Physio Lab Exam

What is the normal range of urine specific gravity at rest?

1.015 to 1.025

What are the functions of Glomerular Filtration?

100ml/min filtered through to create filtrate. A passive process in which hydrostatic pressure forces fluids and solutes through a non selective membrane. Forms Filtrate: Small molecules like water, glucose, amino acids and nitrogenous wastes pass through to form filtrate. Large molecules like formed elements and proteins cannot pass through.

How many squares are within one red blood cell counting square?

16 squares within one counting square.

A three molar solution contains how many molecules?

18.06 X 1023 molecules

Under normal circumstances, a Euhydrated person would have what urine flow rate?

1ml/min More fluid inside you will increase rate and less fluid will decrease rate.

What happens at the following fluid deficits? 2% 3% 4-6% 76%

2% Decrease Thermoregulate (can't maintain body temp) 3% Decrease Muscle Endurance 4-6% Decrease Muscle Endurance and Muscle Strength 76% Heat Cramps, Heat Exhaustion, Heat Stroke

A 2M solution of a compound that dissociates into two particles would be equal to how many OsM?

4 OsM

What is the normal range of Urine pH?

4.5 - 8

What is normal urine pH and average?

4.5 - 8 pH Average is 6

At what objective lens was used to observe one red blood cell counting square?

40x Objective lens, so that one RBC counting square will be visible.

What is the normal range of Blood pH?

7.35-7.45

What it normal plasma pH at rest?

7.35-7.45

What is the major molecule in the blood plasma?

90-92% H20. Water dissolves all the other plasma materials and provides a liquid medium in which blood cells can travel.

What are the functions of Tubular Reabsorption?

99ml/min is reabsorbed (99%) This is where we are selective and choose what to take back. -Proximal Convoluted Tubule 75% Reabsorbution happens and 100% of Glucose is Reabsorbed -Descending Limb of Loop of Henle H2O Reabsorbution (Passive) -Ascending Limb of Loop of Henle Na+ Reabsorbed (Passive + Active) -Distal Convoluted Tubule Na+ and H2O Reabsorbed or Secreted (Hormones Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), Aldosterone, and Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) regulate)

What generated a twitch summation and a muscle tetanus?

?????Twitch: contraction of a muscle fiber Summation: contraction of multiple motor units asynchronously, more MU=bigger contractions Tetanus: maximum contraction, total MU recruitment???

Explain 2 reasons for the difference in duration between maximum and sub-maximum contractions.

?????at max all MU are firing but at sub-max only some are—sub-max can switch off between MU's to allow resting period for the muscle fibers -depletion of APT, O2 and glycogen will run out more quickly ???? I'm not sure about that last part....

Glomerulus

A high pressure porous fenestrated capillary network and is responsible for filtration of plasma. Where filtration happens, non selective the only thing that matters is if it can fit through pores. RBC and Large Proteins cannot fit through pores, but sometimes proteins can if pressure builds from high content.

How does a higher H+ in the blood affect the pH of the blood and the pH of the urine?

A higher H+ in the blood results in a lower blood pH (Acidosis) -Tubular Secretion of H+ ions goes up -Tubular Reabsorbtion of Bicarbonate (HCO3) goes up This increases blood pH and decreases urine pH.

How does a lower H+ in the blood affect the pH of the blood and the pH of the urine?

A lower H+ in the blood results in a higher blood pH (Alkalosis) -Tubular Secretion of H+ ions goes down -Tubular Reabsorbtion of Bicarbonate (HCO3) goes down This decreases blood pH and increases urine pH.

Motor Unit

A neuron and all the muscle cells that it stimulates.

Define electromyogram (EMG)

A recording of electrical currents from the surface of the skin that results from muscle fibers producing action potentials during contraction.

Metabolic Breakdown of Glucose

About 1 Hour Glucose is broken down into CO2, H2O, and ATP

What causes higher [H+] in the blood and what is this called?

Acidosis (Lower pH) 1. High Protein Diet 2. High Fat Intake 3. Strenuous Exercise 4. Diarrhea 5. Hypoventilation 6. Hyperkalemia

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Pathway (RAAS) - What is it activated by?

Activated by all 3 together: Decrease in Plasma Osmolarity Decrease in Blood Volume Decrease in Blood Pressue

Steps in the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Pathway (RAAS)

Activated by all 3 together: Decrease in Plasma Osmolarity Decrease in Blood Volume Decrease in Blood Pressue 1.Signal Juxtaglomerular Cells (in the afferent arteriole) secrete Renin. 2. Renin will convert inactive Angiotensionogen in blood stream (previously secreted by Liver) to Angiotensin I 3. Angiotensin I will be converted by Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (A.C.E produced by lungs) to Angiontensin II 4. Angiotensin II constricts blood vessles, including at Afferent Arteriols and stimulates Adrenal Cortex to release Aldosterone

Aldosterone - Where is it synthesized and produced?

Adrenal Cortex

What is the driving force of filtration?

Afferent Renal Arteriole (larger diameter) enters the capillary system with holes in it, and on the other side you have the efferent arteriole (smaller diameter) causing a pressure buildup of Glomerular Hydrostatic pressure of ~55mmHg on Bowmans Capsule. At the back of the Bowmans Capsule, you will get a bottleneck effect backpush of Bowmans Capsule Hydrostatic Pressure of ~10mmHg At any point you will have more solutes inside the Arteriole so the gradient will be higher in the blood. This creates a Glomerular Osmotic Pressure towards the artery of ~25mmHg of mercury. This results in a net pressure of ~20mmHg mercury pressing towards Bowmans Capsule.

Name at least one type of plasma protein.

Albumin, Globulin, Fibrinogen

What causes lower [H+] in the blood and what is this called?

Alkalosis (High pH) 1. Low Protein Diet 2. Low Fat Diet 3. Hypokalamia 4. Vomiting 5. Hyperventalation

What causes high and low amount of RBC cell count, hemoglobin concentration, and hematocrit?

All Three Increase: Polycythismia Vera (Due to Hyperactivity of the Bone Marrow) Secondary Polycythsmia: illness related reasons for Hypoxia Relative Polycythsmia: Extereme Athelets / High Altitude Living Decrease: Anemia, Cirrhosis, Hemorrhage, Dietary Deficiency, Bone Marrow Failure, Renal Disease, Pregnancy, Vascular Diseases (Rheumatoid)

Hypertrophy

An increase in the size of muscles due to an increase in size of muscle fibers, result of use/exercise

What are the three hormones which adjust the reabsorption of Na+ and water along the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct?

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), Aldosterone, and Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

What are the characteristics of a skeletal muscle cell or muscle fiber?

Attach to skeleton and function in movement of skeleton. -Long -Cylindrical -Striated (Proteins Actin and Myosin) -Multinucleated -Voluntary Control

What is the receptor for Blood Pressure and where is it located?

Baroreceptors, located in the Aortic Arch and Carotid Sinuses. (When that aortic arch feels pressure a signal is sent)

Glycolytic Metabolism

Basically taking the Glucose, reducing it to pyruvate, and then going through the fermentation process (no Oxygen) which results in no attitional ATP. You get Lactic Acid and it resets all of the NAD NADH FAD so that you can continue to do the glycolysis part. Very low yield of energy per sugar molecule.

How do kidneys maintain the pH of the blood?

Bicarbonate Buffer System: Bicarbonate is Reabsorbed and H+ is Secreted Hide H+ions

Troponin

Binds to tropomyosin so that myosin can bind.

What is the blank (control) solution and its purpose in Hemoglobin Determination?

Blank Solution = Only Drabkin's Solution and is for reference and is used to calibrate the spectrotometer.

Why does filtration occur from the Glomerulus and not from the Bowman's Capsule?

Blood comes from the glomerulus into the bowmans capsule. Not the reverse. There is also overwhelmingly more pressure from hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure) coming from the Glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule, promoting filtration.

Be able to interpret the results of the urine analysis from the Labstix. Blood, Ketone, Glucose, Protein, pH.

Blood should be none -Presence can be cause by bladder/kidney infections or stones. Ketone should be none -Presence can be caused by diabetes mellitus Protein 0 to 8 mg/d pH 4.5 to 8 -Presence of consistently high levels can be caused by kidney disease and diabetes.

Know the formula to calculate the amount of fluid consumption based on your body weight.

Body Weight x 7 mls/lb x .8

Atrial Natriutetic Peptide - Where is it synthesized and secreted?

Cardiac Atrial Cells

Know the amount of cardiac output, renal blood flow, glomerular filtration rate, tubular reabsorption rate, tubular secretion, and urine flow rate for a 20 year old male, who weighs at 70kg (~154lb), at rest, sedentary, and euhydrated.

Cardiac Output: 5 L/min Renal Blood Flow: 1000 ml/min (1 L/min ~20% of C.O) Glomerular Filtration Rate: 100 ml/min Tubular Reabsorption Rate: 99 ml/min Tubular Secretion: Negligible Excretion/Urine Flow Rate: 1ml/min 99% of what is pushed through is reabsorbed. Only 1% makes it through renal system to bladder.

What physiological factors are related to muscle fatigue?

Central fatigue: neurons no longer stimulate contraction Muscle fatigue: muscle no longer capable of contraction due to: lack of O2, glycogen or ATP, excess of lactic acid; ion imbalances due to frequent AP's Creatine Phosphate is limited in our bodies, if we run out it you will undergo fatigue. Put more ATP in your will create more Creatine Photphate, but if you run out of the storage vesicles Creatine then you won't store it. One way you can undergo fatigue is by running out of creatine phosphate.

Medulla

Consists of renal pyramids separated by renal columns. The area deep to the cortex.

Renal Corpuscle

Consists of the Glomerulus and Bowmans Capsule

Thin Filaments

Contain Actin

Thick Filaments

Contain Myosin

Cortex

Contains many capillaries and outer parts of nephrons. Most superficial region of the kidney.

Know how to calculate red blood cell count. What is the unit?

Count the RBCs from five specific counting squares. Each square has a volume of 1/250 mm3 Take total number of RBCs counted in 5 sqaures Multiply by the Dilution Factor (200) Multiply by the Counting Square Volume Correction (250) Divide by 5mm3 =Result will be in cells/mm3 Example [500 cells x 200 x 250] / 5mm3 = 5,000,000 cells/mm3

Bowman's (Glomerular) Capsule

Cup shaped structure surrounding the glomerulus. To catch filtrate from Glomerulus. Part of the nephron system.

Are you reading the amount of hemoglobin or cyanmethemoglobin contained in the cuvette in Hemoglobin Determination?

Cyanmethemoglobin

What would happen to the volume of a red blood cell placed in an 0.9 Osm solution?

Decrease

Atrial Natriutetic Peptide - What are its Effects?

Decrease ADH Sythesis and Secretion Decrease Renin Secretion Decrease Aldosterone Secretion Increase Filtration (from increase in pressure)

Water Group T=30

Decrease in ADH and Increase in ANP Decrease in Plasma Osmolarity (Detected by Osmoreceptors in Hypothalamus) -Supra Optic Nuclei and Paraventricular Nuclei decrease Nerve Impulses to Posterior Pituitary Gland -Decrease ADH Increase in Blood Pressure (Detected by Baroreceptors in Aortic Arch and Carotid Sinus) -Increases impulses to the Medulla Oblongata -Decreases Impulses decreasing ADH Increase in Blood Volume (Detected by Volume Receptor in Atrium) -Increase ANP decreasing ADH and Aldosterone --Increasing excretion H2O and Na+ All decrease ADH -Decrease Aquaporin 2 channels --Decrease Water Reabsorbtion Increase in Urine Flow Rate Decrease in Urine Specific Gravity -Increase in Plasma Osmolarity -Decrease in Blood Volume -Decrease in Blood Pressure

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide - What are its Results?

Decrease in H2O Reabsorbtion Increase in H2O Secretion Decrease in Na+ Reabsorbtion Increase in Na+ Excretion Increase in H2O Excretion All Result in: Increase in Urine Flow Rate Decrease in Urine Specific Density

Aldosterone - When is it stimulated?

Decrease in Plasma Osmolarity Decrease in Blood Pressure Decrease in Blood Volume

Anti Diuretic Hormone - What are its results?

Decrease in Plasma Osmolarity Increase in Blood Pressure Increase in Blood Volume Decrease in Urine Flow Rate Increase in Urine Specific Density

Atrial Natruretic Peptide

Decreases ADH, Renin, and Aldosterone, and Increases pressure so Filtration resulting in a decrease of H2O and Na+ Reabsorbtion and increase in H2O and Na+ Excretion causing a increase urine flow and decrease in urine specific density.

Would this change the person's RBC count, hemoglobin concentration, and hematocrit? Why?

Dehydrated = Low H2O so all concentrations up. Higher RBC Count, Hemoglobin Concentration, and Hematocrit. Overhydrated = High H2O so all concentrations down. Lower RBC Count, Hemoglobin Concentration, and Hematocrit.

Afferent Arteriole

Delivers blood to the glomerulus. Extends from the interlobular artery.

Efferent Arteriole

Delivers what is left after glomerular filtration to the peritubular capillaries that surround the distal and proximal convoluted tubules, still an artery. Contains oxygenated blood.

Tonicity

Descries the effect of a solution (ex. internal environment) to the cell volume or on the osmotic movement of water. This depends on the solute concentration as well as the permeability of the cell wall.

Know the difference between Diabetes Mellitus and Diabetes Insipidus.

Diabetes Insipidus is characterized by the inability of kidneys to conserve water due to ADH deficiency or failure to respond to ADH. Diabetes Mellitus is characterized by cell resistance to insulin and inability to utilize glucose in blood.

How many times was the blood diluted for RBC Count?

Diluted 200 times

Anti Diuretic Hormone - What are its target sites?

Distal Convoluted Tubule Collecting Duct

Aldosterone - What is its target site?

Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct

What is the osmolarity of distilled water relative to RBCs before being added? After added? What is the tonicity of the solution? What happens to the blood cells?

Distilled water has fewer osmotically active particles (none actually) per liter or a higher water concentration (it's all water) so it is Hypoosmotic relative to the RBC before and after it is added. The tonicity of the solution will be Hypotonic (lower osmotic pressure) so water will rush into the cell and hemolyse/burst.

Simple Diffusion

Down the concentration gradient, no transport protein involved. High Concentration to Low Concentration Passive = No Energy No Transporters Ex. Hydrophobic of NonPolar (except water) things: Water, Fatty Acids, CO2, Glycerol, Ethanol, Urea, H20

Facilitated Diffusion

Down the concentration gradient, transport protein necessary. High Concentration to Low Concentration Passive = No Energy Carriers (organic) or Channels (inorganic)

In the Hemoglobin Determination, name the cyanide-containing solution and its functions in the experiment?

Drabkin's Solution; contains both potassium ferricyanide and potassium cyanide; also contains NaCl -It Lyses RBCs and converts Hemoglobin to Cyanmethemoglobin which can be measured using a spectrophotometer to determine hemoglobin concentration in the blood.

Compare the hematocrit of a person who is dehydrated or overhydrated to a euhydrated person?

Dyhedrayed = Higher Hematocrit. Less Water means less total blood volume Overhydrated = Lower Hematocrit. More Water means larger total blood volume. Euhydrated: 42% - 52%

What are the formed elements of blood?

Erythrocytes (RBC), Leukocytes (WBC), and Platelets ~2/5L of Blood

T Tubule

Essentially continuous with the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum -Muscle contraction is ultimately controlled by nerve-initiated electrical impulses that travel along the sarcolemma -Conduct impulses to the deepest regions of the muscle -Signals for the rapid release of Ca2+ -Ensures that every myofribril contracts at the same time. -Muscle contraction is ultimately controlled by nerve-initiated electrical impulses that travel along the sarcolemma, T Tubules continue these.

Describe our ADH levels and their effect on our Urine Flow Rate in the experiment.

Fasting and not Drinking, dehydrated, so ADH levels were high to retain water. After taking in fluids, not a dramatic increase in urine flow rate at T=30 (15min). However at T=60 saw an increase in urine flow rate due to half life of ADH (18min). Caffine and Alcohol inhibit ADH so make you pee.

Explain why the rate of osmosis is greater at higher concentration gradient (0.5M Sucrose vs 1.0M Sucrose)?

Fick's Law states that an increase in the concentration gradient (diff between 2 sides) will increase the net rate of diffusion. The more of a concentration gradient, the higher the osmotic pressure and the faster particles will move.

How many red blood cell counting squares were counted?

Five squares were counted, four corners and center, out of 25 squares on the grid.

Motor Endplate

Folds in the sarcolemma that increase SA and contain ACh receptors. the large and complex end formation by which the axon of a motor neuron establishes synaptic contact with a skeletal muscle fiber (cell)

Myofilaments

Found within the Sarcomere: -Thick Filaments -Thick Filaments

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Glycolosis - Breaking glucose (in this case in form of Glycogen) into pyruvate which yields 2 ATP. In the presence of Oxygen, we end up doing cellular respiration which yields 34-36 ATP which is a pretty high yield of energy per sugar molecule that goes into it.

What are the functions of Tubular Secretion?

Going from Blood into Filtrate, last chance to get rid of stuff it doesn't want, where balance comes into play. Majority is H+ ions, trying to get the pH of blood just right through urine. Secretion happens from the peritubular capillaries, process of maintaining H+ ion content of the extracellular content of our body (mainly plasma).

Fasicles

Groups of Muscle Fibers

Why does Coke have the highest flow rate at T=120?

Has a lot of Sugar (Glucose) which does not get excreted. Glucose takes an hour to be removed from your blood stream and stored of not burned, it is big so increase Pressure increasing Filtration increasing H2O excretion. Has Caffine which further increases your blood pressure, inhibit ADH, decrease in H2O Reabsorbtion.

In the Red Blood Cell Counting experiment, name the specialized microscope slide.

Hemacytometer

In the Hematocrit experiment, know how to calculate hematocrit.

Hematocrit = the % of RBCs in whole blood Length of Packed RBCs (mm) Divided by Length of Whole blood (mm) Multiply by 100 = Hematocrit Percentage The Length of Whole Blood = Length of RBCs + Plasma

Know the complete chemical reaction that occur when red blood cell is present in Hemoglobin Determination. How long is the process?

Hemoglobin + Potassium Ferricyanide --> Methemoglobin Methemeglobin + Potassium Cyanide --> Cyanmethemoglobin This process is 10 minutes.

What are the functions and characteristics hemoglobin determination?

Hemoglobin is related to the size & number of RBC's. Increased hemoglobin = Polycythemia Decreased hemoglobin = Anemia This test measures the amount of hemoglobin in blood. It is used to see how much oxygen is being carried by the red blood cells. It is also used in the treatment of red blood cell disorders such as iron deficiency anemia. The most common way to determine hemoglobin concentration is by cyanmethemoglobin method.

What happens if you decrease H+ ions in the blood?

High pH (Alkalosis)

Hyperosmotic

Higher solute particle concentration. Solution with the higher osmolarity relative to another is said to be ___. Solution Concentration > Interior Concentration

What are the functions and characteristics of Erythropoietin and where is it produced?

Hormone that stimulates RBC production. Secreted by the kidneys.

Coke Osmolarity to Plasma? pH? Comparison to Gatorade?

Hyperosmotic to Plasma pH of 2-2.5 Low in Sodium concentration and Low in Glucose concentration compared to Coke and has Caffine

Water Osmolarity to Plasma? pH?

Hypoosmotic to Plasma pH of 5.5-7

Identify a-band and i-band regions of sarcomere; which shortens during contractions?

I-Band: thin filaments, includes Z-disc; shortens during contraction. A-Band: thick filaments, includes H-zone and M-line; remains same length during contraction.

During the Hemoglobin Determination experiment, what types of technical sources of error would result in higher or lower hemoglobin concentration?

If the solution not allowed to sit for 10 minutes, lower hemoglobin concentration would be detected. If the calibration was not set properly, more or less concentration could be detected.

Where is the initial site of urine production?

In Bowmans Capsule it begins as filtrate then becomes urine in the collecting duct.

Explain the mechanisms how an isoosmotic (or a hyperosmotic) solution becomes hypoosmotic when red blood cells are added.

In the example of a blood cell in a solution of .3M and .5M Urea, when the solutes inside a RBC are not permeable to the cell membrane. The .3M Urea would have the same osmolarity (concentration of osmotically active particles) as the red blood cell so it would be Isoosmotic and the .5M Urea will have a higher solute concentration and less water concentration therefore making it Hyperosmotic. Urea would go into the cell through diffusion. The urea osmolarily on the outside of the cell will drop insignificantly as a small amount of urea enters the cell, however, the inside of the cell's osmolarity will increase drastically. This would then make the solution hypoosmotic as it would have a lower solute concentration and higher water concentration compared to the inside of the cell.

Coke T=30

Increase (*LARGE*) in Plasma Osmolarity (Detected by Osmoreceptors in Hypothalamus) -Supra Optic Nuclei and Paraventricular Nuclei Increase Nerve Impulses to Posterior Pituitary Gland -Increase ADH Increase in Blood Pressure (Detected by Baroreceptors in Aortic Arch and Carotid Sinus) -Increases impulses to the Medulla Oblongata -Decreases Impulses decreasing ADH Increase in Blood Volume (Detected by Volume Receptor in Atrium) -Increase ANP decreasing ADH and Aldosterone --Increasing excretion H2O and Na+ Overall *Large* net Increase ADH -Increase Aquaporin 2 channels --Increase Water Reabsorbtion Decrease in Urine Flow Rate Increase in Urine Specific Gravity -Decrease in Plasma Osmolarity -Increase (*Even More*) in Blood Volume -Increase (*Even More*) in Blood Pressure T=60 Increase in ANP (*Even More*) Now ADH Decrease -Decrease Aquaporin 2 channels --Decrease Water Reabsorbtion Increase (*More*) in Urine Flow Rate Decrease in Urine Specific Gravity -Increase in Plasma Osmolarity -Decrease in Blood Volume -Decrease in Blood Pressure T=120 Now Increase in ADH Decrease in ANP -Increase Aquaporin 2 channels --Increase Water Reabsorbtion Decrease in Urine Flow Rate Increase in Urine Specific Gravity -Decrease in Plasma Osmolarity -Increase in Blood Volume -Increase in Blood Pressure

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

Interconneting Tubules that surround each myofibril, run logitudinally. -Regulates intracellular levels of ionic calcium -Stores calcium and releases it on demand when the muscle fiber is stimulated to contract.

What are the essential dietary factors for hemoglobin production?

Iron Folic Acid - Aids in RBC Formation Vitamin B12 - Aids the Folic Acid

Gatorade Osmolarity to Plasma? pH? Comparison to Coke?

Isoosmotic to Plasma pH of 2.5-3 High in Sodium concentration and Low in Glucose concentration compared to Coke

What happens if you increase H+ ions in the blood?

Lower pH (Acidosis)

Hypoosmotic

Lower solute particle concentration. Solution with the lower osmolarity relative to another is said to be ___. Solution Concentration < Interior Concentration

Explain the difference in the amount of RBC cell count, hemoglobin concentration, and hematocrit between male and female?

Males generally have a higher hematocrit, RBC count, and hemoglobin values than Females. Males tend to have more Testosterone which has an accelerating effect on Erythropoetin, there by increasing RBC count slightly while Females have more of the hormone estrogen which has an inhibitory effect on erythropoietin.

Under normal circumstances, a Euhydrated person would have what urine specific gravity? How would this change with over hydration and dehydration.

Mass per Unit Volume w/ Respect to H2O @ 15C 1.015-1.025 (water is 1.000) Overhydrated would be closer to 1.015 Dehydrated would be closer to 1.025

Osmotic Pressure

Measure of the force required to stop osmosis. Indicates how strongly a solution "draws" water by osmosis. The greater the concentration of a solution, the greater its osmotic pressure.

What are the functions and characteristics of Albumin?

Most abundant protein in plasma and its main function is to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood. Produce the osmotic pressure needed to maintain blood volume and pressure.

Cyanmethemoglobin Method

Most common way to determine hemoglobin concentration. Ferrous iron (Fe2+) contained in hemoglobin is oxidized with ferricyanide and turns it into methemoglobin. Potassium cyanide then converts that to cyanmethemoglobin. -The concentration of of cyanmethemoglobin (Fe3+) is then measured using a spectrophotometer to determine the hemoglobin concentration. Hemoglobin + Potassium Ferricyanide -> Methemoglobin Methemeglobin + Potassium Cyanide -> Cyanmethemoglobin

Be able to define motor unit and motor unit recruitment.

Motor Unit: a neuron and all the muscle fibers that it stimulates. Motor Unit Recruitment: increasing the number of motor units firing will increase the number of muscle fibers contracting, therefore increasing the strength of the overall contraction. Motor Unit is a neuron and all of its associated muscle fibers. In this Diagram we have three motor units running from the spinal cord out to the muscle. If I am lifting a very light weight I might just recruit one motor unit, Motor neuron 1, which has 4 muscle fibers associate to it (probably more like 100). As I increase weight I am going to need more motor units, so will add more on top to compensate for the extra force that is needed to lift the additional weight. Motor Units can have an additive power to them as they are recruited.

Ascending Limb of Loop of Henle

Na+ is Reabsorbed through Passive and Active Mechanisms. Increasing Na+ content creates high solute concentration in arteriole.

Of NaCl, Sucrose, Glycerol, Urea, and Ethanol, which cannot cross the cell membrane through simple diffusion?

NaCl and Sucrose

What is the receptor for Plasma Osmolarity and where is it located?

Osmoreceptor, located throughout body including hypothalamus.

Epimysium

Overcoat; surrounds whole muscle

Crystalloid (crystal-like)

Particles < 1 millimicron aqueous solutions of mineral salts or other water-soluble molecules Eosin - Crystalloid but smaller so will diffuse the fastest.

Colloid

Particles > 1 millimicron Colloids contain larger insoluble molecules, such as gelatin. Blood, Milk, something suspended.

Is diffusion an active or passive process?

Passive

Identify the peripheral nerve that innervated the muscle fiber, the neurotransmitter secreted, the receptor on the muscle fiber and the response of the muscle fiber to the neurotransmitter. Know the significance of ATP, ADP, Pi, Ca2+, voltage sensor (DHP receptor), ryanodine receptor-channel, troponin, and tropomyocin in the muscle contraction.

Peripheral nerve: the axon terminal with vesicles inside, release of vesicles triggered by Ca2+ entering the terminal via voltage gated channels NMJ: neuromuscular junction, the space between the axon terminal and the sarcolemma/motor endplate Muscle fiber: contains motor endplate and ACh receptors in sarcolemma Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine (ACh) Receptor: nicotinic receptors, a ligand gated channel Response to NT: 1) ACh bind to ligan channels 2) channels open and Na+ flows in and causes local depolarization across sarcolemma 3) local depolarization triggers an AP 4) AP travels across sarcolemma 5) AP travels along t-tubules to DHP receptor 6) DHP receptor triggers opening of ryanodine receptor channel on SR 7) SR releases Ca2+ 8) Ca2+ binds to troponin which removes blocking action of tropomyocin 9) binding sites on actin are ready to form crossbridge. ATP: adenosine triphosphate, energy stored in high E phosphate bonds ADP: adenosine diphosphate, lower E, can add a Pi to mate ATP Pi (phosphate): part of ATP and ADP, releases energy when cleaved off ATP Ca2+: triggers release of NT; released by SR, binds with troponin and causes change in shape of tropomyosin so that binding sites are able to form crossbridge Voltage receptor: change shape when exposed to AP in t-tubule, trigger opening of ryanodine receptor channel Ryanodine receptor channel: open to allow calcium out of the SR Troponin: protein attached to myosin, binds with Ca2+ Tropomyosin: protein in myosin that changes shape when Ca2+ binds to troponin

What molecules are permeable down the Descending Limb of Loop of Henle?

Permeable to H2O

What molecules are permeable down the Ascending Loop of Henle?

Permeable to ions (Na+)

What isotonic solution was the blood diluted in (no abbreviation)?

Phosphate Buffer Saline

What are the major physiological factors associated with the production of muscle strength?

Phys factors assoc with muscle strength: -motor unit recruitment -summation One of the way we build up muscles is Creatine. When you are at rest you will store ATP as ADP + Creatinephosphate (creatine kinase is the protein that facilitates this, enzyme). During exercise you will take this creatinephosphate and give the phosphate group back to the ATP (using creatine kinase) and then its usable energy, so just means of storage. The other benefit of this process is that the more you go through this cycles the more you stimulate the production of the proteins actin and myosin. Creatine in particular stimulates protein synthesis, including actin and myosin, which are the contractile fibers in your muscle cells. As you go through this you are creating stronger muscles.

Sacrcolemma

Plasma Membrane that surrounds the Muscle Fiber (cell)

Know the plasma osmolarity, blood/plasma volume, blood pressure, and blood pH at rest.

Plasma Osmolarity: ~0.30 Osm Blood Volume: ~5L Plasma Volume: Males is 39 mL/kg of body weight; in females, 40 mL/kg? Blood Pressure: 83-100 Hg (Aortic Pressure) Blood pH: ~7.35 to 7.45

What are the functions and characteristics of Fibrinogen?

Plasma Protein, blood clotting factors.

What are the functions and characteristics of Globulin?

Plasma Protein, transports fats.

What is the osmolarity of the plasma?

Plasma is 0.3 osm

Anti Diuretic Hormone - Where is it secreted by?

Posterior Pituitary Gland

Aldosterone - What are its functions at target sites?

Promotes Production of Na+ Channels on Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct -Increase in the number of Na+ Channels along the Apical Membrane

Anti Diuretic Hormone - What are its functions at Target Site?

Promotion of Aquaporin 2 Channel Production -Insertion of new Aquaporin Channels

Where does the majority of reabsorption of filtrate in the nephron occur?

Proximal Convoluted Tubule 75% Happens in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule 100% of Glucose is Reabsorbed in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Where is the site of glucose reabsorption? Does the reabsorption of glucose require insulin?

Proximal Convoluted Tubule. No it does not require insulin.

How would increasing the surface area of the cell affect the rate of diffusion of a molecule into the cell membrane?

Rate of diffusion would be increased.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Receives all the filtrate from the glomerular capsule. Location of Reabsorbtion. Walls are epithelial cells with microvilli for absorption. 75% of Reabsorbtion happens and 100% of Glucose is Reabsorbed

Distal Convoluted Tubule

Receives fluid from Ascending Limb of Loop of Henle. Location of Reabsorbtion. Reabsorbtion of Na+ and H2O which is highly regulated by Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), Aldosterone, and Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

Collecting Duct

Receives fluid from DCT Has many branches from different nephrons. Goes out through calyx and meets in renal pelvis.

Loop of Henle

Receives fluid from PCT U shapped neuphron loop with Descending and Ascending Limb

What are the functions and characteristics of Erythrocytes?

Red Blood Cells - Transport Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide function is to carry hemoglobin (which carries O2) and to pick up CO2 -Most Abundant -No Nucleus -Few Organelles -Biconcave ~7 micrometers -Formed in Bone Marrow -Lifespan = 120 days -Macrophages from Liver and Spleen remove old blood cells -Involved w/ O2 and CO2 transport -7-15 days for RBCs to form (erythropoiesis)

What are the functions and characteristics Anemia?

Refers to any condition in which there is abnormally low hemoglobin concentration and/or red blood cell count.

What are the functions of the kidneys?

Regulation of extracellular fluid (plasma and interstitial fluid) environment in body (and Blood Pressure) by: -Regulating the total volume of water in the body and the total concentration of solutes in that water (osmolarity). This contributes significantly to regulation of blood pressure. -Regulating the various ions (electrolytes) ,Na+, in Plasma -Acid/Base Balance (pH) -Excreting metabolic wastes and foreign substances such as drugs or toxins -Producing erythropoietin and renin, important molecules for regulating RBC production and Blood Pressure.

Descending Limb of Loop of Henle

Responsible for H2O Reabsorbtion through Passive mechanisms.

Myofibril

Rod-like structures that make up a muscle fiber. -Contain the contractile elements of skeletal muscle cells.

Know the difference between slow twitch (oxidative) and fast twitch (glycolytic) muscle fibers.

Slow twitch (oxidative): slow contraction; high endurance, low fatigue; high O2, mitochondria, myoglobin; aerobic pathway—yields 32 ATP per glucose, can use fats and AA's also when necessary, requires O2 Fast twitch(oxidative): fast contraction; intermediate endurance/fatigue; high O2, mitochondria, myoglobin; aerobic pathway OR glycolytic pathway Fast twitch(glycolytic): fast contraction; low endurance, high fatigue; few/none O2 mitochondria, myoglobin; glycolytic pathway—glucose into 2 ATP and lactic acid

Twitch

Small, involuntary muscle contration and relaxation; spontaneous depolarization of motor neuron causing entire unit to contract.

Isotonic

Solutions with Equal Tension Same solute concentration as inside the cell.

Hypertonic

Solutions with a higher osmotic pressure. Higher solute concentration than inside the cell. {cells in this solution lose water creanate}

Hypotonic

Solutions with a lower osmotic pressure. Lower solute concentration than inside the cell. {cells in this solution gain water}

Name the instrument that reads the percent Transmittance (%T) at 540nm in Hemoglobin Determination.

Spectrophotometer

Tropomyosin

Spiral about actin and help stiffen/stabilize it -Block myosin binding sites

Anti Dieretic Hormone - Where is it synthesized?

Supra Optic Nuclei Paraventricular Nuclei -of the Hypothalamus

Peritubular Capillaries

Surround the renal tubules. Responsible for Secretion: Maintaining H+ ion content of the extracellular content of our body (mainly plasma) so Blood pH. and Absorption: Receive the substances absorbed throughout the PCT, Loop of Henle (Vasa Recta), and DCT.

Perimysium

Surrounds Fasicles

Endomysium

Surrounds each individual muscle fiber (cell)

Hemolyse

Swell and Burst

Know the flow of blood circulation into and out of the kidneys.

-Aorta -Renal Artery enters kidney and branch out to -Interlobular Arteries getting smaller and smaller to renal arterioles and will enter the glomerulus through the -Afferent Arteriole -Glomerular Capillaries are in the Glomerulus, exiting will be the -Efferent Arteriole -Peritubular Capillaries (Cortical Nephrons) go along PCT -Vasa Recta surround Loop of Henle -Flow out through renal Vein out to Inferior Vena Cava and back to Heart -Arcuate Vein

Know the characteristics of RBCs.

-Flattened, biconcave shape, allows for flexibility and assists diffusion -Provides increased surface area through which gas can diffuse -Lack nuclei and mitochondria and thus have short life span of about 120days -Older erythrocytes are removed from circulation and recycled Function is to carry hemoglobin (which carries O2) and to pick up CO2. -Most Abundant -Few Organelles -Biconcoave Disc ~7 micrometers -Formed in Bone Marrow -Macrophages from liver and spleen remove old blood cells -7-15 days for RBCs to form (Erythropoiesis)

Explain the mechanisms how an isoosmotic (or a hyperosmotic) solution would remain the same in osmolarity after red blood cells are added.

Take the example of a .3M sucrose solution and the RBC will have the same number of osmotically active particles per liter so will be Isoosmotic relative to the RBC before. After it is added, the particles will be unable to cross the cell membrane through simple diffusion so the solution will remain Isoosmotic relative to the blood cell and neithers osmolairty will change. With a hyperosmotic solution, the solultion will have more osmotically charged particles and lower water concentration. When the blood cell is added, based on the concentrations only a small amount might go into the cell. There is so much more volume outside the cell that the little bit that goes inside the cell is so insignificant that it wouldn't change the osmolarity of the solution surrounding the cell. If the cells burst, the addition of the particles to the solution will be insignificant.

What is the tonicity of .15M NaCl, .3M Sucrose, .3M Glycerol, .3M Urea, .3M Ethanol, .5M Urea relative to RBCs.

The .15 M NaCl and .3M Sucrose are isotonic relative to RBCs The .3 M Glycerol, .3M Urea, .3M Ethanol and the .5M Urea are hypotonic realitive to RBCs

Sarcoplasm

The cytoplasm of a muscle cell.

What is osmosis?

The diffusion of water.

Muscle Fatigue

The inability for a muscle fiber to generate force, can be caused by inability of neuron to fire or lack of Ca2+

What are the functions and characteristics Hemoglobin?

The iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells. Hemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the respiratory organs to the rest of the body (i.e. the tissues) where it releases the oxygen to burn nutrients to provide energy to power the functions of the organism in the process called metabolism. -One third of total mass of RBC is hemoglobin -Heme gives blood its red color. -Consists of four protein chains (globins) all attaches to heme (contains iron) -Heme is what attaches to oxygen. 98.5% of O2 in blood stream is attached to hemoglobin 1.5% is dissolved in Plasma 30% of CO2 in blood stream is bound to hemoglobin 10% is dissolved in plasma 60% is taken up by bicarbonate

Motor Unit Recruitment

The more motor units firing the strong the contraction will be because more muscle fibers will be contracted.

Osmosis

The movement of water from a lower solute concentration (higher water concentration) to an area of higher solute concentration (low water concentration)

What are the functions and characteristics RBC count?

The number of red blood cells (RBCs) per unit of whole blood will be determined. By convention, the number of cells in whole blood (red or white) is expressed per cubic millimeter (mm3) of volume. Cubic millimeter (mm3) is equal to one microliter (uL), or 1/1,000,000 liter.

What is the tonicity of the solution used in Hemoglobin Determination?

The red blood cells must be lysed in order for the hemoglobin to come into contact with the Drabkin's solution. Thus, the Drabkin's solution must be Hypotonic to the inside of the RBC so that water will flow in.

Sarcomere

The region of myofilament between two successive Z Discs -Smallest Contractile unit of a muscle fiber, the functional unit. -Contains an A Band Flanked with half of an I Band at each end.

Osmolarity

The total solute particle concentration of a solution or the total number of osmotically active particles in a solution.

If two different solutions are separated by a semi-permeable membrane and the membrane is only permeable to water, in what direction will water move?

The water will move from the Hypoosmotic solution with lower solute concentration and higher water concentration, to the side with the Hyperosmotic solution with higher solute concentration lower water concentration, Osmosis. Since the semi-permeable membrane only allows water, water will continue to displace until both solutions are isoosmotic to each other. The solutions will be isotonic but water will continue to diffuse evenly.

Myosin

Thick Filament Protein -Two Globular heads

Actin

Thin Protein -Twisted double strand of pearls.

What are the functions and characteristics of Platelets?

Thrombocytes - Blot Clot Formation Cytoplasmic fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes- formed in red marrow. When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets form a plug to help prevent blood loss and play a central role in the clotting cascade.

Know how to calculate the corrected specific gravity of the urine if temperature of the urine and measured specific gravity are given.

To calibrate for temperature you then take the temperature of your urine sample. Add .0001 for every 3 degrees above 15C of the urine temperature to the measured specific gravity taken. Urine temperature recorded = 33C Measure from urinometer = 1.026 33-15 = 18. 18/3 = 5.33 (round to whole number) 5 x 0.0001 = 0.005 1.026 + 0.005 = 1.031 Correlated specific gravity = 1.031

Active Transport

Up the concentration gradient, transport protein necessary Low Concentration to High Concentration Requires Energy (ATP) Requires a Pump

What device measures urine specific gravity?

Urinometer.

What is the receptor for Blood Volume and where is it located?

Volume Receptor, located along the walls of the cardiac atrial cells. (Atrium feels stretch and signal is sent)

Be able to calculate the urine flow rate of a given volume and time.

Volume Voided (mL) / Duration of time since last void (min) = Flow Rate (ml/min)

Blood is Heavily Regulated in Several Factors:

Volume: 5L Osmolarity: 0.3osm Blood Pressure - Mean Arterial Pressure: 83-100 mmHg Blood pH: 7.35 - 7.45 Regulated by Heart, Brain, and Renal System, accessorized by lungs (respiration system) and liver.

Hypoosmotic solution to a Hyperosmotic solution.

Water will always diffuse from a ____ solution to a ____ solution.

What are the functions and characteristics of Leukocytes?

White Blood Cells - Prevent Infection neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, and other cell types that are concerned with tissue response to injurty.

Compare the compositions of whole blood, plasma, filtrate, and urine.

Whole blood: Plasma and Formed Elements Plasma: The liquid portion of blood and makes up the majority of the volume of blood. Consists of water and dissolved solutes. Filtrate: Everything except formed elements and plasma proteins because they cannot fit through the pores of the fenestrated capillaries of the glomerulus. Urine: - Water (95%) -Urea; derived from breakdown of amino acids -Nitrogenous wastes, like uric acid and creatine -Na+, K+, PO43-, SO42-, -Variable amounts of Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3-

What is the significance of the motor cortex and cerebellum on muscle contraction?

With the exception of reflex arcs, all skeletal muscle movements originate in the motor cortex and are relayed through the cerebellum

Is the osmolarity of 0.9% NaCl solution isoosmotic relative to plasma?

Yes Plasma has an osmolarity of about 0.3 osm/l, therefore a 0.15 mol/l NaCl solution may be said to be isotonic with plasma (Assuming that neither Na+ nor Cl- can cross cell membranes, which is nearly true).

Tetanus

a muscle stimulated so frequently that it doesn't relax (thought to be impossible)

What are the functions and characteristics Polycthemia?

an abnormal elevated RBC count.

What are the functions and characteristics of Hematopoietic Stem Cells?

are the blood cells that give rise to all the other blood cells and are derived from mesoderm.

What are the functions and characteristics Hypoxia?

decrease in oxygen. Stimulates erythropoietin.

What are the functions and characteristics of Erythropoiesis?

formation of Red Blood Cells, takes about 7 days.

Summation

increasing the force of a contraction by increasing the number of motor units (motor unit summation) or increasing the frequency of contracts (wave summation) Basically if I am holding a weight out and I am using 100 motor units, but there are 1000 motor units available. 100 are firing, 900 are resting, after a couple milliseconds the ones that are firing are going to want to rest and another 100 will start firing but then they will rest and another will start firing. All of your motor units are not being used at the same time unless you are lifting something that is almost outside of your weight capacity.

What are the functions and characteristics of Hematopoiesis?

is the formation of blood cellular components. All cellular blood components are derived from hematopoietic stem cells.

isometric contraction

load is greater than the tension or force generated by the muscle and muscle does not shorten.

isotonic contraction

tension or force generated by the muscle is greater than the load and muscle shortens.

What is the correlation of EMG to muscle strength?

the more motor units contracting the higher the amplitude of the EMG recording

What are the functions and characteristics Hematocrit?

the ratio of packed RBC's to total blood volume in a centrifuged sample of blood. Expressed as a percentage. RBC/ whole blood volume, 45% is normal. How hydrated you are, severely dehydrated means less plasma.

What is the expected normal urine flow rate at rest for a 20 yr old male, euhydrated, and weighs about 70kg?

~ 1mL/min

What are the functions and characteristics of Plasma?

~3/5L of Blood Liquid portion of the blood and makes up the majority of blood volume. Consists of water and dissolved solutes. 55% of Whole Blood (.3 osm) 95-96% H2O Water 4-5% Everything Else Plasma Proteins: Albumin (trace in urine if high protein diet) Globulin Fibrinogen Waste Products: Uric Acid, Urea, Creatine Nutrient Materials: glucose, amino acids, lipids Dissolved Gasses: CO2, O2, Nitrogen

Type IIa: Fast Twitch

(Intermediate) Some can use oxidative physophorlation or glycolytic metabolism

Type I: Slow Twitch

(Oxidative) Dark Meat • Oxidative Physphorylation for energy, cellular respiration (aerobic metabolism) • High in Oxygen (for cellular respiration), • Large amount of Mitochondria, Myoglobin (protein that helps to distribute oxygen within the muscle), and capillaries. Why more red meat than other muscle groups. • High endurance for contraction. • High threshold for muscle fatigue (don't tend to be sore from holding head up all day) • Low force generating capacity, not very strong muscles.

Type IIb: Fast Twitch

(white meat) Muscles you will do to suddenly do a sprint or lift a heavy piece of machinery. Fatter with a lot more actin and myosin in order to generate higher amount of force. • Glycolytic metabolism (anaerobic metabolism) for Energy • Low Oxygen and Myoglobin because relies on Glycolytic metabolism (anaerobic metabolism). • Low amounts Mitochondria. • Low endurance. • Low Threshold for Muscle Fatigue • High force generating capacity

Know the skin electrode placements, calibration, recording procedures, and data analysis for each of the EMG experiments recorded from the right and left arms. Be able to explain each results observed.

...

What is the osmolarity of .3M Urea solution relative to RBCs before being added? After added? What is the tonicity of the solution? What happens to the blood cells?

.3M Urea Solution and a RBC will have the same number of osmotically active particles per liter so it is Isoosmotic relative to the RBC before. After it is added, the urea particles will cross the cell membrane through diffusion to reach equilibrium to try and make the cell .6 osm relative to the .3 osm solution. With fewer osmotically active particles per liter or a higher water concentration the .3M urea solution is Hypoosmotic relative to the RBC after. The tonicity of the solution will be Hypotonic (lower osmotic pressure) so water will rush into the cell and hemolyse/burst.

What is the osmolarity of .5M Urea solution relative to RBCs before being added? After added? What is the tonicity of the solution? What happens to the blood cells?

.5M Urea Solution will have more osmotically active particles per liter than RBC (.3M) so it will have a higher solute concentration and less water concentration therefore making it Hyperosmotic relative to the RBC before. After it is added the urea particles will diffuse across the cell membrane to reach equilibrium at .8 osm (.5+.3) inside the cell and .5 osm on the outside. With fewer osmotically active particles per liter or a higher water concentration the .5M urea solution is Hypoosmotic relative to the RBC after. The tonicity of the solution will be Hypotonic (lower osmotic pressure) so water will rush into the cell and hemolyse/burst.

What is the osmolarity of . 9% NaCl? We know molecularweight of NaCl is 58g/mol.

.9% NaCl = .9g NaCl / 100ml x 1000ml / 1 Liter x 1 mol / 58g NaCl x 2 osmols NaCl / 1 mol NaCl = .310 osmoles / Liter

What is normal plasma osmolarity at rest?

0.3 mOsm

What is the osmolarity of 0.9% NaCl solution relative to RBCs before being added? After added? What is the tonicity of the solution? What happens to the blood cells?

0.9% NaCl / 100ml x 1000ml/L / 58g = .15M NaCl = .3 osm = osmolarity of a RBC. The 0.9% NaCl solution and the RBC will have the same number of osmotically active particles per liter so will be Isoosmotic relative to the RBC before. After it is added, the particles will be unable to cross the cell membrane through simple diffusion so the solution will remain Isoosmotic. The tonicity of the solution will be isotonic as the osmotic pressure will be equal between the solution and the cell so there will be no change.

What is the specific gravity of water?

1

Atrial Natriutetic Peptide - What are its Target Sites?

1. Hypothalamus -Supra Optic Nuclei -Paraventricular Nuclei 2. Posterior Pituitary Gland 3. Juxtaglomerular Apparatus 4. Adrenal Cortex 5. Vasodialate Afferent Arterioles Vasoconstrict Efferent Arterioles

Gatorade T=30

Increase (*small*) in Plasma Osmolarity (Detected by Osmoreceptors in Hypothalamus) -Supra Optic Nuclei and Paraventricular Nuclei Increase Nerve Impulses to Posterior Pituitary Gland -Increase ADH Increase in Blood Pressure (Detected by Baroreceptors in Aortic Arch and Carotid Sinus) -Increases impulses to the Medulla Oblongata -Decreases Impulses decreasing ADH Increase in Blood Volume (Detected by Volume Receptor in Atrium) -Increase ANP decreasing ADH and Aldosterone --Increasing excretion H2O and Na+ Overall *slight* net Increase ADH -Increase Aquaporin 2 channels --Increase Water Reabsorbtion Decrease in Urine Flow Rate Increase in Urine Specific Gravity -Decrease in Plasma Osmolarity -Increase (*More*) in Blood Volume -Increase (*More*) in Blood Pressure T=60 Increase in ANP (*More*) Now ADH Decrease -Decrease Aquaporin 2 channels --Decrease Water Reabsorbtion Increase (*Even More*) in Urine Flow Rate Decrease in Urine Specific Gravity -Increase in Plasma Osmolarity -Decrease in Blood Volume -Decrease in Blood Pressure T=120 Now Increase in ADH Decrease in ANP -Increase Aquaporin 2 channels --Increase Water Reabsorbtion Decrease in Urine Flow Rate Increase in Urine Specific Gravity -Decrease in Plasma Osmolarity -Increase in Blood Volume -Increase in Blood Pressure

None Drinking Group

Increase ADH and Decrease in ANP Increase in Plasma Osmolarity (Detected by Osmoreceptors in Hypothalamus) -Supra Optic Nuclei and Paraventricular Nuclei Increase Nerve Impulses to Posterior Pituitary Gland -Increase ADH Decrease in Blood Pressure (Detected by Baroreceptors in Aortic Arch and Carotid Sinus) -Decrease impulses to the Medulla Oblongata -Increases impulses increasing ADH Decrease in Blood Volume (Detected by Volume Receptor in Atrium) -Decrease ANP All increase ADH -Increase Aquaporin 2 channels --Increase Water Reabsorbtion Decrease in Urine Flow Rate Increase in Urine Specific Gravity -Decrease in Plasma Osmolarity -Increase in Blood Volume -Increase in Blood Pressure

Atrial Natriutetic Peptide - When is it stimulated?

Increase in Blood Volume

Anti Diuretic Hormone - What are its effects?

Increase in H2O Reabsorbtion

Aldosterone - When are its effects?

Increase in Na+ Reabsorbtion -Indirect increase in H2O reabsorbtion

Anti Diuretic Hormone - When is it stimulated?

Increase in Plasma Osmolarity Decrease in Blood Pressure Decrease in Blood Volume

Aldosterone - What does it result in?

Increase in Plasma Osmolarity Increase in Blood Pressure Increase in Blood Volume Decrease in Urine Flow Rate Increase in Urine Specific Density

In experiment 1, what factors according to Fick's Law did not affect the differences in the rate of diffusion of Methylene Blue, Congo Red, and Eosin across a 2% agar?

Increase in concentration gradient [diff. between 2 sides] will increase the rate of net diffusion. Increase in surface area of channels / diffusion pathway / membrane will increase the rate of net diffusion.

In experiment 1, what factors according to Fick's Law affected the differences in the rate of diffusion of Methylene Blue, Congo Red, and Eosin across a 2% agar?

Increase in temperature will increase the rate of net diffusion [temp is really just a measure of speed] Decrease the size and shape of solutes will increase the rate of net diffusion. [the smaller you are/ less complex, the more you move Decrease the molecular weight will increase the rate of net diffusion. [ lighter things move faster]

What causes high and low amount of hematocrit?

Increase: Dehydration Decrease: Overhydration

What causes high and low amount of RBC cell count?

Increase: Hypoxia (decrease in oxygen), stimulated Erythropoietin Decrease: Anemia

What causes high and low amount of hemoglobin concentration?

Increase: Related to size and number of RBC Decrease: Anemea

Define diuresis.

Increased or excessive production on urine.

Aldosterone

Inserts Na+ channels into Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting duct which helps takes sodium out of filtrate and H2O follows so we end up taking more water out as well indirectly.

Isoosmotic

Same solute particle concentration. Two solutions with the same osmolarity are said to be _____ to each other.

Which form of transport usually involves coupled transport?

Secondary Active Transport

What is the percent Transmittance set up for the blank in Hemoglobin Determination?

Set to 100% Transmittance, which is the equivalent to zero absorbance. Thus any absorbance recorded from the tube with the Drabkins and Blood will only take into account the amount of cyanmethemoglobin.

Crenation

Shrink or Shrivel

In experiment 1, which of Fick's Laws affected the differences in the rate of diffusion of Methylene Blue, Congo Red, and Eosin across a 2% agar the most? What did we conclude?

Size of the Molecule Trumps both Weight and Shape.