between China and England because England kept smuggling opium into China China was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanjing, due to loss. Opium trade continued. 1839-1842