PHI 260 Midterm

Pluralists

A group of philosophers, collectively responding to Parmenides' idea of monism, developed very different views of the cosmos. Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and the Atomists Leucippus and Democritus interpreted change as some kind of rearrangement, mixing, or separating of stuff that has always existed. They deny the central idea of monism, claiming that things that are real are many.

Antiphon

Antiphon was an oligarch and was permitted to participate in Athenian politics, which eventually led to his execution, when the oligarchic revolt he helped to lead against the long-standing democracy failed. He was a famously effective orator, and he ascribed great power to logos-for good as well as ill. He also said, "Time is a thought or a measure, not a reality." Following Sophistic political thought, Antiphon was known for distinguishing the city's laws (nomoi) from the decrees of nature (physis), arguing in a manner of the late 5th-century BCE Sophists that our advantage lies with obedience to the second but not to the first. He says that no one acts justly by nature; rather, we are just only under the social constraints of punishment and reward. He believed human nature says to take care of yourself first, and above everything else.

speech of Aristophanes

Aristophanes was a comic dramatist. In the Symposium, he makes a speech about the praise of love, describing how humans were made and reproduce. He says the god of love loves the human race more than any other god, and that Human Nature was very different before we took the form we are today. Originally, each human being was round with four hands, four legs, two faces exactly alike. There were wo sets of sexual organs. Because humanity was strong and had great ambitions to attack the gods, Zeus cut each human being into two so that they would lose their strength and become more profitable to the gods. Apollo healed and shaped the body. Ultimately, because each person was cut into two, they longed for their other half because each of us is a "matching half."

the Divided Line

At the end of Book VI of the Republic, Plato describes the visible world of perceived physical objects and the images we make of them. The sun provides the visibility of the objects, but also generates them and is the source of their growth and nurture. Beyond the visible world lies an intelligible world, which is illuminated by "the Good" (just as the visible world is illuminated by the sun). The division of Plato's Line between Visible and Intelligible is then a divide between the Material and the Ideal. It is also a division between the Body and Mind. The upper half of the line is called Intelligible as opposed to Visible, meaning that it is "seen" by the mind (rather than by the eye). Plato makes an analogy between the role of the sun, whose light gives our vision to see and visible things to be seen and the role of the Good. The sun rules over our vision and the things we see, while the Good rules over our (hypothetical) knowledge and the (real) objects of our knowledge (the forms, the ideas). Imagination consider images and reflections the most real things in the world. Belief looks toward the realm of visible, but it also makes contact with real things. Thought deals in Forms, but uses sensible particulars as images to aid in its reasoning. Thought also relies on hypotheses, or unproven assumptions. To reach understanding, an individual using the crutches necessary to thought, works his way up with philosophical dialectic toward the Form of the Good. Once understanding the form of the good, you acquire intelligence.

nomos vs. physis

Athenian intellectuals became preoccupied with the relationship between nomos (convention, custom, law) and physis (nature) in the late fifth century BCE. Following Sophistic political thought, Antiphon was known for distinguishing the city's laws (nomoi) from the decrees of nature (physis), arguing in a manner of the late 5th-century BCE Sophists that our advantage lies with obedience to the second but not to the first. He says that no one acts justly by nature; rather, we are just only under the social constraints of punishment and reward.

Eros

Eros, or Love, is the son of Poros (resource) and Penia (lack). Eros was born to follow Aphrodite because he was conceived on her day of birth. Because of Penia, Love always lived with Need, but he was a schemer after the beautiful and good because of his father.

Empedocles

He claimed to be an "immortal god." He was the first great synthesizer of Greek philosophy. He began explaining the cosmos with the four offered by his eastern predecessors: water, earth, fire, and air. He called these "roots," suggesting their inherit power of growth. He believed that each of the roots persisted, undergoing neither generation nor destruction. He allowed change to occur within it by a mixture and separation of roots; two forces, Love and Strife, effected this change, giving rise to a cosmic cycle in which one or the other dominated. When Love is supreme, all was mixed together in a cosmic sphere that resembled the Eleatic One, but when Strife gained control, the roots separated out, as did the individual souls. Both Empedocles and Anaxagoras attempt to reconcile the reality of change with the argument of Parmenides by holding that what we call change is really just mixing and separation.

Anaximander

He has been said to be a student of Thales. He reduced the complexity of the cosmos to one thing, which he called the indefinite. Anaximander said that the apeiron was the archē and element of things that are; he was the first to introduce this name for the archē. He said that the archē is neither water nor any of the other things called elements, but some other nature which is apeiron.

Heraclitus

He is known as "the riddler" and commonly referred to as the "dark one" or "shadowy one" because he was cryptic, deliberately obscure, and ambiguous. He was the first philosopher to reflect on the self. He believed the divine law of the cosmos embodied the cycle of impersonal judgment is the logos (Greek for "law," "account," and "reason"). Heraclitus says that humans cannot understand the logos, which he says governs all. (The Stoics believed in the Logos.) According to both Plato and Aristotle, Heraclitus held extreme views that led to logical incoherence. He held that (1) everything is constantly changing and (2) opposite things are identical, so that (3) everything is and is not at the same time. In other words, Universal Flux and the Identity of Opposites entail a denial of the Law of Non-Contradiction. He believed that strife or conflict maintains the world; strife is justice-all things happen according to strife and necessity (strife leads to harmony). He often alluded to the idea of the flux of water-forever changing (you never step in the same river twice because it is different water each time).

Anaximenes

He made air the basic stuff of his cosmos. Furthermore, he believed that Air is a god.

Protagoras

He was a Sophist. Protagoras famously said that "man is the measure of all things-of things that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are not." He also proposed that there are two opposing arguments concerning everything. Protagoras discusses the relativity of perception. He is also known to be the first agnostic.

Democritus

He was a student of Leucippus, who was the first to propose Atomism. Democritus refined his teacher's theory, stating that there are an infinite number of atoms with different sizes and shapes, each located at a different place in the surrounding void. These strike each other and, either rebounding or becoming entangled, form infinitely many arrangements, thus accounting for the infinite variety of the sensible world. Leucippus and Democritus said that their primary bodies, the atoms, are always moving in the infinite void by compulsion.

Pythagoras

He was an iconoclast. He traveled from Samos to Croton, bringing with him his ideals, which he used to establish a society of followers. This became the first true school of Greek philosophy, and Pythagoreanism quickly developed into a religion. He created a mathematical theorem (a^2 + b^2 = c^2), which he is most widely known for today. He associated "limit" with "odd" and "one," but "unlimited" with "even" and "plurality," which later was developed by the school, stating that there are ten principles arranged in parallel column, called the table of opposites. He is said to have been the first to use the word kosmos (Greek for "order") to refer to the whole world

Anaxagoras

He was the first philosopher to go to Athens; he was friends with leader Pericles who was very intelligent. He investigated natural phenomena. One of his teachings was that the sun was not a god but a hot stone. He also said that "In everything there is a portion of everything." He claimed that in the beginning, the cosmos was completely mixed-all things, except Mind. Instead, the Mind remains pure, creating separation. Knowing all, it orders all. Both Empedocles and Anaxagoras attempt to reconcile the reality of change with the argument of Parmenides by holding that what we call change is really just mixing and separation.

Thales

He was the founder of Western philosophy; he was deemed one of the Greeks' Seven Sages. Like the Babylonians, he believed that water was the basic stuff of the cosmos. He began a tradition of critical inquiry into many subjects, including geometry, astronomy, and cosmology. He famously said, "All things are full of gods." One of his most famous achievements was the prediction of a solar eclipse in 585.

Socrates' faith in the gods

In Apology, Socrates remarks that the divine voice that often warns him against harmful actions has remained silent throughout the trial and throughout his own speech. From this he concludes that perhaps death is a blessing, since his sign would have opposed him unless his actions were to bring about a good result. After all, Socrates reasons, death is either annihilation--a complete and final sleep--or death is a transmigration, where his soul would live on somewhere else. If death is annihilation, it is to be looked forward to as we would look forward to a deep, restful sleep. On the other hand, if death is a transmigration to some sort of afterlife, that afterlife will be populated by all the great figures of the past, from Homer to Odysseus. Socrates remarks how delightful it would be to pass amongst these great figures, questioning them regarding their wisdom. The conclusion Socrates reaches, then, is that the good man has nothing to fear either in this life or the next. He denies any grudge against his accusers, even though they seek his life, and asks his friends to look after his three sons and to make sure that they always put goodness above money or other earthly trappings. Socrates holds much piety and his faith in the gods and his own life allow him to obey and trust so that he does not fear dying

philosophy as "practice for dying"

In Phaedo, Socrates describes philosophy as a preparation for death because death is the separation of the soul from the body and the philosopher strives to disregard the body as much as possible. Thus, Socrates concludes, it would be unreasonable for a philosopher to fear death, since upon dying he is most likely to obtain the wisdom which he has been seeking his whole life. Both the philosopher's courage in the face of death and his moderation with respect to bodily pleasures which result from the pursuit of wisdom stand in stark contrast to the courage and moderation practiced by ordinary people.

soul-body dualism

In Phaedo, Socrates provides the assumption that the body and soul are two distinct entities. Granted that death is a soul/body separation, Socrates sets forth a number of reasons why philosophers are prepared for such an event. One reason why Socrates holds that the philosopher should disregard the body is that passions, desires, and fears are a distraction form the pursuit of truth. The body is merely an obstacle to knowledge, as the senses are misleading, the body is a distraction, and the body introduces passions and appetites. Knowledge must be acquired through the mind, not through the senses. Therefore, the soul should be the focus because it is what lives on.

Socrates and oracle at Delphi

In Plato's Apology, Socrates is responding to the charges for which he is on trial. He discusses the incidence where the Oracle of Delphi was once asked if there was anyone wiser than Socrates, to which the Oracle answered that there was not. Socrates claims to have been bemused by this statement, since he always claimed that he knew nothing. However, he also accepts that the god cannot lie so he set out to see if he could find someone wiser than himself. By claiming that he was the wisest, the oracle meant that human wisdom is worth little or nothing. Socrates interpreted the oracles, stating that no one is wiser than he as meaning that the wisest man is one who realizes he has no wisdom. "That what I don't know, I don't think I know."

The Demiurge

In Plato's Timaeus, he presents that the universe is the handiwork of a divine craftsman, known as the Demiurge (also referred to as "Father"). He makes it clear that the Demiurge is good and harbors no jealousy; he represents the goodness and replicates it in the universe-he brought order to an initially disorderly state of affairs.

Daimon

Literally means "demon." During this ancient time, it meant less divine than the gods. Empedocles describes daimones as individual souls who were doomed for a certain time to inhabit the bodies of living creatures, higher or lower according to their merits. This is because when Strife gains control, the roots separate out, as do the individual souls. Empedocles suggested practices that would help souls return to their original unity in Love. These practices required abstinence from any living things, as Empedocles saw them as souls undergoing punishment.

the apeiron

Literally means the "indefinite," "unlimited," "boundless." Anaximander said that the apeiron was the archē and element of things that are

Archē

Literally means the "starting point," "basic principle," "originating source."

the Logos

Logos literally means "law," "account," or "reason" in Greek. However, Heraclitus was the first philosopher we know of to give logos a philosophical or theological interpretation. The Logos is the divine reason implicit in the cosmos, ordering it and giving it form and meaning (analogous to the reasoning power in man). The Logos is described as a universal, underlying principle, through which all things come to pass and in which all things share. This notion of The Logos was further developed by Stoic philosophers over the next few centuries. The Stoics spoke of The Logos as the Seminal Reason, through which all things came to be, by which all things were ordered, and to which all things returned. Ultimately, the Logos holds power and governs everything.

Miletus

Miletus is located off the coast of Asia Minor, which is now modern-day Turkey. The earliest of Greek philosophy comes from here; its wealthiest citizens brought about the spirit of public debate that characterized their politics. Because Miletus had neither a priestly class nor sacred texts, there was too a sense of openness in their religion. Milesians become acquainted with the older civilizations' (Egypt and Mesopotamia) ideas about the gods, the cosmos, and the stars. Due to trade, travel, and communication with Babylonia (which had myths), the quantum jump was made. Three main thinkers are known as "Milesian Monists": Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.

misology

Misology is the hatred of reasoning; the revulsion or distrust of logical debate or argumentation. In Phaedo, Socrates warns his listeners, discouraged by the objections of Simmias and Cebes, against becoming haters of logoi. I argue that the 'misologists' are presented as a type of proto-skeptic and that Socrates in fact shows covert sympathy for their position. The difference between them is revealed by the pragmatic argument for trust in the immortality of the soul that Socrates offers near the end of the passage: the misologists reject such therapeutic uses of logos. I conclude by assessing the relationship of the positions of Socrates and the misologists in the Phaedo to those of later ancient skeptics.

"man is the measure..."

Protagoras famously said that "man is the measure of all things-of things that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are not." Protagoras is most likely describing relativity of perception, as each person has a unique experience and are entitled to their individual perceptions.

transmigration of souls

Pythagoras believed in the transmigration of souls, in which he states that the soul lives on, belonging to multiple living things (including animals and plants). Pythagoras specifically outlines this idea in attempt to recollect his past lives, remembering what his soul had endured and experienced in Hades. (This idea now has an establishment in some modern religions, such as Hinduism.)

sensible objects as images of the Forms

Sensible objects, which are images of the Forms and are "Created, always I motion, becoming in place and again vanishing out of place. It is apprehended by opinion jointly with sense." Socrates emphasizes that it is possible for sensible things to partake of both likeness and unlikeness, and hence be both like and unlike. According to him, no two sensible objects ever perfectly (in all respects, to all observers, at all times) exhibit equality, and the fact that we are able to recognize this deficiency shows that we had knowledge of Equality itself before we encountered sensible objects.

theory of recollection

Socrates asserts that learning is essentially an act of recollecting things we knew before we were born but then forgot. This is his response to the Meno paradox. He argues that true knowledge is the knowledge of the eternal and unchanging Forms that underlie perceptible reality. Socrates illustrates his theory of recollection by questioning a slave boy over how to form a square with area twice that of an initial square.

Socrates' "misson to Athens"

Socrates claims he is doing Athens a great favor by pursuing philosophy and questioning the young minds of Athens. In the Apology, he believes he is a gift from the gods and likens himself to a gadfly and the state to a large, lazy thoroughbred horse. He is constantly buzzing about, waking his fellow citizens out of their sleep. "For I go around doing nothing but persuading both young and old among you not to care for your body or your wealth in preference to or as strongly as for the best possible state of your soul." Socrates was on a divine mission to challenge the Athenians to seek out the perfection of the soul. It was with the understanding that the wisest man is one who realizes he has no wisdom that Socrates began his mission.

knowledge vs. true belief

Socrates proposes in the Meno that knowledge is more stable than true belief. True beliefs are like untethered animals that wander off, whereas knowledge is tied down, always there. Socrates' answer gives the metaphor of a man who possesses a valuable sculpture by Daedalus. If the statue is "tied down," it is of lasting value. If, however, it is not tied down, it won't last long and is therefore of less good. Similarly, true opinions "are not willing to remain long, and they escape from a man's mind, so that they are not worth much until one ties them down by giving "an account of the reason why" the opinion is true. Such an account allows true opinion to become knowledge through the process of "recollection," and so to become fixed in the mind.

harmonic ratios

The Greeks were the first to begin analyzing music. Pythagoras discovered that there is a mathematical correlation in the harmonic structure of music. Music produces numbers and therefore has a mathematical basis. There is a system of three concords: the fourth, fifth, octave. The key to harmonic ratios is hidden in the famous Pythagorean tetractys, or pyramid of dots, which represents the harmonic ratios 1:2, 2:3, 3:4 through an equilateral triangle composed of ten pebbles: draw it! 1 at top-4 at bottom

The Living Thing

The Living Thing is what holds all other living things. It is the model that serves the Craftsman. The Demiurge crafts an image of the Living Thing that is subject to the constraints of becoming-it must be visible and tangible (three-dimensional).

Pythagorean Table of Opposites

The Pythagoreans identified a set of polarities that govern reality, contrasting what is limited vs. what is not. The table is provided to us by Aristotle, listing the Pythagorean table of opposites. Limit Unlimited Odd Even One Plurality Right Left Male Female At rest Moving Straight Bent Light Darkness Good Evil Square Oblong

The World Soul

The construction of the world's soul follows three stages: the creation of the mixture (Same, Different, and Being), division of the mixture (seven "portions" following numerical values), and the filling of the intervals. In doing this, the soul was then woven together with the body; it initiated a divine beginning of unceasing, intelligent life for all time. The soul came to be as the most excellent of all the things begotten by him who is himself most excellent of all that is intelligible and eternal

participation

The forms themselves are divisible and things that partake of them would partake of a part; no longer would a whole form, but only a part of it, be in each thing. Given your [Socrates'] claim that other things partake of forms, won't you necessarily think either that each thing is composed of thoughts and all things think, or that, although they are thoughts, they are unthinking? Each form is present as a whole in each thing that participates in it, much as a single day is present in many places.

Meno paradox

The general structure of Meno's paradox is a dilemma: If you know the answer to the question you are asking, then nothing can be learned by asking. If you do not know the answer, then you cannot recognize a correct answer even if it is given to you. Therefore, one cannot learn anything by asking questions. Socrates replies to this with his theory of recollection, asserting that learning is an act of recollecting.

tetractys of the decad

This is a triangular figure consisting of ten points arranged in four rows: one, two, three, and four points in each row, which is the geometrical representation of the fourth triangular number. The Pythagoreans swore their oaths by it, and it subsequently the number four became important to those influenced by Pythagoreanism.

Zeno's paradoxes

Zeno sought to defend his teacher, Parmenides, by aiming to attack his critics by exposing the paradoxes inherit in their arguments. Parmenides rejected pluralism and the reality of any kind of change: for him all was one indivisible, unchanging reality, and any appearances to the contrary were illusions, to be dispelled by reason and revelation. Two of the most famous paradoxes are the paradoxes of motion and plurality. One example is the Achilles, which The Achilles Argument presumes that space and time are continuous or infinitely divisible. So, Zeno's conclusion may not simply have been that Achilles cannot catch the tortoise but instead that he cannot catch the tortoise if space and time are infinitely divisible.

Xenophanes

he stated that the mortals make up the appearance of gods in their imagination. He believed in one god who remains always the same and "moves everything by the thought of his mind." He critiqued polytheism, saying that it was based on human prejudice and bias. He says that god is only one (monotheism); he does not have bodily forms, and you can't attribute a body to god; he merely thinks and it is. He also negates any limitations of imperfections of a god. He said that the earth is being mixed into the sea and over time is dissolved by moisture. -anthropomorphic vs. theriomophic (moving shape of an animal).