Philosophy Midterm 1 CSUF

Explain Taylor's Cosmological Argument

(insert clear orb) Seeing this would lead to curiosity about how it got there and origin, etc. Sufficient reasoning: contingent then cause. Cause of universe is necessary.

Explain the argument from casual closure

1) Every event which has a cause has a physical cause. 2) Mental events cause physical events. 3) If an event A causes event B, then there is no other event C which is different from A and also causes B.

Explain the argument from the methodological naturalism with respect to physicalism

1) It is reasonable to believe what is believed by the methods of natural sciences. 2) Physicalism is the view that is accepted by natural science.

Explain two similarities between time and space according to Ted Sider

1) Reality: No matter how for away an object is in space it is still real, same with time. 2) Parts: Objects take up space by having spacial parts and objects take up time by having temporal parts. 3) 'Here and now': Both are relative terms that depend for their meaning on where or when the speaker uses the word

Explain both versions of Kant's categorical imperative

1. Act always so that the maxim that describes your action could be willed to be a universal law. Maxim: Inner policies I have based on a deliberate action. Kant: Its ok to act that way if all can act that way. 2. Never treat human being as a means to an end but rather always treat human beings as ends and themselves.

Explain Nagel's critique of 'mystical experience as a source of evidence for God's existence

1. Argument from unfairness: The world would be too unfair if God did not exist. Therefore God exists. Problem: No guarantee that the world is fair. 2. Argument from religious experience: I had a religious experience that revealed the existence of God to me, therefore God exists. Problem: There are alternative explanations for the experience and experiences are private and can't be shared.

Explain two possible differences between killing and failing to assist

1. Difference of motivation 2. easy to avoid killing people but it is very hard to save all lives that you can 3. difference of certainty of the outcome 4. identifiability of the victim 5. you can always say "its not my fault that they are poor"

Explain Nagel's 'problem of evil'

1. If God existed then there would be no evil in world. 2. But there is evil in the world, therefore God does not exist.

Explain the test that Everitt suggests for gaining evidence that a certain type of being does NOT exist

1. If there is a being w/ nature, N, and intentions, I, then he will produce change, C, in the world. 2. The world does not display C. Thus evidence that being does not exist. Ex. On island, look for other survivors, would see signs of life on island, if not, no survivors.

Explain Singer's argument that we have a moral obligation to assist the global poor

1. If you can prevent a bad thing from happening w/o making a comparable sacrifice, then you should. 2. Absolute poverty is bad. 3. We can prevent some absolute poverty w/o making a comparable sacrifice.

Explain two objections to Singer's argument that we have a moral obligation to assist the absolute poor

1. Taking care of our own: family. 2. Property rights objection: my money, my property

Explain Nagel's critique of the argument from design

1. The watch to eye analogy is a bad analogy. The fact that the watch has a function is not the reason that we know it has a designer. Reason we know it has a designer is just that we humans make the watches.

Explain Nagel's critique of Cosmological argument

1. is it true that everything must have a cause? Perhaps not... 2. If everything must have a cause, then wouldn't God need a cause? 3. If there can be things w/o cause, then why can't the universe be uncaused. 4. Is an infinite regress of causes impossible? Perhaps not...

Describe three factors that Payley thinks WOULD NOT undermine the judgement that a watch sitting in the forest must have been made by a watchmaker

1. never seen a watch being made. 2. you don't understand how it works. 3. nobody would say watch originates from random chance of events

Explain the meaning of the expression 'soon he will be in the past' according to Lewis

2 diff time frames, personal and external. Personal: time experienced by person. External: time experienced by external observers. ex. time travel: 5 min personal, 100 yr external.

Explain Einstein's example of the moving train

2 lighting strikes along track, A and B. Train moving toward B, when pass midpoint, observer in train see B flash before A because speed of light constant. If train still at midpoint, A and B flash same time. A and B are not simultaneous, time has to be relative to something

Explain Plato's metaphor of the many-headed creature

3 heads, 1 human (rationality soul), 1 lion (spirited soul), 1 many gargoyles appetitive soul). Everyone outside looking in only sees human heads. Behind scenes, human head being help under control of other heads. Ex. Foolish things because of their passion, defraud because appetite, rationality should be strongest soul so won't suffer.

Explain a reply to the objection to physicalism that 'a man may know nothing about brain processes'

A is identical with B, something is an A without knowing that its a B. Talk about lightening though doesn't know about electricity

Explain the theory of utilitarianism

Act always to promote the greatest amount of overall happiness for the greatest number of people.

Explain Mill's response to the claim that "Utilitarianism is a theory fit for swine"

Aim of pleasure for an animal. Mills reply: Two types of pleasure. Lower and higher pleasure, higher pleasure has higher value.

Explain the idea that people have 'temporal parts'

Always will and always have temporal parts. Amount of temporal parts is equal to amount of moments you're alive. Sum of temporal parts are what I am in total. Experience one temporal parts per moment.

How is the actual world not appropriate as an expression of God's intentions according to Everitt

Apt behavior to believe in God. Humans would appear early in the timeline of the universe. Humans would appear not long after the animals. Universe would not be much larger than Earth. Man would be in the center of the universe.

Explain Descarte's method of doubt. What is known for certain even when the method is being applied and why?

Assume everything is false if any doubt. Can doubt all things perceived by our 5 senses. When method being applied, we know for certain that we exist, can't question existence because to have that thought you need to exist.

Explain the method of argument known as 'reductio ad absurdum'

Assume the opposite of contrary of what you would like to prove, and then show that this would imply something absurd or impossible. Ex. (Anselm) God only exist in mind, absurd because if only mind, God isn't greatest conceivable being, God exists in mind and reality

Describe the 'imitation game'

Belief machines could be conscious in future. Test: machine and human behind wall, human interrogating. Ask question, receive text answer, interrogator has to determine which is human or machine. Machine is considered conscious when interrogator fails about 50% of time to distinguish between human and machine.

Explain why beliefs derived from sense perception are not certain, and why even beliefs about mathematics are not certain according to Descartes.

Beliefs derived from sense perception, 1: to know anything from sense perception I must know that i'm not dreaming 2: there is no way to know that i'm not dreaming thus idk anything from sense perception. Beliefs about mathematics are not certain 1. 2+2 could be wrong if God said so but God wouldn't do that because he is all good.

What does Sartre mean when he says each individual man is responsible for creating all of humanity?

By creating own essence, doubles as paradigm of your ideal life, create yourself and how ideal society would work

Explain the trolley problem by explaining 'bystander at the switch' and 'transplant'

Bystander at the switch: 5 ppl on track, 1 on another track, trolley driver knocked out, bystander at switch, flip switch, kill one. Transplant: 5 ppl organ problem, 1 perfect person, kill 1 to save 5. Trolley: drving trolley, 5ppl on track, 1 on other track, divert trolley to kill 1.

Explain an objection to Pascal's wager

Clifford: wrong to take wager because not good enough evidence, wrong to believe things w/o evidence

Explain Stoljar's distinction between the 'completeness' and the 'condition' question

Completeness: What does it mean to say that EVERYTHING is physical? What it means for EVERYTHING to satisfy condition of being physical. Condition: What does it mean to say that everything is PHYSICAL? What IS the condition, being physical, that everything satisfies.

Explain two reasons that Clifford gives why its wrong to maintain a 'credulous character'

Credulous character: a person who believes things w/o sufficient evidence. 1. Makes power of judgement weak. 2 Influencing other people, dangerous to others.

Explain Nagel's example of the infant and the brain-injured man

Death bad if end to consciousness, brain-injured because lose goods of life compared to what he had before. Infant didn't lose any goods of life, can only get better.

Why does Nagel say that death is bad at any age?

Derived of goods of life (death is bad) no matter how old, still lose goods of life as long as you still desire for continuation of goods of life

Explain Pascal's wager

Either God exists or God does not exist. If believe God exist: 1. God exist, infinite gain (heaven). 2. God does not exist, lost time/energy. If not believe God exist: 1. God exist, infinite loss (hell). 2. God does not exist, gain time/energy.

What is existentialism?

Existence precedes essence. First we exist and we don't have essence yet, after time essence comes. Essence comes from your own choices and your own free will.

Explain Payley's argument from design

Finding a watch in forest, never seen a watch before, had to come from intelligent maker, intelligent act of design we come from God, who is intelligent maker who designed our intricate being.

Describe Anselm's Ontological Argument

God is believed to be omnipresent (at all places all the time), omnipotent (all powerful), creator, omniscient (all knowledge), omnibenevolent (all good). All add up to greatest conceivable being. 1. God is believed by all to be the greatest conceivable being. 2. Some things only consist in the mind and other things exist in both mind and reality. 3. It is greater to exist in both the mind and in reality than only exist in the mind.

Explain Mill's claim that the only thing that we pursue as an end is pleasure/happiness

Greatest happiness principle: Actions are right to the extent that they promote happiness, and actions are wrong to promote the reverse of happiness. Happiness: Pleasure/ absence of pain. Reverse of happiness: pain/ absence of pleasure. Happiness/ pleasure is the only thing that we pursue as an end and not as a means. Ends: goals/objectives. Means: actions taken or methods used to achieve ones ends.

What makes a human life go as well as possible according to Plato?

Harmony among parts of the soul, appetitive, spirited, and rational

Explain the concept of 'bad faith'

I created my own essence, some ppl push blame of essence coming from something they couldn't control. Ex. religious because parents are religious. Disingenuous and not sincere. Essence is up to you, bad faith to say otherwise.

Describe Plato's analogy between the soul and the state

If certain parts of the soul control over the others, it will make you act differently. If all parts of soul even, achieve harmony.

Why does Plato say that injustice cannot benefit you?

Injustice cannot benefit me because one part of the soul is taking over and cannot achieve harmony that way.

Explain how Gettier shows that Justified True Belief is NOT sufficient for knowledge

Justified true belief is not sufficient for knowledge because of his proposition, if A entails B, then if A is true, then B must also be true. Gettier Case 1: Smith and Jones job hunt. Smith has evidence to believe Jones will get job, Jones has 10 coins in pocket so will get job. Smith gets job, doesn't know he has 10 coins in pocket. Justified true belief not sufficient for knowledge. 1. Either Jones owns a ford or Brown is in Boston. 2. Either Jones owns a Ford or Brown is in Barcelona. 3. Either Jones owns a Ford or Brown is in Brest-Litousk. Jones does not own ford, Brown lives in Barcelona, 1: false 2: justified true belief not sufficient for knowledge 3: false.

Explain Thomson's example of the 'looping track'

Kill 5 save 1 or kill 1 save 5. Wrong to switch track? Not wrong. Persons death has to be intended outcome to save deaths

Explain what distinguishes knowledge from right opinion according to Socrates

Knowledge is justified true belief and right opinion is a true belief without justification. Have to believe and be true to have knowledge.

Explain Rowe's example about the 'magican' and 'magico'

Magican: existing magician. Magico: nonexisting magician. Problem: Definition of God exist but doesn't mean God actually exist. Defining something exist doesn't mean it actually exist.

Provide three reasons that God's hiddenness is a disadvantage according to Mckim

Mckim: God is hidden, can't determine existence, harder to: 1. believe in God (where is he) 2. Personal relationship 3. Creates space for fraud 4. Create social conflict 5. Harder to worship, denote themselves to God

Explain how it is that Descartes comes to accept the existence of material bodies

Method of doubt able to doubt everything perceived by senses. Clear and distinct perception is idea that if two things can be clearly conceived of as existing separately, then they really are two separate things.

Explain Descartes argument that the mind and body are really distinct

Method of doubt able to doubt everything perceived by senses. Clear and distinct perception is idea that if two things can be clearly conceived of as existing separately, then they really are two separate things. Can clearly conceive mind and body existing separately they really are 2 separate things. 1. is external world that exists outside of my mind 2. i have a body and its mine

Explain the difference between monism and dualism

Monism: All of reality is composed by only one kind of substance. i) physicalism: everything made of physical matter ii) idealism: everything made of ideas. Dualism: All of reality is composed by two kinds of substances. i) physical matters: is extended, takes up space, has mass ii) mind: not extended and is thinking

Discuss Singer's response to 2 of the differences between killing and failing to assist

Motivation: Drunk driver (get home, fail to assist), Homicidal driver (kill). Certainty of outcome: Drunk driver (hit less, add risk), Homicidal driver (hit more, more likely to cause harm)

Explain Singer's response to the 'taking care of our own' objection

Out of sight out of mind, simply because people are far away shouldn't be reason for needs prioritized. Calls it borderline racist to only care for your own.

Explain the supervenience physicalism

Physicalism: everything physical and made of physical matter. Idea to explain everything physical, dot matrix picture. Global feautres (large parts of pic) are arrangements of dots. Made out of atoms. ex: person is global feature, physical reality made out of atoms, identical if same pattern and same global features. World is same if atomic duplicate.

Explain the idea that death is a misfortune but not pre-natal non-existence

Pre-natal: Prior to birth. Nonexistence in future concerns us more than nonexistence before. Tragedy if no longer exist, lose previous existence.

Explain Moore's argument that existence is not a predicate

Predicate-attribute of thing/ feature. Existence is not attribute. Tigers growl: All, most, some. Compare to Tigers exist: All, most, some: All and most are meaningless, some is the meaningful. Anselm: cant lack any feature, failing to exist is lacking.

What is the principle of sufficient reason and how does it relate to a proof of God's existence

Reason in the case of anything that is true, there must be some cause, reason, or explanation of why it is true. Contingent truth: True but could've been false. Necessary truth: True, can't be false. 'The universe exists' is contingent, need cause. Cause of universe is necessary being. Ppl think necessary being that causes contingent universe is God. Principle of sufficient reason says universe has to be caused by necessary truth believed to be God.

Explain Thomson's solution to the trolley problem

Shift threat, ok to redirect threat from bigger to smaller group if threat stays the same, if does not violate important right

Explain Clifford's example of the ship owner

Ship owner has ship, ship has hole, ship going to sink but don't know when. If ship owner lets ship sail one more trip its wrong, regardless of whether if sinks or not. It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone to believe anything w/o sufficient evidence.

Explain Nagel's 'historical' account of misfortune

Some misfortunes can only be seen by comparing a persons present condition with their past condition.

Explain the 'grandfather paradox'

Someone go to past to kill grandfather. Possible to go to past but can't kill. Someone already exists, contradiction in order of history. Can't change anything, can only observe the past.

Explain the objection to physicalism which involves the idea that 'a man may know nothing about brain processes'

Someone says physicalism everything is true, someone can say no, tell experiences easy but cant give description of brain during those experiences. Hard to talk about brain. Easy to talk about sensations but can't talk about brain process, must be two diff things.

Explain the concept of a nomological dangler

Something that has not been explained by science. Left unexplained by physical science.

Explain what it means for one proposition to entail another

The 1st is true, 2nd must also be true. If prof, entails prof went to college.

Explain Gaunilo's example of the 'lost island'

The greatest conceivable island: Island has priceless riches, no owner or inhabitant, superior to any other island. Cant doubt that this island didn't exist in mind and reality, if it didn't exist in reality than any other island that exists is better than this island.

Explain Turing's views on whether machines can think

The only way to determine that any being has consciousness is by absorbing its behavior

Explain Turing's response to the idea that a machine unlike a human can only do what it has been programmed to do

There is no reason to think that machines will not be able to do these things eventually, disabilities irrelevant to consciousness

Explain O'neill's account of what it is to treat someone as a mere means

To use someone as a mere means is to involve them in a scheme of action to which they could not consent. Involve them in an action that they would not consent to if they had known full information. One person makes a promise with full intentions of breaking it.

Explain a basic criticism of utilitarianism other then 'theory fit for swine'

Too demanding: no liberty to concern the happiness of loved ones. No action is completely forbidden in principle.

Describe an action that is morally obligatory according to one ethical theory and morally impermissible according to another

Transplant case. Kant: Wrong. Utilitarian: Say ok, must do it.

Explain Thomson's discussion of the fat man on the bridge

Trolley to 5 ppl, me and 1 fat man, save 5 by push fat man off bridge. Push fat man violates important right.

Why does Kant say that only a good will is good in itself

You act with a good will when you act from the motive of duty to uphold the moral law. Only an action done from the motive of duty has moral worth. An action done from the motive of inclination has no moral worth.