Phil224 test 3

Jean-Paul Sarte

"We are condemned to freedom." Existence precedes essence

Consequentialist Ethics

1) Consequentialist Ethics: theories that focus primarily on consequences to determine a moral rightness and wrongness a. Most famous is utilitarianism

Immanuel Kant

1724-1804, greatest philosopher of German enlightenment. He believed that we could use reason to work out an absolute consistent set of moral principles. He had three strong influences on his thinking: 1) Pietism 2) work of Jean Jacques Rousseau on human freedom and 3) debate between rationalism and empiricism. He believed morality was necessary. He believed that our rational will was what grounded our morality.

Make a case for ethical objectivism. Be sure to distinguish between moral absolutism and moral objectivism.

A . Moral Absolutism: there are non-overridable moral principles, they are never to be violated EX: One ought to never tell a lie, no matter what. B . Moral Objectivism: there are valid rules of actions that should be generally obeyed but may be overridden by another moral principle in cases of moral conflict . EX: One can tell a lie if to save someone's life C . Ethical Objectivism is more reasonable because core morality rules are needed but/and there are A Variety of cultures and varied understandings of what is right or wrong . There are certain situations where morals conflict (EX: lying to save a life) One does not have to stick to a strict diet to attain necessary vitamins and minerals. Therefore, one does not have to practice moral absolutism to be morally good. There are different ways to practice morality.

Behaviorism

A way of understanding one's behavior that assumes that their actions are determined by reactions to past experiences, especially positive and negative reinforcement.

Identify and briefly describe the two main criticisms of virtue-ethics of the standard action-based ethical systems.Action-based ethics lack a motivational component

Action-based ethics lack a motivational component i. Uninspiring--- boring and largely negative (thou shalt not _____!) ii. Unsatisfactory --- focus on egoistic, minimal morality whose basic principles seem to be more preventive than positive. iii. Low value on morality Action-based ethics often ignore the spiritual dimension of ethics i. It reduced all moral judgment to judgments about actions. ii.

Agent Causation

Agents themselves are the cause of their own actions. Agents causes actions without himself changing in any essential way

Infraerogatory

An action, not immoral, but less than ideal An act is one that is morally permissible but below the standard of ideal morality. Oversleeping and spending too much time watching television , when you could be doing something better, are example of such acts

Walter Stace

Argued that the problem of freedom and determinism is really only a semantic one, a dispute about the meaning of words. Freedom has to do with acts done voluntarily, and determinism has to do with the causal processes that underlie all behavior and events.

Publicity Argument

Argues that for something to be the truth, the public has to know it. Unless a principal is universally known and accessible by the public, they can not serve as guidelines or help in resolving conflicts.

J.L. Mackie

Argues that the real name for a christian is a "sucker" because christians believe in turning the other cheek and loving one's enemies . Also argues that virtue ethics only tells one what to do and does not give us application. Virtue ethics does not tell us what to do in particular instances in which direction is needed.

Harry Frankfurt

Argues that what is important about freedom of the will is not any contracausal notions but the manner in which the will is structured. What distinguishes persons from other conscious beings?

Counterintuitive Consequences Argument

Argument that states that ethical egoism will lead to consequences that seem abhorrent. Would cause us to abstain from doing good acts, which we would begin to look at as morally wrong, even though they are good to do.

Golden Mean

Aristotle means that the virtues are a mean between excess and deficiency. (courage is the mean between cowardice and foolhardiness;liberality is the mean between stinginess and unstrained giving)

Friedrick Nietzsche

Believed that the fundamental creative force that motivates all creation is the will to power. We all seek to affirm ourselves, to flourish and dominate. Since we are essentially unequal in ability, it follows that the fittest will survive and be victorious in the contest with the weaker and baser.

Thomas Hobbes

Believes egoism is the proper foundation for the moral and political life. Human nature is basically self-interested, so it makes no sense to ask people to be altruistic.

Principle of Ends

Each person has dignity and profound worth and they must never be exploited or manipulated or used for simply the "general good" or in any other way.

Heteronomy

Each person has their actions motivated by the authority of others, whether it be religion, the state, one's parents, or peer group.

Paradox of Egoism

Egosim requires one to put themselves before others. Causes egoist to contemplate whether or not they would be able to experience being in love or deep friendship; these require the tending of others needs above one's own.

Divine Command Theory

Ethical principles are simply the commands of God. They derive their validity from God's commanding them, and they mean "commanded by God." Without God, there would be no universally valid morality

Cultural Relativism

Ethical standards are judged based on culture. It is okay for a tribe to lie and steal because it is their culture and it is not our place to judge them.

Deontological Ethics

Ethics based on rules or duty. Never lie, never steal, et. under any circumstances.

Principle of Autonomy

Every rational being is able to regard themselves as a maker of universal law. Meaning that one does not need an external authority such as: God, culture, the state, or anyone else.

Identify and briefly describe the three theses of existentialism.

Existence precedes essence - we must exist before we can define ourselves Life is absurd - we are constantly faced with futility(sisyphus) and mortality(white and black mice) Freedom is at the core of our existence - we are free to create our own life and essence, we are condemned to absolute freedom

Supererogatory

From the Latin meaning "beyond the call of duty". An act that is not required by moral principles but contains enormous value. Supererogatory acts are those that are beyond the call of duty, such as risking one's life to save a stranger.

Justice Objection

Gives example of criminal committing a racially motivated crime. The P.O. knows a riot will break out, cause death to some, and create a large and long lasting racial rift. Officer then thinks of framing and executing an innocent man of the crime just to stop the riots and chaos. Only the officer and actual criminal know that the framed man is innocent. This argument makes the point that a utilitarian would find this to be excusable for the greater good. However, most people cringe at the thought of this.

Jeremy Bentham

His concerns were mostly practical rather than theoretical. He worked for a thorough reform of what he regarded as an irrational and outmoded legal system. He might well have paraphrased Jesus

Identify and briefly describe the four weak features of utilitarianism

How can we know the Consequences of Actions We normally do not know the long-term consequences of our actions because life is complex and the consequences can go onto the indefinite future. One action causes one state of affairs, in turn, cause another state of affairs indefinitely The No-Rest Objection No one could possibly be a complete utilitarian because there will always be more acts of utility and you will never be able to rest EX. when I am about to go to the movies with my friend, i should ask myself if helping the homeless wouldn't promote more utility (according to utilitarianism, one should do acts that promote the most utility) The Absurd Implications Objection Utilitarianism is to be rejected because it would be counterintuitive, causing for us to accept an absurd implication. Ex: two acts, A and B that will both result in $100. Only difference is act A requires lying and act B requires telling the truth. Utilitarian must regard both acts as having equal value even though it is known that telling the truth is the best choice. It is counterintuitive . The Justice Objection This argument says that you should do what will end in the most good for the majority even if that means sacrificing someone else.

Identify and briefly describe the five major ways that religion enriches ethics

If there is a God, good will win out over evil. God is on our side and we are guaranteed eventual victory. If God exists, then cosmic justice reigns in the universe. We will never receive less than we deserve, if we have good hearts we will receive more. If theism is true, moral reasons always override non moral reasons. An atheist can define his own morals and override convention, a theist cannot. If theism is true, then there is a God who loves and cares for us-his love inspires us. A believe has a reason to be moral, they have a higher power that they wish to please. If there is a God who created us in his image, all persons are of equal worth. If we are all family then we should treat each other as such.

The Goodwill

Is the only thing that is intrinsically good, good in in itself and without qualification, is the goodwill. This is a necessary element to any morally good action.It may not be the only good thing though.

Determinism

Is the theory that everything is entirely determined by causal laws, so that whatever happens at any given moment, including human actions, is the effect of some antecedent cause

Identify and briefly describe three problems with Kant's second formulation of the categorical imperative .

Kant sets too much value on rationality He sees value in humans but not in animals . Kant suggest that those with the greatest capacity to reason are more valuable . Everyone is not equal Kant does not address what to do in certain situations He tells us to enslave people but does not share what to do in conflict situations

Victor Frankl

Lived 3 years in Nazi concentration camp. The originator of "Logotherapy" Asked patients why they didn't commit suicide

Identity Theory

Mind states correspond contingently with brain states.

Identify and briefly describe the four arguments against ethical egoism .

Publicity Argument:Argues that for something to be the truth, the public has to know it. Unless a principal is universally known and accessible by the public, they can not serve as guidelines or help in resolving conflicts . Paradox of Egoism: Egoism requires one to put themselves before others. Causes egoist to contemplate whether or not they would be able to experience being in love or deep friendship; these require the tending of others needs above one's own. Relevant Difference Argument: Based on the concept of universalizability; All difference of treatment between people must be justified by some relevant difference in description of the people or their acts Example: I am justified to pay Mary twice as much as John because she worked twice as long as he did . d) Counterintuitive Consequences Argument(JM)- Argument that states that ethical egoism will lead to consequences that seem abhorrent. Would cause us to abstain from doing good acts, which we would begin to look at as morally wrong, even though they are good to do.

Adam Smith

Scottish philosopher, lived from 1723-1790. Believed that individual self-interest in a state of competition in the makrplace produces a state of optimal goodness for a society at large. Enlightened self-interest leads to the best overall situation.

Ayn Rand

Selfishness is a virtue and altruism is a vice, a totally destructive idea that leads to the undermining of individual worth.

No-Rest Objection

Someone could not possible ever be truly utilitarian because there will always and act of more utility, you would never be able to let yourself rest.

Utility Principle

States that the only thing that is good in itself is some specific type of state (eg pleasure, happiness, welfare)

Consequentialist Objection

States that the rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by the goodness or badness of the results that flow from it. It is the end not the means, that counts; the end justifies the means

Aristotle

The Correspondence Thesis: 1) Moral rules require persons to perform or omit certain actions, and these actions can be performed by persons who lack various virtues as well as those who possess them. 2) Moral virtues are dispositions to obey the moral rules, to perform or omit certain actions. Each virtue corresponds to an appropriate moral principle. 3) The moral virtues have no intrinsic value but do have instrumental and derivative value. The virtues are important only because they motivate right action. Claim that nature of virtues can be derived only from right actions or good consequences.

Quantum Physics and Causation

The behavior of subatomic particles does not follow causal processes but instead yields only statistically predictable behavior. We cannot predict the motions of individual particles, but we can successfully predict the percentage that will act in certain ways.

Compatibilism

The belief that free will and determinism can coexist. (although everything is determined, we can still act voluntarily)

Albert Camus

The only philosophical question worth asking is "Why not commit suicide?" Camus compares our existence to that of Sisyphus (condemned for disobedience...punishment: rolling a huge boulder up the side of a mountain until it reaches the top...retrieve boulder (repeat prior action). -Camus suggest that we ought to value the quantity of experience, which may be enough to justify our existence -Camus offers the Epicurean vision of life; the sheer quantity and pleasure of experience is life's only value. Although life has no inherent meaning or purpose, we ought defy fate and preserve our lives -Camus relates the ancient Greek Myth of Sisyphus to illustrate the absurdity of life

Libertarianism

The theory that claims some actions are exempt from the causal laws in which the individual is the sole (or decisive) cause of the act, the act originating ex nihilo (out of nothing), cut off from all other causes but the self's doing it

Ethnocentrism

The uncritical belief in the inherent superiority of one's own culture, as a variety of prejudice tantamount to racism and sexism

Egoism

There are two types of egoism. Psychological egoism is a descriptive theory about human motivation and holds that people always act to satisfy their perceived best interests. Ethical egoism is a prescriptive, or normative, theory about how people ought to act. They ought to act according to their perceived best interests

Identify and briefly describe the five major purposes or functions of morality.

To promote the survival of society- Keep it from falling apart To resolve conflicts of interest justly- There are limited resources of money, jobs, land etc so resolving these will allow humans to move on to other things To ameliorate human suffering- Gratuitous suffering is evil, so we should ameliorate it whenever morally permissible To promote human flourishing- Creating a worthwhile life for the participants of society To assign responsibility, praise, and blame to actions-

John Stuart Mill

Utilitarianism Answered that the doctrine of universal causality is a conclusion of inductive reasoning

Absurd Implications Objections

Utilitarianism is to be rejected because it would be counterintuitive, causing for us to accept an absurd implication. Ex: two acts, A and B that will both result in $100. Only difference is act A requires lying and act B requires telling the truth. Utilitarian must regard both acts as having equal value even though it is known that telling the truth is the best choice. It is counterintuitive.

Pure Aretaic Ethics

Virtue ethics. Involves practical wisdom, doing what is right based on the situation. Actions are generally considered to be good but are not hard rules.

William Golding

Wrote the novel -"Lord of Flies". His book highlights 5 purposes for morality. To promote the survival of society To resolve conflicts of interests justly To ameliorate human suffering To promote human flourishing To assign responsibility, praise and blame to ac

Hedonic Calculus

a. Created by Bentham b. The quantitative score for any pleasure or pain experience comes about by giving sums to seven aspects of man experience in terms of pleasure and pain. The seven aspects of pleasurable or painful experience are its intensity, duration, certainty, nearness, fruitfulness, purity, and extent. By adding the sums you could decide what act to do. c. It's one principle is to maximize pleasure and minimize suffering.

Aretaic Ethics

a. From Greek word arete meaning excellence or virtue b. Theory first presented by Aristotle i. Said the base of ethical assessment is character - focus is on character and dispositions rather than actions or duties. c. Virtue based ethics d. Seeks to produce excellent persons who act well out of spontaneous goodness and serve as examples to inspire others.

Relevant Difference Argument

a. James Rachels b. Based on the concept of universalizability c. All difference of treatment between people must be justified by some relevant difference in description of the people or their acts i. Example: I am justified to pay Mary twice as much as John because she worked twice as long as he did.

Teleological Determinism

a. Not strictly mechanistic - can take into account rational intentions and purposes b. Generally holds that mental events are dependent on neural events or brain states. Can recognize the conceptual connection between intention and action (intentions are not great problem for determinism)

Ethical Objectivism

a. Prima Facie: principles, valid rules of action that should generally be adhered to but may be overridden by another moral principle.

Causality--Mill, Hume, Kant

a. The relationship between and event (the cause) and the second event (the effect), where the first cause is understood to be responsible for the second. b. Cannot be proved, but still something everyone assumes c. Causality i. Mills: the doctrine of causality is a conclusion of inductive reasoning ii. Hume: pointed out the idea of causality is not logical truth. Says that the hypothesis that every event has a cause arises from the observation of regular conjunctions. iii. Kant: first suggested that the principle of universal causality is a synthetic a priori. We have no knowledge of what the world is in itself or whether there really is universal causation, but we cannot understand experience except by means of casual explanation.

Complementarity (Pluralistic)

a. The view holds that both deontic and aretaic models are necessary for an adequate or complete system b. Neither the virtues or principles are primary, they are dependent on each other.

Moral Responsibility

a. We are to be held morally responsible for our actions even when they are based on what we presently believe. b. False belief does not excuse us from moral condemnation.

Subjective Ethical Relaivism

i. Morality is not dependent on the society but on the individual themselves. ii. Consequence 1. Makes morality a useless concept because it has little or no interpersonal criticism or judgment is logically possible ("sorry" consequence). 2. If it is correct, then morality reduces to aesthetic tastes over which there can be no argument or interpersonal judgement (absurd consequence). 3. Violates or ignores the goals of morality

Conventional Ethical Relativism

i. The view that there are not objective moral principles but that all valid moral principles are justified by virtue of their cultural acceptance, recognizes the social nature of morality. ii. Consequences 1. If no moral principles are universally valid, how can tolerance be universally valid? 2. Seems to entail that reformers are always (morally) wrong because they go against the tide of cultural standards.

Purposes of Morality

i. To promote the survival of society ii. To resolve conflicts of interest justly iii. To ameliorate human suffering iv. To promote human flourishing v. To assign responsibility, praise, and blame to actions

Functionalism(

mental states (beliefs, desires, being in pain, etc.) are constituted solely by their functional role - that is, they have causal relations to other mental states, numerous sensory inputs, and behavioral outputs.

Ethical Absolutism

particular actions are intrinsically right or wrong. Stealing, for instance, might be considered to be always immoral, even if done for the well-being of others (e.g., stealing food to feed a starving family), and even if it does in the end promote such a good

Ethics/Morality

the branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct.

The Myth of Sisyphus

the myth looks at existence as an objectively meaningless event One philosophical question: suicide? Judging whether life is or is not worth living amounts to the fundamental questions of philosophy (whether or not the world has 3 dimensions, whether the mind has nine or twelve categories Sisyphus was condemned to push a boulder up a hill in the underworld. Whenever he got to the top the boulder would roll back down. Futility of human life. Camus

Universal Causality

the theoretical or asserted law that every event or phenomenon results from, or is the sequel of, some previous event or phenomenon, which being present, the other is certain to take place.

Categorical Imperative

universalizes principles of conduct. Categorical imperative is way to apply universalization test. Helps one to determine whether our own maxims (general rule in which agent intends to act by) are suitable as principles for all to live by. Can also be referred to as the "principle of ends." Each person has dignity and profound worth and they must never be exploited or manipulated or used for simply the "general good" or in any other way.

Eudaimonistic Ethics

virtue based ethics. Rather than seeing the heart of ethics in actions or duties, virtue ethics centers in the heart of the agent, in their character. Virtue ethics emphasizes being, how one is as a person. Seeks to produce good people. Question it asks is: What sort of person should I become?