Phil 345 Bioethics Exam 1

1. What is the difference between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism?

Act Utilitarianism: •An action is right if and only if it has the greatest utility of any action available to the agent. •Based on the utility of individual acts. Rule Utilitarianism: •An action is right if and only if it conforms to a rule that, if followed consistently, has the greatest utility. •Based on the utility of rules. •Denies that one should violate a moral rule (e.g., lying) even if in a particular case it does more good

1. What is the doctrine of double effect? (Be able to apply the doctrine to specific cases and assess whether an action is permissible or impermissible according to it.)

Whenever an action would produce both a good and bad effect, it is permissible to perform the action if and only if all of the following conditions are satisfied: 1.The action itself is permissible. 2.The bad effect is not intended by the agent either (a) as a means to produce a good effect, or (b) as an end itself. 3.The bad effect is not "out of proportion" to the good effect.

1. What is the difference between moral subjectivism and cultural relativism?

· Subjectivism/ Subjective relativism i. The standards of morality are dependent on (or relative to) what an individual believes. ii. Whatever an individual believes to be right/good is right/good (for him/her). · Cultural Relativism i. The standards of morality are dependent on (or relative to) what a culture/society believes. ii. Whatever a particular culture believes to be right/good is right/good (for members of that culture).

1. What is one argument for cultural relativism?

· The Argument from Tolerance: 1. We should tolerate and respect the moral beliefs and practices of other cultures. 2. The only moral theory that is consistent with the principle that we should tolerate and respect the moral beliefs and practices of other cultures is Cultural Relativism. 3. Therefore, we should accept Cultural Relativism.

1. What is applied ethics?

· The application of moral norms, concepts, and theories to practical ("real") moral issues/problems. · Applied to both: o Moral issues/problems that arise in every-day life. o Moral issues/problems that arise in professional ethics (e.g., bioethics, business ethics, legal ethics, etc.).

1. What objections are there against a religious-based ethics?

· The problem of authority o Which religion (or denomination) is correct? · The problem of interpretation o Which interpretation of a particular moral issue (e.g., abortion) within the same religion (or denomination) is correct? · The problem of justification o In a secular and religiously-diverse society, moral beliefs need to be explained (and justified) based on reasons that are accessible to all.

1. What is ethical relativism?

· The standards of morality are not objective. · There are no objective facts about what one ought to do. · Moral truths are dependent on (or "relative to") what people believe. · An action is right/wrong for someone S if and only if S believes it to be right/wrong. · Something is good/bad to someone S if and only if S believes it to be good/bad.

1. What is moral psychology? What kinds of questions does it deal with?

· The study of moral capacity, moral judgment, and moral agency. · The claims are descriptive and essentially about the psychology of moral judgment and action. · Famous examples: o Stanley Milgram's experiments on obedience. o Research on the stages of moral development of children by Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg. o Contemporary psychological and neuroscientific research on psychopathy.

1. What is descriptive ethics? What kinds of questions does it deal with?

· The study of people's moral (or ethical) beliefs and practices. · Including: the moral beliefs and practices of various cultures, societies, etc. · The claims are descriptive and essentially anthropological, sociological, or historical.

1. What is metaethics? What kinds of questions does it deal with?

· The study of the metaphysics*, epistemology*, and semantics of moral claims/utterances. (*See next slide) · For example: o Are there facts in ethics? o If so, how can we know them? o Are moral judgments cognitive, emotive, etc.? o What is the meaning of moral terms (right, good, etc.)? · Attempts to answer non-moral questions about morality. · Metaethical claims are descriptive.

1. What is normative ethics? What kinds of questions does it deal with?

· The study of what is right/wrong and what is good/bad. · Attempts to answer moral questions. · For example: o What actions or policies are right/wrong? (And why?) o What things are good/bad? (And why?) o What character traits are virtues/vices? (And why?) · Normative claims are essentially philosophical (they can't be answered by science).

1. What is moral objectivism?

· View that standards of morality are objective (not dependent on what people believe) · There are objective facts about what one ought to do. · According to Vaughn, is supported by "common sense" morality (what most people believe). · Also called Moral Realism.

1. What is moral philosophy (according to Vaughn)?

· is a reasoned way of delving into the meaning and import of moral concepts and issues and of evaluating the merits of moral judgments and standards · The study of morality using the tools and methods of philosophy

1. What is the universalizability criterion for determining whether an action is right or wrong, according to Kant?

• "Act only in accordance with the maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law." •The basic idea: consider whether it's possible to universalize the maxim (or principle) of one's action. •If an action is universalizable, it is permissible. Kant's examples: •Promise keeping •Aiding others •Developing one's talents Suicide

1. What does it mean to treat humanity as an end and not as a mere means, according to Kant? How is this idea relevant to whether an action is right or wrong, according to Kant?

• "Always act that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means." •The basic idea: don't treat others as a mere means (or instrument) for your own ends; treat others in a way that they would consent to being treated; respect people's autonomy!

1. Explain what the following common features of deontology are: (a) constraints, (b) options, (c) duties of special relationship.

• Constraints - There are constraints on certain types of actions (e.g., killing the innocent, torturing people, lying to others, etc.) regardless of the consequences of not performing those actions, or even to prevent others from performing these actions. • Options - We have the option, on some occasions, to perform an action that does less good than an alternative action. • Special Relationship - We are required, on some occasions, to help those who are near and dear to us over others, even if we could do more good by helping others.

1. What is the "original position" (in Rawls' theory of justice)?

•A hypothetical starting point for thinking about and arriving at a mutually-agreeable set of principles of justice. •In the "original position," we imagine what principles of justice free, rational, self-interested agents would agree to as part of a social contract.

1. What is the "veil of ignorance" (in Rawls' theory of justice)? What purpose does it serve in choosing the principles of justice?

•A metaphorical device (or heuristic) used to fairly and impartially decide what principles of justice everyone would agree to. •The basic idea: if people are "ignorant" about their actual social or economic status or their level of natural abilities or talents, they would choose principles of justice that are fair to all.

1. Which principle of justice takes precedence over all other considerations (in Rawls' theory of justice)?

•According to Rawls, the principle of liberty takes precedence (or priority) over all other considerations, including the second principle. •Basic liberties can't be violated for the sake of promoting other social or economic goods.

1. What is the basic aim (or focus) of feminist ethics?

•Aims at "advancing women's interests and correcting injustices inflicted on women through social oppression and inequality." (Vaughn, p. 45) •Essentially, focuses on moral issues related to women's interests that have been neglected or unfairly represented. •Supporters don't necessarily share the same position on various moral issues (e.g., abortion, IVF, etc.).

1. How do moral particularists think we should decide what to do in a particular situation?

•An action A is right (in a particular situation) if and only if the dominant morally relevant feature/s in that situation favor doing A. •How do we decide what the dominant morally relevant feature/s are in a situation? -Pay careful attention to all the relevant facts, -Use good moral judgment!

1. What makes an action right according to Rossian ethics?

•An action A is right if and only if one has a prima facie duty to do A that is stronger than any other prima facie duty that may be present.

1. What makes an action right according to (act) utilitarianism?

•An action is right if and only if it has the greatest utility of any action available to the agent. •Another way to put it: an action is right if and only if it does the most good of any action available to the agent.

1. What makes an action right according to Natural Law Theory?

•An action is right if and only if it promotes one or more of the basic goods.

1. What makes an action wrong according to Natural Law Theory?

•An action is wrong if it violates one or more of the basic goods

1. What objections are there against hedonistic utilitarianism? (Be prepared to state at least one objection.)

•Are all forms of pleasure good?

1. What do virtue-based theories try to do?

•Attempts to explain what character traits are good/bad. •Basic question: what kind of person should I be?

1. What do theories of right action try to do?

•Attempts to explain what makes an action right/wrong or what makes something (or someone) good/bad. •Uses general principles, concepts, etc. •Basic question: what should I do? •According to Vaughn, such theories dominate bioethics (see p. 35).

1. What is a categorical imperative, according to Kant?

•Basic form: "Do A." •Categorical imperatives are unconditional in so far as they are not contingent on one's aims or desires. •Examples: -Don't lie (period). -Keep your promises (period). •You should do these things, whether or not they are necessary to the satisfaction of your aims or desires.

1. What is a hypothetical imperative, according to Kant?

•Basic form: "If you want B, do A." •Hypothetical imperatives are conditional in so far as they are contingent on one's aims or desires. •Examples: -If you want her to like you, help her out when you can. -If you want to do well on the exam, study for it. •You should do these things, if and only if they are necessary to the satisfaction of your aims or desires.

1. What do all forms of deontology agree about?

•Consequences aren't all that matter. •No sole duty to maximize the good.

1. What moral theories are non-consequentialist?

•Deontology -Kantian ethics -Rossian ethics -Moral particularism •Natural Law Theory •Social Contract Theory

1. What is the highest good (or goal) of human beings, according to Aristotle?

•Everyone agrees that the highest good for human beings is flourishing (Greek = "eudaimonia") or living well. •But people disagree about what flourishing actually is (e.g., a life of pleasure, wealth, honor, etc.).

1. What is hedonism?

•Good: pleasure (or happiness). •Bad: pain (or unhappiness).

1. What is preference (or desire) satisfactionism?

•Good: satisfaction of preferences (or desires). •Bad: non-satisfaction of preferences (or desires).

1. What objections are there against preference utilitarianism? (Be prepared to state at least one objection.)

•Is the satisfaction of any preference good?

1. What objections are there against Kant's moral theory? (Be prepared to state at least one objection.)

•Is treating someone as end (or in a way that he/she would consent to) always right? •Is treating someone as a mere means (or in a way that he/she would not consent to) always wrong?

1. What are the three deontological moral theories that we studied in class?

•Kantian ethics •Rossian ethics •Moral particularism

1. What is Natural Law Theory's position with respect to whether moral laws are absolute or not?

•Moral laws are absolute. -Certain actions (e.g., intentional killing, lying to others, etc.) are always wrong, regardless of any good that would result by performing it (or any bad that would result by not performing it).

1. What does it mean to say that moral imperatives are categorical (not hypothetical), according to Kant?

•Moral requirements are not contingent on one's aims or desires. •One ought to perform one's duty (i.e., do what one is morally obligated to do) whether or not one wants to perform the action or not.

1. What is Natural Law Theory's position with respect to the objectivity and universality of moral laws?

•Morality (or moral laws) is objective. •The truths of morality (concerning the good and the right) are grounded in facts about human nature. •Moral laws represent universally valid norms of behavior that apply to all human beings. •Moral laws are rational. •Human beings can discover moral laws through the exercise of reason.

1. What is the basic point (or purpose) of the social contract, according to Rawls?

•Morality is a system of rules that people (implicitly) agree to follow for mutual advantage. •People have reason to be moral because it's ultimately in their interest. •Contrary to Kant, morality is based on "hypothetical" (not "categorical") imperatives. •If you want to promote your interests, follow the moral rules. Purpose: to design the structure of society in which everyone would accept in an initial position of equality

1. What should be the main focus of moral decision-making, according to the ethics of care?

•Personal relationships •Feeling and care for others •Empathy •Compassion •Fidelity

1. What does the human good consist in, according to Natural Law Theory? (Hint: it is based on a "perfectionist" theory of value.)

•The good of human beings consists in the development (or perfection) of human nature (i.e., those capacities that are essential to or define human beings). In value theory, this is called "perfectionism.

1. What is the connection of virtue (or excellence) to the good life, according to Aristotle?

•The human good = reasoning and acting in accordance with excellence ("virtue"). • Living a good life is a life of virtue

1. What is the main focus of virtue ethics?

•The main focus of ethics should be on virtue (not right action). •Right action flows from a virtuous character. •The main goal of human life should be to become a virtuous (or excellent) person.

Why is it important to act from a virtuous motive (as opposed to for duty's sake), according to virtue ethics?

•The right motive is acting from a virtuous disposition. •The best exemplar of a moral person is someone who does the right thing because it is the virtuous (e.g., kind, honest, etc.) thing to do. • Kant says that the right motive is acting for the sake of duty. •Kantian ethics and virtue ethics can agree that an action is right/wrong, but still disagree about what motive one should have for doing the right thing.

1. Does Ross think that the seven "pima facie" duties can be ranked according to their relative strength? Why or why not?

•These principles are self-evident. •These principles can't be ranked. •There is no decision procedure for deciding what we ought to do (what duty is strongest) in specific cases. •Ultimately, good moral judgment is necessary.

1. What do moral particularists think about principles in ethics?

•We shouldn't use moral principles to decide what we ought to do. •There are no exceptionless moral principles. •Moral principles depend on all the relevant facts in the situation.

1. What are some examples of moral virtues?

-Courage -Generosity -Gratitude -Honesty -Justice -Temperance

1. How does Ross think we can decide what prima facie duty is the most stringent (or strongest) in a particular situation?

- Use our moral judgement to decide which duty is strongest based on the specific situation

1. Is it possible to reject hedonism and still be a utilitarian? Why or why not?

- not all forms of utilitarianism support hedonism - examples: preference utilitarianism and value pluralistic utilitarianism

1. What is preference utilitarianism?

-According to this form of utilitarianism, the right action is the action that satisfies the greatest amount of preferences.

1. What are the five basic principle of bioethics (according to Vaughn)?

1. Autonomy - right or condition of self-government 2. Non-maleficence - inflicting least harm possible 3. Beneficence - defined as act of charity, mercy, and kindness 4. Utility - state of being useful, profitable, or beneficial 5. Justice - moral choices through a measure of rights of the people involved and chooses the solution that seems to damage the fewest people

1. What are the four key features of moral norms (according to Vaughn)?

1. Normative Dominance ("overridingness") 2. Universality 3. Impartiality 4. Reasonableness

1. What are the three categories of moral obligation?

1. Right 2. Wrong 3. Permissible

1. What are the two principles of justice that Rawls thinks free and rational persons would choose in the original position?

1.Equal liberty •Every person is to have an equal right to the same basic set of equal liberties. 2.Fair distribution of social and economic goods •Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both: (a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, and (b) attached to offices and positions that are open to all.

1. What seven "pima facie" duties do we have according to Ross?

1.Fidelity 2.Reparation 3.Gratitude 4.Justice 5.Beneficence 6.Non-maleficence 7.Self-improvement

1. What are the four basic intrinsic goods, according to Aquinas?

1.Life 2.Procreation 3.Knowledge 4.Sociability

1. What are the two main versions of the "Categorical Imperative"?

1.The "universal law" formulation of the Categorical Imperative. 2.The "humanity as an end in itself" formulation of the Categorical Imperative.

1. How should decide what to do, according to virtue ethics?

According to virtue ethics, when deciding what we should do in a specific situation, we should ask: •What would the virtuous person (acting in character) do in this situation? •What is the most virtuous thing to do in this situation?

1. What is the principle of utility?

An action is right if and only if it has the greatest utility of any action available to the agent. •What is utility? -The net amount of value (good + bad) produced by an action.

1. What is hedonistic utilitarianism?

Based on maximizing pleasure (or happiness) and minimizing pain (unhappiness)

1. What is the difference between consequentialist and non-consequentialist moral theories?

Consequentialist Moral Theories: •The rightness of an action is determined solely by the consequences. •The only thing that matters is the consequences of one's action (or policy). Non-Consequentialist Moral Theories: •The rightness of an action isn't determined solely by the consequences. •The rightness of an action is determined partly or entirely by the intrinsic nature of the act itself.

1. What is the difference between intrinsic value and instrumental value?

Intrinsic Value (or Good): •Good/bad in itself (or for its own sake). Instrumental Value (or Good): •Good/bad for the sake of something else.

1. What is the difference between a monistic moral theory and a pluralistic moral theory? (Be able to identify which theories are monistic and which theories are pluralistic.)

Monistic Moral Theories •The rightness/wrongness of an action is determined by a single basic moral principle. •Examples: maximize the good (Utilitarianism); treat humanity as an end and not merely as a means (Kant). Pluralistic Moral Theories •The rightness/wrongness of an action is determined by a plurality of basic moral principles. •Examples: Help others, don't harm others, keep your promises, etc. (Rossian Ethics & Natural Law Theory)

1. What are the three criteria for judging moral theories, according to Vaughn?

Moral Criteria of Adequacy: 1.Consistency with our considered moral judgments (or "intuitions"). 2.Consistency with the facts of the moral life. 3.Resourcefulness in moral problem-solving.

1. What objections are there against cultural relativism?

Objections to the Argument from Tolerance: • Problems with premise 1 - Is this principle supposed to be an objective or relative (normative) truth? - Should we accept the principle only if our culture agrees with it or must all cultures accept it? - Should we tolerate all the moral beliefs and practices of other cultures whatsoever? • Problems with premise 2 - The principle of (universal) tolerance is inconsistent with Cultural Relativism. (Why?) • Identifying a Culture's Norms - How do we determine what a culture's moral norms are (or should be)? - What culture's moral norms must one follow if one belongs to multiple cultures (that have differing moral norms)? • Infallibility - If ethical relativism is true, no culture can ever be mistaken about its moral beliefs and practices. - Every culture would always be correct in its moral opinions. • No criticism allowed - If ethical relativism is true, one can never (rightly) criticize other cultures' moral beliefs and practices. - If ethical relativism is true, one can never (rightly) criticize one's own culture's moral beliefs and practices. • Explaining moral progress - If ethical relativism is true, there is no such thing as moral progress (only change in attitudes). - If a culture's attitudes about a particular practice (e.g., slavery) changes over time, all we would be able to say is that the practice was once right/wrong but not now.

1. Of the moral theories we covered, what moral theory scores low on a given criteria? (Be able to identify one.)

Rossian ethics scores low "Resourcefulness in moral problem-solving"

1. How does care ethics contrast with what traditional moral theories (typically) focus on?

The focus of traditional moral theories: •Abstract principles and reasoning •General rules •Individual rights •Moral duty/obligation •Impartiality

1. What objections are there against moral subjectivism?

There would be chaos because everyone would have a different moral code. What is ethical to one person would not be ethical to another and no one could be held accountable.

1. What is a virtue? (What does the term "virtue" mean?): 3 key features

Three key features of virtue (or excellence): 1.A stable trait of character or mind. 2.Involving a disposition to think, feel, and act in certain appropriate ways. 3.A primary basis for judging the worth (goodness) of persons.

1. What moral theory is consequentialist?

Utilitarianism

What objections are there against all forms of utilitarianism? (Be prepared to state at least one general objection.)

Utilitarianism sanctions harming an innocent person (or people) to benefit more people

1. Of the moral theories we covered, what moral theory scores high on a given criteria? (Be able to identify one.)

Utilitarianism scores high on "Resourcefulness in problem-solving"

1. What is the difference between a moral obligation and a moral value?

· Moral obligation: i. Concern our duty—our actions. ii. Three categories: 1. Right 2. Wrong 3. Permissible · Moral values: i. Concern things we judge to be morally good, bad, praiseworthy, or blameworthy—character or motives. Persons or motives are morally good or bad.

1. What is the Divine Command Theory (DCT)?

· Morality is dependent on God's will. · An action is right or wrong if and only if God says so. · Something is good or bad if and only if God says so.

1. What is the difference between an absolute moral principle and a prima facie moral principle?

· Absolute moral principle i. Apply without exceptions. ii. Whether there are any such principles is a subject of much debate. · Prima facie i. Apply in all cases unless an exception is warranted. ii. Can conflict with other prima facie moral principles. iii. Become one's actual duty in a particular case if there is no other prima facie duty that is stronger.

1. What is bioethics?

· An area of applied ethics that focuses on ethical issues/problems that arise in medicine, healthcare, and the life sciences

1. What determines whether an action is right/wrong according to cultural relativism?

· Beliefs of culture or society

1. What is the difference between a descriptive and a normative claim?

· Descriptive i. Claims about how things are. ii. Example: "Joe is causing Sue great pain." iii. Simply describe how the world is; make no judgment about how things should be. · Normative i. Claims about how things ought to be (or not be). ii. Example: "It is wrong for Joe to cause Sue great pain." iii. Don't simply describe how the world is; make a judgment about how things should be.

1. What is the Euthyphro dilemma (or problem)? How is it relevant to DCT?

· Does God command an action because it is right or is an action right because God commands it? i. First Horn - If God commands an action because it is right, then God can't make any action whatsoever to be right or wrong. 1. If this is true, then God is all-good but not "all-powerful." ii. Second Horn - If an action is right because God commands it, then God can make any action whatsoever to be right or wrong. 1. If this is true, then God is all-powerful but not "all-good." 2. God's commands (and morality itself) would be arbitrary. Does a theist have to accept DCT (i.e., the second horn of the Euthyphro dilemma)? • No. • A theist can say that: - God always knows what action is right or wrong but God can't make an action right or wrong. - God commands certain actions because they are right and forbids certain actions because they are wrong. • So it's possible to be a theist and reject DCT.

1. What determines whether an action is right/wrong according to moral subjectivism?

· Individual beliefs determine if an action is right/wrong

1. How is moral objectivism different from moral absolutism?

· Objectivism - morality not dependent on personal belief · Absolutism - the idea that there are absolute moral principles that apply in all cases and which don't have any exceptions.