physical geo exam 1

LIDAR

(light and radar), which uses pulses of visible light; units can be mounted in aircraft and on cars; can differentiate between the first pulses returned, usually off the highest vegetation, and later returns, which are usually from the actual ground surface. This capability allows scientists to measure tree canopy heights or to virtually strip away vegetation to create a three-dimensional model of the surface

**dont forget clicker reviews, modules**

**dont forget clicker reviews, modules**

**dont forget to watch the videos on slides + chapter**

**dont forget to watch the videos on slides + chapter**

**geolab, visual, and explore section*

**geolab, visual and explore section**

**read preface**

**read preface**

meridian

A line connecting all points along the same longitude

parallel

A line of latitude

large scale, more detail can be visible about the land if it is large scale; also a county is not a very large area to map so it does not need to be small scale anyway equal shape; all local angles measured from a point are correct and all local shapes are true. You should use a conformal projection when the map's main purpose involves measuring angles, showing accurate local directions, or representing the shapes of features or contour lines.

As a cartographer, you are asked to produce a highly accurate topographic map of the county where you live. Would you choose a large-scale or small-scale for the map? An equal area or true shape projection? Explain your answer.

feedback loops (positive and negative)

As a system operates, it often generates outputs that influence its own operations. These outputs function as "information" that returns to various points in the system via pathways called

yes; natural world has a necessary impact on us and we have a necessary impact on it; depend on each other and impact each other day to day

Based on the examples above, would you say that humans should be considered part of the natural world? Explain your answer.

map projection

By manipulating the grid coordinate system that is common to both globes and flat maps, ___ enables cartographers to transfer data about points and lines on a globe accurately to a flat surface

a hypothesis—a tentative explanation for the phenomena observed. Scientists test hypotheses using experimental studies in laboratories or natural settings If the results support the hypothesis, repeated testing and verification may lead to a new theory. A scientific theory is a widely accepted explanation for a phenomenon that is based on evidence and experimentation and has withstood the scrutiny of the scientific community.

Compare and contrast a hypothesis and a scientific theory.

- Sphere is a smooth figure whereas Geoid undulates. At some points, Geoid is above the spheroid whereas, at other points, it is below it. The irregular shape of Earth's surface, coinciding with mean sea level and perpendicular to the direction of gravity. Places where gravitational forces are stronger — and the Mean Sea Level higher — indicate more mass beneath the surface. - both are at least roughly circular **

Compare the geoid with a hypothetical Earth-like planet of the same size that is a perfect sphere. How are they similar? How are they different?

Cartography is the science and art of mapmaking, often blending geography, mathematics, computer science, and art. The ratio of the size of a map to that area in the real world is the map's scale. The conversion of a representation of the spherical Earth to a flat map is a map projection. All projections create distortion in size or shape or both.

Define cartography and mapping basics: map scale and map projections.

desk top pics

Define latitude and parallel and define longitude and meridian using a simple sketch with labels.

- GPS uses radio signals from satellites to accurately determine location anywhere on or near the surface of Earth. - Remote sensing refers to obtaining information about objects without physically touching them. Passive remote-sensing systems record energy radiated from a surface, especially visible light and infrared energy. Active remote sensing directs energy at a surface and analyzes the energy returned from the surface. LIDAR (light and radar), is an active remote-sensing technology that uses pulses of visible light, rather than radio waves to create a three-dimensional model. Remote sensing uses satellites, aircraft, and other sensors to provide visual data that enhances our understanding of Earth. - A GIS is a computer-based data-processing tool that combines spatial data with attribute data. A GIS program and a database work together to ask spatial analysis questions, often across several layers of data. GIS is a means for storing and analyzing large amounts of spatial data as separate layers of geographic information. - Geovisualization refers to the display of geographic information, often remote-sensing data combined with other data. Google Maps and Google Earth are two examples of geovisualization programs with which you might be familiar. Geovisualization programs often have limited GIS abilities, such as the ability to search for locations and add data layers. Many geovisualization programs allow users to upload their own data sets to combine with other user-generated data and the built-in data from the program

Describe modern geographic tools — the Global Positioning System (GPS), remote sensing, and geographic information systems (GIS)./Explain how geographers use the Global Positioning System, remote sensing, geographic information systems, and geovisualizations.

- Systems analysis techniques in science began with studies of energy and temperature (thermodynamics) in the 19th century. Today, systems methodology is an important analytical tool OPEN: - Open systems are not self-contained in that inputs of energy and matter flow into the system and outputs of energy and matter flow from the system. - Earth is an open system in terms of energy, because solar energy enters freely and heat energy returns back into space. - Free-flowing rivers are open systems where inputs of solar energy, precipitation, and soil particles lead to outputs of water and sediments to the ocean. - A forest is another example of an open system. The input of solar energy allows trees to absorb and then store sunlight as plant materials. Forests then output oxygen that plants and animals require to survive. CLOSED: - a closed system is self-contained and shut off from the surrounding environment. - Although rare in nature, Earth itself is a closed system in terms of physical matter and resources—air, water, and natural resources. The only exceptions are the slow escape of lightweight gases from the atmosphere into space and the input of tiny meteors and cosmic dust

Describe systems analysis, open and closed systems.

A globe is a small-scale, three-dimensional representation of Earth. Globes can provide an accurate representation of area and shape on Earth. However, if you wanted to go hiking or explore a new city, you need more information than a globe can provide. To provide more detail, cartographers make large-scale maps, which are two- dimensional representations of Earth. Distortions occur with map projection.

Describe the differences between the characteristics of a globe and those of a flat map./What are the advantages of a globe over a map? Of a map over a globe?

PERSPECTIVES: - emphasis on spatial and locational analysis - concern with human environment-interactions (discussed below) - adoption of an Earth systems perspective to analyze how the physical, biological, and human components of those systems are interconnected **know how to describe these** PHYS/HUM: - physical geography, which draws on the physical and life sciences, and human geography, which draws on the social and cultural sciences - The growing complexity of the human-Earth relationship in the 21st century is shifting the study of geographic processes even farther toward the synthesis of physical and human geography. Within physical geography, research now emphasizes human influences on natural systems ** PIC ON DESKTOP**

Describe the main perspectives of geography and distinguish physical geography from human geography./Explain the two main subfields in geographical science.

**girl im too lazy to answer this just know it**

Describe the relationship between Earth spheres and the content organization in Geosystems Core.

spatial data (where is it? what is its latitude/longitude? is it a point? a line? a polygon?) attribute data (what is it?)

Describe the two types of information that a GIS combines.

**girl idk figure this out**

Determine your longitude using an online map or an atlas. How many degrees are you away from a time zone central meridian (75°, 90°, 105°, 120°, 135°)? Given that Earth rotates through 1° in 4 minutes, how many minutes apart are the Sun and your watch?

- Scientists who study the environment begin with clues they see in nature, followed by an exploration of the published scientific literature on their topic. - Scientists then use questions and observations to form a hypothesis—a tentative explanation for the phenomena observed. - Scientists test hypotheses using experimental studies in laboratories or natural settings. - If the results support the hypothesis, repeated testing and verification may lead to a new theory. A scientific theory is a widely accepted explanation for a phenomenon that is based on evidence and experimentation and has withstood the scrutiny of the scientific community. - Reporting research results in journals and books is also part of the scientific method. **DESKTOP PICS**

Discuss the use of scientific methods in geography.

desktop pic

Draw a simple sketch describing Earth's shape and size.

- Geographers use pairs of numbers, or "coordinates," to locate specific points on the grid. Eratosthenes created the first world map with a rectangular grid to locate places around 200 BCE. The use of a geographic grid made it possible to accurately measure distances between locations. The terms latitude and longitude were used on maps in the first century CE to refer to distances measured in relation to standard lines on the grid. These distances are measured in degrees—units based on the division of a perfect circle into 360 equal parts - latitude: The angular distance in degrees north or south of the equator, measured from the center of Earth is latitude. (The equator is the line that divides the spherical Earth into northern and southern hemispheres). Lines of latitude run east-west, parallel to the equator. Latitude increases from the equator at 0° latitude, to the poles, at 90° north and south. **parallels** - latitudinal geographic zones used by geographers: equatorial and tropical, subtropical, midlatitude, subarctic or subantarctic, and arctic or antarctic. - longitude: The angular distance east or west of a point on Earth's surface, measured from the center of Earth is longitude. On a map or globe, the lines designating these angles of longitude run north and south. These meridians run at right angles (90°) to all parallels. Because meridians of longitude converge at the poles, the length on the ground of 1° of longitude is greatest at the equator and shrinks to zero at the poles. Longitude increases east and west from 0° at the prime meridian to 180°. **meridians**

Explain Earth's reference grid, including latitude and longitude and latitudinal geographic zones. (1.4)

- Earth's equatorial circumference is 40,075 km (24,902 mi), while its polar circumference is 40,008 km (24,860 mi). - Latitude is the angular distance north or south of the equator. Lines of latitude are called parallels and run east-west. - Longitude is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian. Lines of longitude are called meridians, and they converge at the poles. - The prime meridian is the basis for our system of global time. - There are 24 time zones, each 15° wide, but they are distorted by political boundaries. - On the opposite side of the planet from the prime meridian is the International Date Line, which marks the place where each day officially begins. No matter what the time of day when the line is crossed, the calendar changes a day. - Seventy countries use daylight saving time, setting clocks 1 hour ahead in the spring and 1 hour behind in the fall.

Explain Earth's reference grid: latitude and longitude and latitudinal geographic zones and time.

- GPS receivers are built into many smartphones and motor vehicles. The GPS is useful for many commercial and scientific applications. GPS receivers have been attached to sharks and whales to track them in real time to study their migration patterns. Airlines and shipping companies use GPS to track their vehicles, improving fuel efficiency and on-time performance. - (remote sensing) During the last 50 years, satellite imagery has transformed Earth observation. Today, you have free access to high-quality remote-sensing imagery, through services such as Google Maps, that in the past would have been unavailable, extremely expensive, or restricted to government intelligence services. - (passive) Beginning in the 1970s, the Landsat series of satellites began recording images of Earth with sensors that captured visible light, as well as other wavelengths useful in studying agriculture, forestry, geology, regional planning, mapping, and global change research. Scientists can observe different phenomena with sensors that detect different wavelengths of energy. This allows them to compare healthy vegetation and distressed vegetation or a find outcroppings of a particular rock formation. - (active) Taking pictures with a flash in a darkened room is an example of active remote sensing. Another example is sonar, which has been used to map the ocean floor. A sonar unit emits bursts of sound and measures their return. Another technology is LIDAR (light and radar), which uses pulses of visible light. LIDAR units can be mounted in aircraft and on cars. LIDAR can differentiate between the first pulses returned, usually off the highest vegetation, and later returns, which are usually from the actual ground surface. This capability allows scientists to measure tree canopy heights or to virtually strip away vegetation to create a three-dimensional model of the surface (Fig. I.29). Archaeologists have used LIDAR to discover several "lost" ancient cities in Central America. Detailed three-dimensional, LIDAR models of modern cities already exist, and LIDAR models of roads will be critical in the development of self-driving cars - Figures I.32 and I.33 show examples of GIS analysis used to predict natural hazards and map epidemics. Techniques such as remote sensing generate large volumes of spatial data to be stored, processed, and analyzed in useful ways. A powerful tool for manipulating and analyzing this spatial data

Explain how these tools are used in geographic analysis.

As a system operates, information is returned to various points in the operational process via pathways of feedback loops. NEG: - If the feedback information discourages change in the system, it is negative feedback. - Negative feedback loops are common in nature. For example, when a thriving forest sinks roots deep into the soil, the amount of erosion will decrease as the vegetation absorbs increasing amounts of water, leaving less water to transport soil particles downslope. POS: - If feedback information encourages change in the system, it is positive feedback. - Global climate change creates an example of positive feedback as summer sea ice melts in the Arctic. As arctic temperatures rise, summer sea ice and glacial melting accelerate. This causes light-colored snow and sea-ice surfaces, which reflect sunlight and so remain cooler, to be replaced by darker-colored open ocean surfaces, which absorb sunlight and become warmer. As a result, the ocean absorbs more solar energy, which raises the temperature, which in turn melts more ice, and so forth. This is a positive feedback loop, further enhancing the effects of higher temperatures and warming trends.

Explain the difference between positive and negative feedback information. Describe examples of "feedback" loops in nature.

(from geo, "Earth," and graphein, "to write") ??

Explain the origin of the term geography.

- A ratio scale, or representative fraction, can be expressed with either a colon (for a ratio) or a slash (for a fraction), as in 1:24,000 or 1/24,000. No actual units of measurement are mentioned because both parts of the fraction are in the same unit: 1 cm to 24,000 cm or 1 in. to 24,000 in. - A graphic scale, or bar scale, is a graphic with units to allow measurement of distances on the map. An advantage of a graphic scale is that if the map is enlarged or reduced, the scale is enlarged or reduced by the same amount, unlike written and fractional scales that become incorrect when map size changes. - A written scale usually has differing, but common, units such as 1 inch equals 1 mile. For example, the ratio scale 1:24,000 conveniently converts to "1 inch equals 2000 feet" when expressed as a written scale (by dividing 24,000 by 12 in./ft).

Explain the three different ways of expressing map scale.

graphic scale bc u can zoom in/out and the scale will adjust w it (explain better)

For viewing maps on a smartphone, which type of map scale would be most helpful? Explain.

- physical maps: Physical geographers often create physical maps that show information about a physical theme such as elevation or temperature. Physical maps often use isolines, which are lines that represent a given value: Contour lines show elevation, isotherms show temperature, isobars show air pressure - topographic maps: physical maps that can give us a sense of the terrain, or the lay of the land. They use different colors to represent different features, blue for water, black for human-made objects, green for vegetation, brown for contour lines. A contour line connects all points at the same elevation. Contour lines show the slope of the land as well as elevation: widely spaced contour lines indicate gentle slopes, and closely spaced contour lines indicate steep slopes. You can also use contour lines to calculate relief, which is the difference in elevation between two locations. Figure i.24 uses shaded relief, an artistic technique of simulated shadows that conveys a sense of what the landscape looks like. - physical maps are *geologic maps*, which show rock formations and faults (Fig. I.26); *weather maps*, which show present or future forecasts of weather; and *climate maps*, which show long term averages of different weather elements such as temperature or rainfal

Give examples of the different kinds of maps and how each is used

EVENTS: - Every day, natural disasters and the effects of ordinary human activities, such as building a dam or using fossil fuels as an energy source, can raise questions to which geographers seek the answers - flowers blooming in chilean desert - earthquakes in cali, in nepal - dam removal in washington PROCESSES: - ranging from weather and climate to earthquakes and volcanoes QUESTIONS - Will climate change bring more frequent blooms in the future? - Why do earthquakes occur in particular locations across the globe? - Why do earthquakes of similar magnitude and duration result in thousands of human casualties in one place, but almost none in another place? - How do dams change river environments? Can rivers be restored after dam removal? - Why are monster storms becoming more common, and how do they threaten human life and property? - Why does the environment vary from equator to midlatitudes and between tropical and polar regions? - What produces the patterns of wind, weather, and ocean currents? - How does solar energy influence the distribution of trees, soils, climates, and human populations?

Give examples of the kinds of events, processes, and questions that physical geography investigates.

today, as in the past, maps delineate empires, guide explorers, and inspire travelers to go beyond the next horizon

How do humans use maps to change the world?

- maps are older than photographs - maps appear in media and textbooks everywhere, but few appreciate their vital and dynamic applications

How do maps impact human understanding?

- Three of these are abiotic (nonliving)—the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. The fourth is the biotic (living) biosphere. - no; without the biosphere we would not exist, nor would our food sources or a general way of life; without the hydrosphere we would have no water which is what keeps life alive; without the atmosphere, we would have no protection from space and ultraviolet, harmful rays, plus it would be too cold with no heat regulation; without the lithosphere provide us forests, grasslands for grazing land for agriculture and human settlements and also rich source of minerals. The lithosphere contains different types of rocks such as the igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, it helps to provide the necessary nutrients required to plants

Identify a major difference between the four large systems, or spheres, that comprise Earth. Would life on Earth be possible if one of these four spheres did not exist? Explain your answer.

Open systems are not self-contained in that inputs of energy and matter flow into the system and outputs of energy and matter flow from the system. A closed system is self-contained and shut off from the surrounding environment.

Identify the main difference between an open system and a closed system.

- it transforms the system to a new operational level, bringing new functions to the system and monumentally changing it - A large flood in a river system may push the river channel to a threshold where it abruptly shifts, carving a new channel. - Plant and animal communities also reach thresholds. For example, scientists identify climate change as one factor triggering a sudden decline in aspen trees in the southern Rocky Mountains.

Identify the role a "threshold" plays in an environmental system.

a) subtropical b) subarctic c) equatorial and tropical

Identify the various latitudinal geography zones that roughly subdivide Earth's surface. In which zones are a) Los Angeles, b) Moscow, and c) Quito?

positive feedback

If feedback information encourages change in the system; Global climate change creates an example of as summer sea ice melts in the Arctic.

negative feedback

If the feedback information discourages change in the system; common in nature

GIS would give me a detailed example of the land and all that the land is worth. Meaning it would show me all the different layers from the topographic base, the floodplains and the soils (also including much more detailed information). GIS is defined as a computer based, data processing tool for gathering, manipulating and analyzing geographic information. It alloys direct surveys to be made which would greatly help in the makings of a large developmental plan. Planning and zoning might be affected lands in floodplains and agricultural land because they are always changing properties that could be washed away/flooded during a flood.

If you were planning the development of a large tract of land, how would a GIS help you? How might planning and zoning be affected if a portion of the tract in the GIS was a floodplain or prime agricultural land?

- make observations of the water in the great lakes (possibly using tech), ask questions about how it came to be that way or how it spatially relates to other lakes/how it could spread, test hypothesis using tech and knowledge, results, peer review, theory - Geographers for example can describe the lake elevations, flows, volumes and annual mixing patterns as temperatures change seasonally. They can locate population centers and point sources of pollution using population concentrations estimate non-point sources of pollution. They can map published data of water chemical analyses. They can use a Geographic Information System (GIS) model develop a composite overlay of all the above elements.

In general terms, using the scientific method as a guide, how might a physical geographer analyze water pollution in the Great Lakes?

**girl just know how to do this, look in the ch**

Interpret a map of Earth's time zones. (1.4)

both ART: - Architects, toy designers, and mapmakers all represent real things and places with models that are smaller than the thing they represent. Examples include the floorplan of a building; a diagram of a toy car, train, or plane; or a map. - artistic ability to draw and represent, diff map designs (globe, large scale, small scale, etc.) SCIENCE: - To control distortion on a flat map, cartographers use a map projection. By manipulating the grid coordinate system that is common to both globes and flat maps, a map projection enables cartographers to transfer data about points and lines on a globe accurately to a flat surface. - Modern cartography uses mathematical formulas to generate the many different kinds of map projections. Some are better at showing shape accurately, while others are better for showing area accurately. Cartographers must decide which characteristic to preserve, which to distort, and how much distortion is acceptable. - scientific ability to analyze the world around and meet all the requirements of a good, analytical map

Is cartography an art or a science? Explain your answer.

- The abiotic spheres are the atmosphere (Chapters 1-3), hydrosphere (Chapters 4-7), and lithosphere (Chapters 8-12). - The biosphere is the lone biotic sphere, where all living matter on Earth is found.

List Earth's four spheres and classify them as biotic or abiotic.

title—gives the subject of the map and may also include information about who made the map, the source of map data, and the date when the map was produced north arrow—tells the reader which direction is north on the map symbols—represent features on the map using lines, patterns, areas of color, icons, and other graphic elements legend—tells the map reader what each symbol means map scale—states the mathematical relationship between the size of the map and the size of the portion of Earth the map represents (discussed below) map projection—enables showing the round Earth as a flat map (discussed below)

List the basic elements of a map.

prime meridian

Longitude is the name of the angle, meridian names the line, and both indicate distance in degrees east or west of ___, designated as 0°; Earth's ___—also called the Greenwich meridian—passes through the old Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, as set by an 1884 treaty

- explains the spatial dimension of Earth's dynamic systems—its energy, air, water, weather, climate, tectonics, landforms, rocks, soils, ecosystems, and biomes - investigates how humans interact with Earth systems. - The discipline's spatial perspective, allows geographers to examine processes and events happening at specific locations and to follow their effects across the globe. - involves the study of Earth's environments, including the landscapes, seascapes, atmosphere, and ecosystems on which humans depend. - asks where and why questions about processes and events that occur at specific locations and then follow their effects across the globe - Geography combines disciplines from the physical and life sciences with disciplines from the human and cultural sciences to attain a holistic view of Earth. - The analysis of process—a set of actions or mechanisms that operate in some special order—is also central to geographic understanding. - The science of physical geography is uniquely qualified to synthesize the spatial, environmental, and human aspects of our increasingly complex relationship with our home planet—Earth.

On the basis of information in this chapter, define physical geography and review the approach that characterizes the geographic sciences./What does the study of physical geography involve?

International Date Line

On the opposite side of the planet from the prime meridian is _____, which marks the line where one day officially changes to another.

scient method pic 2

Sketch a flow diagram of the scientific process and method, beginning with observations and ending the development of a theory.

Centuries ago, cartographers actually projected the shadow of a wire frame globe onto a geometric surface, such as a cylinder, plane, or cone. The wires represented parallels, meridians, and the outlines of continents. Modern cartography uses mathematical formulas to generate the many different kinds of map projections. Some are better at showing shape accurately, while others are better for showing area accurately. Cartographers must decide which characteristic to preserve, which to distort, and how much distortion is acceptable. if you wanted to go hiking or explore a new city, you need more information than a globe can provide. To provide more detail, cartographers make large-scale maps, which are two- dimensional representations of Earth.

Summarize how and why map projections were developed and how they are used in cartography.

- human denominator; Just as the denominator in a fraction tells how many parts a whole is divided into, the growing human population and its increasing demand for resources and rising planetary impact suggest the stresses on the whole Earth system that supports us. - Yet Earth's resource base—the numerator in this fraction—remains relatively fixed. - necessary to achieve sustainability for both human and Earth systems **(sustainability here is important)** - Many key issues for this century fall beneath the umbrella of geographic science, such as global food supply, energy demands, climate change, biodiversity loss, and air and water pollution. - The United States and Canada, with about 5% of the world's population, produce about 25% of the world's gross domestic product. These two countries use more than 2 times the energy per capita of Europeans, more than 7 times that of Latin Americans, 10 times that of Asians, and 20 times that of Africans. Therefore, the impact of this 5% on the Earth systems and natural resources is enormous. **use this to answer second question**

Summarize how human activities and population growth impact the environment. Identify how much more—or less—energy you might use living in Latin America, Asia, or Africa.

Humans have known that Earth is round since the first ship sailed over the horizon and viewers on shore saw the top sails disappear last. Our scientific understanding of Earth's size and shape began slowly, but has grown rapidly over the past 300 years. Over 2000 years ago, the Greek mathematician Pythagoras (ca. 580-500 BCE) determined that Earth is round, or spherical. Eratosthenes (ca. 276 BC -194 BCE) calculated the circumference of Earth in 247 BCE by comparing the angle of the Sun at noon at two different locations (Fig. I.12). By the first century CE, educated people generally accepted the idea of a spherical Earth. In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton reasoned that Earth's rapid rotation produced an equatorial bulge as centrifugal force pulled Earth's surface outward. As a result, Earth's equatorial circumference is 67 km (42 mi) greater than its polar circumference. Earth is indeed slightly misshapen into an oblate spheroid (oblate means "flattened"), with the flatness occurring at the poles. Today, satellite observations have confirmed with tremendous precision Earth's equatorial bulge and polar "flatness." The irregular shape of Earth's surface, coinciding with mean sea level and perpendicular to the direction of gravity, is called the geoid. Figure I.13 shows Earth's polar and equatorial circumferences and diameters.

Summarize progress in geographical knowledge about Earth's size and shape. (1.4)

longitude

The angular distance east or west of a point on Earth's surface, measured from the center of Earth

latitude

The angular distance in degrees north or south of the equator, measured from the center of Earth

geoid

The irregular shape of Earth's surface, coinciding with mean sea level and perpendicular to the direction of gravity, is called

scale

The ratio of the size of a map to that area in the real world

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Using radio signals from a global network of satellites, ___ accurately determines location anywhere on or near the surface of Earth

Longitude is the name of the angle, meridian names the line, and both indicate distance in degrees east or west of the prime meridian, designated as 0°. Because meridians of longitude converge at the poles, the length on the ground of 1° of longitude is greatest at the equator and shrinks to zero at the poles. Longitude increases east and west from 0° at the prime meridian to 180°. Earth's prime meridian—also called the Greenwich meridian—passes through the old Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, as set by an 1884 treaty. On the opposite side of the planet from the prime meridian is the International Date Line, which marks the line where one day officially changes to another. The International Date Line does not completely coincide with the 180th meridian, but jogs east or west to avoid dividing countries. If you travel west across the International Date Line, you would immediately gain a day, and if you travel east you immediately lose a day. From this line, the new day moves westward as Earth turns eastward on its axis. At the International Date Line, the west side of the line is always 1 day ahead of the east side of the line.

What and where is the prime meridian? How was the location originally selected? Describe the meridian that is opposite the prime meridian on Earth's surface.

- mapping of natural and human phenomena such as earthquakes, flooding, food insecurity, and terrorist movements will play an important role in how governments respond to each event present - rapidly evolving technological advances in geovisualization, GPS, GIS and cartography will make geospatial science an essential tool for monitoring and analyzing human-environmental change in the 21st century

What are some issues of the 21st century regarding maps and geographic technology?

physical and political

What are the two main types of maps?

Using radio signals from a global network of satellites, the Global Positioning System (GPS) accurately determines location anywhere on or near the surface of Earth. A GPS receiver receives radio signals from the satellites and calculates the distance between the receiver and each satellite. By using signals from at least four satellites, precise locations are possible (Fig. I.27). GPS units also report the time, accurate to 100 billionths of a second, which is used to synchronize communications systems, electrical power grids, and financial networks. GPS receivers use a method called trilateration to determine the users position. Essentially, by listening to the information transmitted from GPS satellites, the receiver unit first figures out the position of the satellites. Next, the receiver roughly figures out the time it takes for the signal from each satellite tracked to reach the receiver. The time taken for signal to reach receiver when scaled by speed of light provides a rough geometric distance between satellite-receiver. If you have at least 4 distances to 4 satellites (whose position is known to the receiver), trilateration can be used to estimate the 3D position of receiver unit. This position however originally corresponds to a mathematical model representation of the Earth surface which closely conforms to the mean sea level. Receivers have built in transformation parameters to then convert the 3D position estimate to other datums/models.

What is a GPS and how does it assist you in finding location and elevation on Earth?

The ratio of the size of a map to that area in the real world is the map's scale. Scale is represented as a representative fraction, a graphic scale, or a written scale. - Graphic scales are used when the map may be enlarged or reduced in size. - ratio scale, or representative fraction, can be expressed with either a colon (for a ratio) or a slash (for a fraction), as in 1:24,000 or 1/24,000. No actual units of measurement are mentioned because both parts of the fraction are in the same unit: 1 cm to 24,000 cm or 1 in. to 24,000 in. - A written scale usually has differing, but common, units such as 1 inch equals 1 mile. For example, the ratio scale 1:24,000 conveniently converts to "1 inch equals 2000 feet" when expressed as a written scale

What is map scale? What are three ways it can be shown on a map?

Technological systems of remote sensing obtain information about objects without physically touching them. We do remote sensing with our eyes as we scan the environment, sensing the shape, size, and color of objects from a distance. Taking a picture with your phone is another example of remote sensing. Geographers use images captured by satellites and airborne sensors. you are viewing remotely sensed imagery, or radiation that has been absorbed and is being reflected toward our eyes again. we are using remote sensing viewing this reflected radiation**?

What is remote sensing? What are you viewing when you observe a weather satellite image on TV or in the newspaper? Explain.

The past decade experienced the highest air temperatures over land and water in the instrumental record. In response, the extent of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean continues to decline to record lows. At the same time, melting of the Greenland and Antarctica Ice Sheets is accelerating and sea level is rising. Elsewhere, intense weather events, drought, and flooding continue to increase

What is some of the evidence for climate change that scientists have observed?

26%

What percent of the world population is under 25 years of age?

- subtropical - Because meridians of longitude converge at the poles, the length on the ground of 1° of longitude is greatest at the equator and shrinks to zero at the poles.

Which latitudinal zone do you live in? Why aren't lines of longitude parallel?

large-scale

Which map has more detail, a large-scale or small-scale map?

- salmon fishing - sustainability refers to the ability to continue a defined activity over the long term in a way that prevents or minimizes adverse impacts on the environment - gold mining isnt sustainable bc there's a limited supply of gold so it cant continue long term, fossil fuels isnt sustainable bc there's a limited supply and it harms the environment so cant continue long term and doesnt minimize adverse impacts, and wheat farming could continue long term but it does not minimize adverse impacts as farming techniques, chemicals, and pesticides used harm the soil and atmosphere - salmon fishing can continue for the long term as there are many salmon and the population keeps increasing, also sustainable fishing has been on the rise

Which of the following economic activities—gold mining, salmon fishing, burning fossil fuels, and wheat farming—is sustainable? Explain your answer.

Goode's homolosine projection it is an interrupted equal-area projection and is excellent for mapping features when breaks in the map over oceans or continents is not a problem. Goode's homolosine projection is used in Geosystems Core for the world climate map in Chapter 6 (Fig. 6.), the world soil orders map (Fig. 14.8), and the terrestrial biomes mapphysical and political

Which projection described above would be best for comparing the amounts of rain forest in Latin America, Africa, and Southeast Asia? Explain.

In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton reasoned that Earth's rapid rotation produced an equatorial bulge as centrifugal force pulled Earth's surface outward. As a result, Earth's equatorial circumference is 67 km (42 mi) greater than its polar circumference. Earth is indeed slightly misshapen into an oblate spheroid (oblate means "flattened"), with the flatness occurring at the poles.

Why is Earth's equatorial circumference larger than its polar circumference?

- reference point - All longitudes are of same importance but with the help of prime meridian(0°longitude) we can navigate whether we are going east or west. You may say prime meridian is the boundary line of East and West on the earth. - It is also helpful in determining time zone . As we go in eastward direction from prime meridian the time increases by 4 minute per degree of longitude and it decreases by 4 minute per degree of longitude if we go west of the prime meridian. - A worldwide time system is necessary to coordinate international trade, airline schedules, and daily life.

Why is it important to have a standard prime meridian?

map

a generalized view of an area, as seen from above and reduced in size; usually represents a specific characteristic of a place or area, such as rainfall, airline routes, physical features such as mountains and rivers, or political features such as state boundaries and place names

process

a set of actions that operate in some special order, is also a central concept of geographic analysis

dynamic equilibrium

a steady-state system may demonstrate a changing trend over time, a condition known as

spatial analysis

a tool to explain distributions and movement across Earth and how these processes interact with human activities

scientific theory

a widely accepted explanation for a phenomenon that is based on evidence and experimentation and has withstood the scrutiny of the scientific community

system

any set of ordered, interrelated components and their attributes, linked by flows of energy and matter, as distinct from the surrounding environment outside

Mercator projection

commonly used true-shape projection; Gerardus Mercator developed the projection in 1569 to simplify navigation; these maps present a false view of the size of midlatitude and high-latitude regions

biotic

living systems

[steady-state] equilibrium

maintain structure and character over time; A system that remains balanced over time, in which conditions are constant or recur; When the rates of inputs and outputs in the system are equal and the amounts of energy and matter in storage within the system are constant (or when they fluctuate around a stable average), the system is in...

abiotic

nonliving systems

open system

not self-contained in that inputs of energy and matter flow into the system and outputs of energy and matter flow from the system; Earth is this in terms of energy, because solar energy enters freely and heat energy returns back into space

remote sensing

obtain information about objects without physically touching them

threshold

or tipping point, where it can no longer maintain its character, so it lurches to a new operational level

topographic maps

physical maps that can give us a sense of the terrain, or the lay of the land; They use different colors to represent different features, blue for water, black for human-made objects, green for vegetation, brown for contour lines

geographic information system (GIS)

powerful tool for manipulating spatial data; a computer-based data-processing tool that combines spatial data (where is it? what is its latitude/longitude? is it a point? a line? a polygon?) with attribute data (what is it?); spatial data can be organized in layers containing different kinds of data

true shape

projection (also called a conformal projection) can correctly represent the shapes of geographic features such as coastlines and islands, but the sizes of those features can be greatly distorted

equal area

projections so that areas are correct on the map regardless of their latitude and longitude; For example, areas measuring 10° of latitude by 10° of longitude are equal whether they are near the equator or near the poles, although the two areas differ greatly in shape

sustainability

refers to the ability to continue a defined activity over the long term in a way that prevents or minimizes adverse impacts on the environment

spatial

refers to the nature and character of physical space, its measurement, and the distribution of things within it

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)

replaced GMT as the legal reference for official time in all countries in 1972

geography

studies the relationships among natural environments, geographic areas, human society, and the interdependence of all of these across Earth.

closed system

system self-contained and shut off from the surrounding environment; rare in nature, Earth itself is this in terms of physical matter and resources—air, water, and natural resources, only exceptions are the slow escape of lightweight gases from the atmosphere into space and the input of tiny meteors and cosmic dust

relief

the difference in elevation between two locations.

cartography

the science and art of mapmaking, often blending geography, mathematics, computer science, and art

scientific method

the simple, organized steps leading toward concrete, objective conclusions about the natural world

physical geography

the spatial analysis of all the physical elements, processes, and systems that make up the environment: energy, air, water, weather, climate, landforms, soils, humans, animals, plants, microorganisms, and Earth itself

human denominator

the totality of human impact on Earth