Philosophy and Logic Exam 1
What can never occur in a valid argument?
All the premises are true and the conclusion is false.
Explanation
An explanation provides reasons for why or how an event occurred. By themselves, explanations are not arguments; however, they can form part of an argument
You had better get straight A's this year. If you don't, I will take away your car and your allowance.
Appeal to Force
Science hasn't proven that God doesn't exist. Therefore, God must exist.
Appeal to Ignorance
Operational definition
Defines a term by specifying a measurement procedure.
An Informative Definition ...
should use quotation marks appropriately. should include the essential meaning of a term. should not be too broad or too narrow. should not be circular. should be affirmative and not negative. should not use emotionally charged or figurative language.
Determine the correct type of definition. Reference: Ref 2-2 The term "misdemeanor" is derived from the root "mis" meaning wrong, and "demeanor" meaning behavior.
word origin (etymological) definition
Extensional definition
Assigns meaning to a term by indicating the class members denoted by the term
An argument must have at least two premises.
False
In a valid argument, all premises are true.
False
Sound argument
A deductive argument is sound when the argument is valid, and the premises are true
Definition
A definition assigns a meaning to a word, phrase, or symbol.
A sound argument can have false premises
False
The following questions refer to the counterexample method. Argument 7 No squares are triangles. No squares are circles. Therefore, no triangles are circles. Reference: Ref 1-10 Which one of the following correctly expresses the form of the argument? (Let S = squares, T = triangles, and C = circles.)
No S are T. No S are C. No T are C.
If you start out by drinking only one beer, then pretty soon you will not be satisfied unless you drink two. Then you will need three, and so on. Eventually, you will become an alcoholic.
Slippery Slope
Functional definition
Specifies the purpose or use of the objects denoted by the term.
Determine the correct type of definition. Reference: Ref 2-2 A score of 90-100 is the A range for this test.
Stipulative
Determine whether the following inductive arguments are strong or weak. Reference: Ref 1-20 Most people over 18 are registered to vote. Lisa is 19 years old. So, Lisa is registered to vote.
Strong
Extension
The class or collection of objects to which the term applies. In other words, what the term denotes (its reference
Proposition
The information content imparted by a statement, or, simply put, its meaning.
Intension
The intension of a term is specified by listing the properties or attributes that the term connotes—in other words, its sense.
If an argument appeals to a male pig that is being mailed (or posted) we call this the post hog fallacy.
There is no such fallacy
Conclusion Indicators
Therefore Thus So Hence Consequently In conclusion It follows that We can infer that It proves that It suggests that It implies that We can conclude that
A functional definition of a term specifies the purpose or use of the objects denoted by the term.
True
A rhetorical question occurs when a statement is disguised in the form of a question.
True
A single counterexample to a deductive argument is enough to show that an argument is invalid.
True
A single premise can be used to support independent conclusions.
True
A slippery slope fallacy attempts to convince you that a final event the inevitable outcome of an initial act, by a kind of "chain reaction".
True
A stipulative definition introduces a new meaning to a term or symbol.
True
A valid deductive argument is one where, assuming the premises are true, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false.
True
An argument against the person ( ad hominem) occurs when a claim is rejected or judged to be false based on alleged character flaws of the person making the claim.
True
In a cogent argument, all premises are true.
True
In an appeal to the people fallacy the avoidance of objective evidence in favor of an emotional response defeats the goal of a rational investigation of truth.
True
Language that is used to convey information has cognitive meaning.
True
Some terms have intension but no extension.
True
Under what circumstance can we call an argument "TRUE"?
Under no circumstances: "true" only applies to statements, never to arguments.
What do we call a deductive argument in which it can never be the case that all of the premises are true and the conclusion is false?
Valid
Determine whether or not the following passages contain arguments. More damage was done last year from hurricanes than earthquakes. There was $100 million damage last year from hurricanes. There was $70 million damage last year from earthquakes.
Argument
Hamburgers are loaded with saturated fat and sodium. Pizza is loaded with saturated fat and sodium. Too much saturated fat and sodium is harmful to your heart. Jim takes in too much saturated fat and sodium. It follows Jim is harming his heart. - Jim is harming his heart.
Conclusion
Paris is called the "City of Lights." Las Vegas is also called the "City of Lights." So, there must be at least two cities with the same nickname. There must be at least two cities with the same nickname.
Conclusion
etermine whether the following inductive arguments are strong or weak. Reference: Ref 1-20 Only a few people will be chosen for the Olympic team. John will make the Olympic team.
Weak
Determine whether the following arguments are best classified as being deductive or inductive. Reference: Ref 1-9 The exam's range of C scores is 70-79. I got a C on the exam. Therefore, maybe I got a 75 on the exam.
Inductive
Determine the correct type of definition. Reference: Ref 2-2 Here is what an appendix scar looks like.
ostensive (demonstrative) definition
Determine the correct type of definition. Reference: Ref 2-2 Please get my cello. It's that big instrument by the desk.
ostensive (demonstrative) definition
Determine the correct type of definition. Reference: Ref 2-2 "Generator" means the device that allows your car to convert mechanical energy into electricity.
Functional
Determine whether or not the following passages contain arguments. I like candy. I love chocolate. I hate peanuts. Also, I don't care for circus acts or water sports. It's OK if you like that stuff.
No Argument
Premises are dependent when they act together to support a conclusion.
True
Premises are independent when the falsity of either one would not nullify any support the others would give to the conclusion.
True
When premises are dependent, the falsity of any one would weaken the support the others give to the conclusion.
True
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 Every insect has six legs. 2 What's crawling on me is an insect. So 3 what's crawling on me has six legs.
1,2 dependently point to 3
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 Most Doberman dogs bark a lot. 2 My cousin just got a Doberman dog. Therefore, 3 my cousin's Doberman dog will probably bark a lot.
1,2 dependently point to 3
Determine the correct type of definition. Reference: Ref 2-2 "Misdemeanor" means petty theft, prostitution, public intoxication, among other things.
definitions by subclass
Determines if the information in the premises is accurate, correct, or true.
Truth value analysis
My mom told me to start exercising and eating right, so I will live a long and healthy life. But since she has smoked since she was a teenager, I don't need to listen to her advice.
Tu quoque
An argument in which, assuming the premises are true, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false. In other words, the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.
Valid deductive argument
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 Good study habits are required for success in college. 2 It is also important that you get enough sleep every night. 3 Also, try to participate in class discussion as much as possible. 4 Doing these things will make college life more enjoyable.
1,2,3 each have an arrow to 4
For each of the following enthymemes, determine the missing premise that will create a valid argument. Reference: Ref 3-2 Anyone who is an accountant is good at math; so, my aunt is good at math.
. Missing premise: My aunt is an accountant.
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 If 1 you have your car on a regular maintenance checkup program, and if 2 you drive carefully, it follows that 3 you should have your car for a long time.
1 and 2 each have an arrow to 4
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 All fires need oxygen. 2 There is no oxygen in that room. So, 3 there is no fire in that room.
1,2 dependent to 3
Value judgment
A claim that a particular human action or object has some degree of importance, worth, or desirability
Empty class
A class that has zero member
Counterexample
A counterexample to a statement is evidence that shows the statement is false. A counterexample to an argument shows the possibility that premises assumed to be true do not make the conclusion necessarily true. A single counterexample to a deductive argument is enough to show that the argument is invalid.
Unsound argument
A deductive argument is unsound when the argument is invalid, or when at least one of the premises is false.
Lexical definition
A definition based on the common use of a word, term, or symbol
Simple diagram
A diagram consisting of a single premise and a single conclusion
Linked diagram
A diagram that reveals the occurrence of dependent premises
Convergent diagram
A diagram that reveals the occurrence of independent premises
Divergent diagram
A diagram that shows a single premise supporting independent conclusions
Serial diagram
A diagram that shows that a conclusion from one argument is a premise in a second argument
Class
A group of objects
Decreasing intension
A sequence of terms in which each term after the first connotes fewer attributes than the previous term.
Increasing intension
A sequence of terms in which each term after the first connotes more attributes than the previous term.
Decreasing extension
A sequence of terms in which each term after the first denotes a set of objects with fewer members than the previous term
Increasing extension
A sequence of terms in which each term after the first denotes a set of objects with more members than the previous term
Term
A single word or a group of words that can be the subject of a statement; it can be a common name, a proper name, or even a descriptive phrase.
Inference
A term used by logicians to refer to the reasoning process that is expressed by an argument
Deductive argument
An argument in which the inferential claim is that the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. In other words, under the assumption that the premises are true it is impossible for the conclusion to be false
Inductive argument
An argument in which the inferential claim is that the conclusion is probably true if the premises are true. In other words, under the assumption that the premises are true it is improbable for the conclusion to be false
Invalid deductive argument
An argument in which, assuming the premises are true, it is possible for the conclusion to be false. In other words, the conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premise
Since no one has completely proved that ghosts don't exist, it follows that they must exist.
Appeal to ignorance
He dresses sloppily. So, he is probably a bad singer.
Argument against the person (ad hominem )
Your neighbor wants you to buy stock in his company. Don't you know that he is an atheist? It stands to reason that you can't trust anything he says.
Argument against the person (ad hominem)
She's the best candidate for the job. I know this, because no one is better qualified.
Begging the Question
Definition by genus and difference
Assigns a meaning to a term (the species) by establishing a genus and combining it with the attribute that distinguishes the members of that species.
Word origin definition
Assigns a meaning to a term by investigating its origin. The study of the history, development, and sources of words is called etymology.
Intensional definition
Assigns a meaning to a term by listing the properties or attributes shared by all the objects that are denoted by the term.
Definition by subclass
Assigns a meaning to a term by naming subclasses (species) of the class denoted by the term. • "Music" means rock, blues, jazz, hip-hop, country, classical, and so forth. • "Movie genre" means comedy, action, drama, film noir, romance, horror, along with others. • "Coal" means lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthra
Enumerative definition
Assigns a meaning to a term by naming the individual members of the class denoted by the term. • "New England" means Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. • "The Knights of the Round Table" means the group that includes Sir Gala-had, Sir Lancelot, and Sir Gawain, among others.
Theoretical definition
Assigns a meaning to a term by providing an understanding of how the term fits into a general theory. "Factor" means the hereditary unit in which a characteristic (trait) is trans-mitted from one generation to the next. • "The first principle of inheritance" means that each individual inherits two factors, one from each parent. • "The second principle of inheritance" means that the factors are inherited randomly from each parent
Synonymous definition
Assigns a meaning to a term by providing another term with the same meaning; in other words, by providing a synonym
Persuasive definition
Assigns a meaning to a term with the direct purpose of influencing attitudes or opinions. • "National health care" means that the government decides whether you live or die. • "National health care" means that we get the same medical care that greedy politicians get
Premise Indicators
Because Since Given that Assuming that As shown by For the reason(s) that As indicated by Seeing that It follows fro
Are you still taking illegal drugs?
Complex Question
Every apple in that barrel weighs very little. So, I predict that the barrel of apples weighs very little.
Composition
An inductive argument is one in which it is claimed that the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.
False
An operational definition is the study of the history, development, and sources of words.
False
Begging the question occurs when an argument uses pity to beg someone to accept the conclusion.
False
In an appeal to force fallacy the attention is purposely (or accidentally) diverted from the issue at hand.
False
In an invalid argument, at least one of the premises is actually false.
False
Logical analysis
Determines the strength with which the premises support the conclusion
That's a massive building. It follows that the nails in the building are massive, too.
Division
In the fallacy of composition the premises act together to support the conclusion.
False
truth value
Every statement is either true or false; these two possibilities are called truth val
For each of the following passages, decide whether it is an argument or an explanation. I have a stomachache. It must be those nachos I ate.
Explanation
For each of the following passages, decide whether it is an argument or an explanation. Reference: Ref 1-8 She quit her job today because she inherited $1 million from a rich relative.
Explanation
A counterexample to an argument is evidence that the conclusion is false.
False
A deductive argument is one in which it is claimed that the conclusion follows probably from the premises.
False
A fallacy of division requires that the premises act independently to support the conclusion.
False
A functional definition describes how an object looks.
False
A red herring fallacy occurs when an argument has at least one false premise.
False
I ate three mangoes from the Philippines, and they were all sweet. I'm sure that every mango from there must be sweet.
Hasty Generalization
I had two station wagons and they both were terrible. I'm sure that there is something in the design of station wagons that makes them all awful vehicles.
Hasty Generalization
Inferential claim
If a passage expresses a reasoning process—that the conclusion follows from the premises—then we say that it makes an inferential cl
Statement form
In categorical logic, a statement form is an arrangement of logical vocabulary and letters that stand for class terms such that a uniform substitution of class terms for the letters results in a statement.
Substitution instance
In categorical logic, a substitution instance of a statement occurs when a uniform substitution of class terms for the letters results in a statement. A substitution instance of an argument occurs when a uniform substitution of class terms for the letters results in an argument
Argument form
In categorical logic, an argument form is an arrangement of logical vocabulary and letters that stand for class terms such that a uniform substitution of class terms for the letters results in an argument.
Stipulative definition
Introduces a new meaning to a term or symbol
Ostensive definition
Involves demonstrating the term—for example, by pointing to a member of the class that the term denotes
Cognitive meaning
Language that is used to convey information has cognitive meaning.
Emotive meaning
Language that is used to express emotion or feelings has emotive meaning
If you exercise regularly, then you reduce the risk of heart attack. If you take vitamins daily, then you reduce the risk of heart attack. So, you should take a short vacation every once in a while.
Missing the Point
Every time the barometer drops below a certain point, it rains. Then, when it goes back up, the rain stops. The barometer must have the power to start and stop rain.
Post Hoc
Dependent premises
Premises are dependent when they work together to support a conclusion. In other words, the falsity of one dependent premise weakens the support that the other dependent premises give to the conclusion
Independent premises
Premises are independent when the falsity of one would not nullify any support the others would give to the conclusion
Precising definition
Reduces the vagueness and ambiguity of a term by providing a sharp focus, often a technical meaning, for a term. -The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws in 1980 formulated the Uniform Determination of Death Act. It states that: "An indi-vidual who has sustained either (1) irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions, or (2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem, is dead. A determination of death must be made in accordance with accepted medical standards." This definition was approved by the American Medical Association in 1980 and by the American Bar Association in 1981
Definiens
Refers to that which does the defining
Definiendum
Refers to that which is being defined.
Everyone should eat raw vegetables at least twice a day. Therefore, your 3-day-old baby should start eating raw vegetables.
Rigid application of a generalization
Every statement is either true or false; these two possibilities are called truth values.
True
Premise indicators
Words and phrases that help us recognize arguments by indicating the presence of premises (statements being offered in support of a conclusion
Conclusion indicators
Words and phrases that indicate the presence of a conclusion (the statement claimed to follow from premises)
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 Stealing someone's personal property is illegal. 2 Stealing someone's intellectual property is illegal. So, 3 you should respect all kinds of property. 4 This respect will lead to a more civil society.
1.2 dependent to 3, 3 points to 4
In a valid arguments, what can NEVER occur?
All the premises are true while the conclusion is false.
Determine whether or not the following passages contain arguments. Newspapers are a good source of in-depth news and they are easily accessible. Weekly magazines are good source of in-depth news and they are easily accessible. PBS, CNN, and CSPAN are good sources of in-depth news and they are easily accessible. There is no reason why anyone should remain ignorant of what's going on in the world.
Argument
For each of the following passages, decide whether it is an argument or an explanation. Computers will soon be in every home because the cost of buying one goes down dramatically every year.
Argument
Determine whether the following arguments are best classified as being deductive or inductive. Reference: Ref 1-9 Every horse can run a mile in under 3 minutes. Evie has a horse. Therefore, Evie's horse can run a mile in under three minutes.
Deductive
Determine whether the following arguments are best classified as being deductive or inductive. Reference: Ref 1-9 The exam's range of C scores is 70-79. I got a 98 on the exam. Therefore, I did not get a C on the exam.
Deductive
Determine whether the following arguments are best classified as being deductive or inductive. Reference: Ref 1-9 Every horse can run a mile in under 3 minutes. Evie has a pet that can run a mile in under 3 minutes. Therefore, Evie's pet is certainly a horse.
Deductive; No, it's a deductive argument, albeit an invalid deductive argument. The inferential claim is that, if the premises are true, then the conclusion is also true. The inferential claim is not that the conclusion is probably true.
A lexical definition provides a theoretical definition.
False
A valid argument always has a true conclusion.
False
An enumerative definition assigns meaning to a term by naming the subclasses denoted by the term.
False
An inductive argument is cogent when the argument is strong, even if the premises are false.
False
Every explanation is an argument.
False
In an invalid argument, at least one of the premises is false.
False
Ostensive definitions are used only with children learning new terms.
False
Sometimes we speak or write for dramatic or exaggerated effect. When this occurs, we are using enthymemes.
False
The extension of a term is specified by listing the properties or attributes that the term connotes.
False
Determine the correct type of definition. Reference: Ref 2-2 "Memorize" means the ability to remember and recall different items.
Lexical
Determine the correct type of definition. Reference: Ref 2-2 The term "sandwich" typically means a prepared food consisting of two or more slices of bread with meat, cheese, vegetables, and a condiment.
Lexical
For each of the following enthymemes, determine the missing premise that will create a valid argument. Reference: Ref 3-2 I am eating a banana; therefore, I am eating a fruit.
Missing premise: All bananas are fruit.
Determine whether or not the following passages contain arguments. Most scientists agree that global warming is caused by human activity.
No Argument
Hamburgers are loaded with saturated fat and sodium. Pizza is loaded with saturated fat and sodium. Too much saturated fat and sodium is harmful to your heart. Jim takes in too much saturated fat and sodium. It follows Jim is harming his heart. Jim takes in too much saturated fat and sodium.
Premise
Paris is called the "City of Lights." Las Vegas is also called the "City of Lights." So, there must be at least two cities with the same nickname. Paris is called the "City of Lights."
Premise
Paris is called the "City of Lights." Las Vegas is also called the "City of Lights." So, there must be at least two cities with the same nickname. Las Vegas is also called the "City of Lights."
Premise
Pick out the premises and conclusion for each of the following arguments. Argument 1 Hamburgers are loaded with saturated fat and sodium. Pizza is loaded with saturated fat and sodium. Too much saturated fat and sodium is harmful to your heart. Jim takes in too much saturated fat and sodium. It follows Jim is harming his heart. - Hamburgers are loaded with saturated fat and sodium.
Premise
We should stop interfering in other countries' affairs. This follows from the fact that we have no moral right to change a country's way of governing itself. Also, interfering often gets us locked into combat; not to mention that the potential for loss of lives on both sides is high. In addition, the cost of waging wars is astronomical. Any engagement means weakening our already shaky economy. Add the fact that interfering makes us have more enemies around the world who feel threatened by us. The potential for loss of lives on both sides is high.
Premise
The following questions refer to the counterexample method. Argument 8 All rectangles are squares. All rectangles are parallelograms. Therefore, all parallelograms are squares. Reference: Ref 1-11 Which one of the following substitutions shows the argument invalid?
R = puppies, S = dogs, and P = mammals.
The following questions refer to the counterexample method. Argument 7 No squares are triangles. No squares are circles. Therefore, no triangles are circles. Reference: Ref 1-10 Which one of the following substitutions shows the argument invalid?
S = motorcycles, T = cats, and C = mammals.
Determine whether the following inductive arguments are strong or weak. Reference: Ref 1-20 The vast majority of students who don't have a book for the course, and who don't do the homework, wind up failing the course. I know for a fact that Michael doesn't have a book and he doesn't do the homework. Michael will fail the course.
Strong
Appeal to an unqualified authority occurs when an argument that relies on the opinions of people who have no expertise, training, or knowledge relevant to the issue at hand.
True
Equivocation is the intentional or unintentional use of different meanings of words or phrases in an argument.
True
Determine whether the following inductive arguments are strong or weak. Reference: Ref 1-20 Leo makes only $10 an hour waiting tables part time. He probably is not able to save even $5 a week from his paycheck.
Weak
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 For the last 10 years the best picture Oscar has gone to a drama. 2 A comedy has no chance of winning the Oscar for best picture this year.
1 points to 2
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 The exam's range of A scores is 90-100. 2 I got a 98 on the exam. It follows necessarily that 3 I got an A on the exam.
1,2 dependent to 3
An invalid argument is automatically an unsound argument.
True
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 All those books have more than more than 200 pages. 2 And all these books here have more than 500 pages. So you can see, 3 there are certainly books that have more than 150 pages.
1,2 each have an arrow to 3
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 She doesn't eat pork, 2 chicken, 3 beef, 4 mutton, 5 veal, 6 venison, 7 turkey, or 8 fish. 9 It follows that she must be a vegetarian.
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 all dependently point to 9
Determine whether the following arguments are best classified as being deductive or inductive. Reference: Ref 1-9 Most horses can run a mile in under 3 minutes. Evie has a horse. Therefore, Evie's horse probably can run a mile in under 3 minutes.
Inductive
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 The antibiotic you are taking will have no effect on your disease. That's because 2 antibiotics have no effect on viruses, and 3 you have a disease that is caused by a virus, and 4 you are taking the antibiotic Q.
2,3,4 dependently point to 1
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 You will become intellectually interesting if you do the following: 2 Go to a museum at least once a month; 3 read a book a week; 4 visit a library at least once every 2 weeks; 5 read more than one newspaper; 6 watch TV programs that make you think; and 7 write letters to friends.
234567 - dependent to 1
We should stop interfering in other countries' affairs. This follows from the fact that we have no moral right to change a country's way of governing itself. Also, interfering often gets us locked into combat; not to mention that the potential for loss of lives on both sides is high. In addition, the cost of waging wars is astronomical. Any engagement means weakening our already shaky economy. Add the fact that interfering makes us have more enemies around the world who feel threatened by us. We should stop interfering in other countries' affairs.
Conclusion
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 Since 1 watching television distracts your mind, and since 2 distractions reduce your ability to focus, we can conclude that 3 watching television while studying negatively affects your ability to learn.
1,2 dependent to 3
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 Carly tossed a coin ten times, and 2 in each case it came up heads. 3 I have a feeling that it is a trick coin. So, 4 I predict the next toss will be heads.
1,2 dependently to 3, 3 to 4
The following questions refer to the counterexample method. Argument 8 All rectangles are squares. All rectangles are parallelograms. Therefore, all parallelograms are squares. Reference: Ref 1-11 Which one of the following correctly expresses the form of the argument? (Let R = rectangles, S = squares, and P = parallelograms.)
All R are S. All R are P. All P are S.
Tu quoque occurs when a biased sample is used to construct an argument.
False
Determine whether the following inductive arguments are strong or weak. Reference: Ref 1-20 There are thirty students in my class. Two students got a perfect score on the last exam. I am probably one of the students who got a perfect score on the last exam.
Weak
For each of the following enthymemes, determine the missing premise that will create a valid argument. Reference: Ref 3-2 I am talking to a human; so, I am talking to a mammal.
Missing premise: All humans are mammals.
Determine whether the following inductive arguments are strong or weak. Reference: Ref 1-20 Only a few people will be chosen for the Olympic team. Of those receiving phone calls from the selection committee, 80% will make the team. John received a phone call from the selection committee. John will probably make the Olympic team.
Strong
Determine the correct diagram for each argument. Reference: Ref 3-1 1 I am eating something with seeds, because 2 every orange has seeds, and 3 I am eating an orange.
2,3 dependently point to 1