Physiology Quiz 1

In your own words, state the four principles of electricity important in physiology.

(1) Like charges repel; opposite charges attract. (2) Every positive ion has a matching negative ion. (3) Energy must be used to separate ions or electrons and protons. (4) Conductors allow ions to move through them; insulators keep ions separated.

Local communication includes

(1) gap junctions, which allow direct cytoplasmic transfer of electrical and chemical signals between adjacent cells; (2) contact-dependent signals, which occur when surface molecules on one cell membrane bind to surface molecules on another cell's membrane; and (3) chemicals that diffuse through the extracellular fluid to act on cells close by. Long-distance communication (4) uses a combination of chemical and electrical signals carried by nerve cells and chemical signals transported in the blood.

epithelial tissues can be divided into two general types:

(1) sheets of tissue that lie on the surface of the body or that line the inside of tubes and hollow organs and (2) secretory epithelia that synthesize and release substances into the extracellular space. Histologists classify sheet epithelia by the number of cell layers in the tissue and by the shape of the cells in the surface layer.

epithelial tissues can be divided into two general types:

(1) sheets of tissue that lie on the surface of the body or that line the inside of tubes and hollow organs and (2) secretory epithelia that synthesize and release substances into the extracellular space.

Histologists describe tissues by their physical features:

(1) the shape and size of the cells, (2) the arrangement of the cells in the tissue (in layers, scattered, and so on), (3) the way cells are connected to one another, and (4) the amount of extracellular material present in the tissue.

Cell adhesion molecules

(CAMs) are membrane-spanning proteins responsible both for cell junctions and for transient cell adhesions (example NCAM- nerve-cell adhesion molecule)

lipid-anchored proteins

(Fig. 3.2b). Some of these proteins are covalently bound to lipid tails that insert themselves into the bilayer

Hydrogen sulfide

(H2S) also acts in the cardiovascular system to relax blood vessels. Garlic is a major dietary source of the sulfur-containing precursors, which may explain studies suggesting that eating garlic has protective effects on the heart.

Match each term with the description that fits it best: a. cilia b. centrioole c. flagelolum d. centrosome 1. in human cells, appears as single, long, whiplike tail 2. short, hairlike structures that beat to produce currents in fluids 3.a bundle of microtubules that aid in mitosis 4.the microtubule-organizing center

(a) 2, (b) 3, (c) 1, (d) 4

Match the membrane channels with the appropriate descriptions. Answers may be used once, more than once, or not at all. a. chemically gated channel b. open pore c. voltage-gated channel d. mechanically gated channel 1. channel that spends most of its time in the open state 2. channel that spends most of its time in a closed state 3. channel that opens when resting membrane potential changes 4. channel that opens when a ligand binds to it 5. channel that opens in response to membrane stretch 6. channel through which water can pass

(a) 2, 4, 6; (b) 1, 6; (c) 2, 3, 6; (d) 2, 5, 6

Match each organelle with its function: a. endoplasmic reticulum b. Golgi apparatus c. lysosome d. mitochonodrion e. peroxoisome 1. powerhouse of the cell where most ATP is produced 2. degrades long-chain fatty acids and toxic foreign molecules 3. network of membranous tubules that synthesize biomolecules 4. digestive system of cell, degrading or recycling components 5. modifies and packages proteins into vesicles

(a) 3, (b) 5, (c) 4, (d) 1, (e) 2

You have been asked to design some drugs for the purposes described next. Choose the desirable characteristic(s) for each drug from the numbered list. a. Drug A must bind to an enzyme and enhance its activity. b. Drug B should mimic the activity of a normal nervous system signal molecule. c. Drug C should block the activity of a membrane receptor protein. 1.antagonist 2. competitive inhibitor 3. agonist 4. allosteric activator 5.covalent 6. modulator

(a) 4, 5; (b) 3; (c) 2, 1

A 1.0 M NaCl solution contains 58.5 g of salt per liter. (a) How many molecules of NaCl are present in 1 L of this solution? (b) How many millimoles of NaCl are present? (c) How many equivalents of Na+ are present? (d) Express 58.5 g of NaCl per liter as a percent solution.

(a) 6.02×10^23 molecules of NaCl, (b) 1000 millimoles, (c) 1 equivalent, (d) 5.85% solution

Match each of the following items with its primary role in cellular activity. a. Na+-K+-ATPase b. protein c. unit of measurement for membrane potential d. K+ e. Cl− f. ATP g. Na+ 1. ion channel 2. extracellular cation 3. source of energy 4. intracellular anion 5. intracellular cation 6. millivolts 7. electrogenic pump 8. extracellular anion 9. milliosmoles

(a) 7; (b) 1, 7; (c) 6; (d) 5; (e) 8; (f) 3; (g) 2

In a signal cascade for rhodopsin, a photoreceptor molecule, one rhodopsin activates 1,000 molecules of transducin, the next molecule in the signal cascade. Each transducin activates one phosphodiesterase, and each phosphodiesterase converts 4,000 cGMP to GMP. What is the name of the phenomenon described in this paragraph? Activation of one rhodopsin will result in the production of how many GMP molecules?

(a) amplification and a cascade, (b) (1000×4000) or 4,000,000 GMP

A 2 M NaCl solution is placed in compartment A and a 2 M glucose solution is placed in compartment B. The compartments are separated by a membrane that is permeable to water but not to NaCl or glucose. Complete the following statements. Defend your answers. a. The salt solution is osmotic to the glucose solution. b. True or false? Water will move from one compartment to another. If water moves, it will move from compartment ________ to compartment _______________

(a) hyperosmotic (convert molarity to osmolarity), (b) True. Water moves from B to A.

Red blood cells are suspended in a solution of NaCl. The cells have an osmolarity of 300 mOsM, and the solution has an osmolarity of 250 mOsM. (a) The solution is (hypertonic, isotonic, or hypotonic) to the cells. (b) Water would move (into the cells, out of the cells, or not at all).

(a) hypotonic, (b) into the cells

A group of biology majors went to a mall and asked passersby, "Why does blood flow?" These are some of the answers they received. Which answers are teleological and which are mechanistic? (Not all answers are correct, but they can still be classified.) a. Because of gravity b. To bring oxygen and food to the cells c. Because if it didn't flow, we would die d. Because of the pumping action of the heart

(a) incorrect mechanistic answer, (b) correct teleological answer, (c) correct teleological answer, (d) correct mechanistic answer

Differentiate between the terms in each set below: a. lumen and wall b. cytoplasm and cytosol c. myosin and keratin

(a) lumen—hollow inside of an organ or tube; wall—cell layer. (b) cytoplasm—everything inside the cell except the nucleus; cytosol—semi-gelatinous, intracellular fluid. (c) myosin—motor protein filament; keratin—structural protein fiber.

Would the following reflexes have positive or negative feedback? a. glucagon secretion in response to declining blood glucose b. increasing milk release and secretion in response to baby's suckling c. urgency in emptying one's urinary bladder d. sweating in response to rising body temperature

(a) negative, (b) positive, (c) negative, (d) negative

Now identify the integrating center for examples (a), (c), and (d) a. glucagon secretion in response to declining blood glucose c. urgency in emptying one's urinary bladder d. sweating in response to rising body temperature

(a) pancreatic endocrine cells that secrete glucagon, (c) and (d) nervous system

Identify the target tissue or organ for each example in question 17. a. glucagon secretion in response to declining blood glucose b. increasing milk release and secretion in response to baby's suckling c. urgency in emptying one's urinary bladder d. sweating in response to rising body temperature

(a) tissues that respond to glucagon, such as liver; (b) breast; (c) bladder; (d) sweat glands

Dense connective tissues

(irregular and regular) provide strength or flexibility. Examples are tendons, ligaments, and the sheaths that surround muscles and nerves. In these dense tissues, collagen fibers are the dominant type

Extracellular matrix

(usually just called matrix) is extracellular material that is synthesized and secreted by the cells of a tissue

Carrier proteins

, also just called transporters, bind to the substrates that they carry but never form a direct connection between the intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid

Endocytosis

, the second process by which large molecules or particles move into cells, differs from phagocytosis in two important ways. First, in endocytosis the membrane surface indents rather than pushes out. S

Since 1972, enzymes have been designated by adding the suffix to their name.

-ase

Catalytic receptors

-have an enzyme active site on ICF -initiated by ligand

pH=

-log[H+]

microtubule

-organizing center, the centrosome, assembles tubulin molecules into microtubules.

Two compartments are separated by a membrane that is permeable to glucose but not water. Each compartment is filled with 1 M glucose. After six hours, compartment A contains 1.5 M glucose and compartment B contains 0.5 M glucose. What kind of transport occurred? Explain.

.Active transport. Must use energy to go from a state of equilibrium to one of disequilibrium.

Calculate the amount of NaCl you would weigh out to make one liter of 0.9% NaCl. Explain how you would make a liter of this solution.

0.9%=0.9 g/100 mL. Dissolve 9 g NaCl in water to yield 1 L of solution.

5 themes of physiology

1- structure and function across all levels of organization 2- energy transfer, storage, and use 3- information flow, storage, and within a single organism and within a species 4- homeostasis and how it is maintained 5- evolution

nucleoili

1-4 larger dark staining bodies of DNA, RNA, and protein. It contains that genes and proteins that conftrol the synthesis of RNA for ribosomes

Transporting epithelia can be identified by the following characteristics

1. Cell shape. Cells of transporting epithelia are much thicker than cells of exchange epithelia, and they act as a barrier as well as an entry point. The cell layer is only one cell thick (a simple epithelium), but cells are cuboidal or columnar. 2. Membrane modifications. The apical membrane, the surface of the epithelial cell that faces the lumen, has tiny fingerlike projections called microvilli that increase the surface area available for transport. A cell with microvilli has at least 20 times the surface area of a cell without them. In addition, the basolateral membrane, the side of the epithelial cell facing the extracellular fluid, may also have folds that increase the cell's surface area. 3. Cell junctions. The cells of transporting epithelia are firmly attached to adjacent cells by moderately tight to very tight junctions. This means that to cross the epithelium, material must move into an epithelial cell on one side of the tissue and out of the cell on the other side. 4. Cell organelles. Most cells that transport materials have numerous mitochondria to provide energy for transport processes (discussed further in Chapter 5). The properties of transporting epithelia differ depending on where in the body the epithelia are located. For example, glucose can cross the epithelium of the small intestine and enter the extracellular fluid but cannot cross the epithelium of the large intestine.

cytoskeleton has at least five important functions.

1. Cell shape. The protein scaffolding of the cytoskeleton provides mechanical strength to the cell and in some cells plays an important role in determining the shape of the cell. ex. cytoskeletal fibers help support microvilli {micro-, small+villus, tuft of hair}, fingerlike extensions of the cell membrane that increase the surface area for absorption of materials. 2. Internal organization. Cytoskeletal fibers stabilize the positions of organelles. ex. organelles held in place by the cytoskeleton. The interior arrangement and composition of a cell are dynamic, changing from minute to minute in response to the needs of the cell, just as the inside of the walled city is always in motion. One disadvantage of the static illustrations in textbooks is that they are unable to represent movement and the dynamic nature of many physiological processes. 3. Intracellular transport. The cytoskeleton helps transport materials into the cell and within the cytoplasm by serving as an intracellular "railroad track" for moving organelles. This function is particularly important in cells of the nervous system, where material must be transported over intracellular distances as long as a meter. 4. Assembly of cells into tissues. Protein fibers of the cytoskeleton connect with protein fibers in the extracellular space, linking cells to one another and to supporting material outside the cells. In addition to providing mechanical strength to the tissue, these linkages allow the transfer of information from one cell to another. 5. Movement. The cytoskeleton helps cells move. For example, the cytoskeleton helps white blood cells squeeze out of blood vessels and helps growing nerve cells send out long extensions as they elongate. Cilia and flagella on the cell membrane are able to move because of their microtubule cytoskeleton. Special motor proteins facilitate movement and intracellular transport by using energy from ATP to slide or step along cytoskeletal fibers.

Chap. 1- Name the 10 systems of the body and give their major functions

1. Circulatory- transport of materials between all cells of the body 2. Digestive- conversion of food into particles that can be transported into the body; elimination of some wastes 3. Endocrine- coordination of body function through synthesis and release of regulatory molecules 4. Immune- defense against foreign invaders 5. Integumentary- protection from external environment 6. Musculoskeletal- support and movement 7. Nervous- Coordination of body function through electrical signals and release of regulatory molecules 8. Reproductive- perpetuation of the species 9. Respiratory- exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the internal and external environments 10. Urinary- maintenance of water and solutes in the internal environment; waste removal

Diffusion has the following seven properties:

1. Diffusion is a passive process. By passive, we mean that diffusion does not require the input of energy from some outside source. Diffusion uses only the kinetic energy possessed by all molecules. 2. Molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. A difference in the concentration of a substance between two places is called a concentration gradient, also known as a chemical gradient. We say that molecules diffuse down the gradient, from higher concentration to lower concentration. The rate of diffusion depends on the magnitude of the concentration gradient. The larger the concentration gradient, the faster diffusion takes place. For example, when you open a bottle of cologne, the rate of diffusion is most rapid as the molecules first escape from the bottle into the air. Later, when the cologne has spread evenly throughout the room, the rate of diffusion has dropped to zero because there is no longer a concentration gradient. 3. Net movement of molecules occurs until the concentration is equal everywhere. Once molecules of a given substance have distributed themselves evenly, the system reaches equilibrium and diffusion stops. Individual molecules are still moving at equilibrium, but for each molecule that exits an area, another one enters. The dynamic equilibrium state in diffusion means that the concentration has equalized throughout the system but molecules continue to move. 4. Diffusion is rapid over short distances but much slower over long distances. Albert Einstein studied the diffusion of molecules in solution and found that the time required for a molecule to diffuse from point A to point B is proportional to the square of the distance from A to B. In other words, if the distance doubles from 1 to 2, the time needed for diffusion increases from 12 to 22 (from 1 to 4). What does the slow rate of diffusion over long distances mean for biological systems? In humans, nutrients take 5 seconds to diffuse from the blood to a cell that is 100 μm from the nearest capillary. At that rate, it would take years for nutrients to diffuse from the small intestine to cells in the big toe, and the cells would starve to death. To overcome the limitations of diffusion over distance, organisms use various transport mechanisms that speed up the movement of molecules. Most multicellular animals have some form of circulatory system to bring oxygen and nutrients rapidly from the point at which they enter the body to the cells. 5. Diffusion is directly related to temperature. At higher temperatures, molecules move faster. Because diffusion results from molecular movement, the rate of diffusion increases as temperature increases. Generally, changes in temperature do not significantly affect diffusion rates in humans because we maintain a relatively constant body temperature. 6. Diffusion rate is inversely related to molecular weight and size. Smaller molecules require less energy to move over a distance and therefore diffuse faster. Einstein showed that friction between the surface of a particle and the medium through which it diffuses is a source of resistance to movement. He calculated that diffusion is inversely proportional to the radius of the molecule: the larger the molecule, the slower its diffusion through a given medium. The experiment in Figure 5.6 shows that the smaller and lighter potassium iodide (KI) molecules diffuse more rapidly through the agar gel than the larger and heavier Congo red molecules. 7. Diffusion can take place in an open system or across a partition that separates two compartments. Diffusion of cologne within a room is an example of diffusion taking place in an open system. There are no barriers to molecular movement, and the molecules spread out to fill the entire system. Diffusion can also take place between two compartments, such as the intracellular and extracellular compartments, but only if the partition dividing the two compartments allows the diffusing molecules to cross.

functions of the cell membrane include:

1. Physical isolation. The cell membrane is a physical barrier that separates intracellular fluid inside the cell from the surrounding extracellular fluid. 2. Regulation of exchange with the environment. The cell membrane controls the entry of ions and nutrients into the cell, the elimination of cellular wastes, and the release of products from the cell. 3. Communication between the cell and its environment. The cell membrane contains proteins that enable the cell to recognize and respond to molecules or to changes in its external environment. Any alteration in the cell membrane may affect the cell's activities. 4. Structural support. Proteins in the cell membrane hold the cytoskeleton, the cell's interior structural scaffolding, in place to maintain cell shape. Membrane proteins also create specialized junctions between adjacent cells or between cells and the extracellular matrix {extra-, outside}, which is extracellular material that is synthesized and secreted by the cells. (Secretion is the process by which a cell releases a substance into the extracellular space.) Cell-cell and cell-matrix junctions stabilize the structure of tissues.

1. Potassium phosphate (KH2PO4) 2. Sodium chloride (NaCl) 3. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) 4. Potassium sulfate (K2SO4)

1. Potassium phosphate (KH2PO4) 136.1 grams 2. Sodium chloride (NaCl) 58.5 grams 3. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) 84.0 grams 4. Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) 174.3 grams

fill in the blanks for concentration, solubility, solution, solute, solvent 1. The ______________ is a measurement of the amount of substance per unit volume of mixture. 2. ______________ is the degree to which a molecule is able to dissolve in a liquid. 3. The combination of substances dissolved in a liquid is known as a _______________. 4. Any substance that dissolves in liquid is known as a _________________. 5. _________________ is the liquid into which substances dissolve, for biological systems it is water.

1. The Concentration is a measurement of the amount of substance per unit volume of mixture. 2. Solubility is the degree to which a molecule is able to dissolve in a liquid. 3. The combination of substances dissolved in a liquid is known as a Solution. 4. Any substance that dissolves in liquid is known as a Solute. 5. Solvent is the liquid into which substances dissolve, for biological systems it is water.

Fick's law because several factors influence it:

1. The size (and shape, for large molecules) of the diffusing molecule. As molecular size increases, membrane permeability decreases. 2. The lipid-solubility of the molecule. As lipid solubility of the diffusing molecule increases, membrane permeability to the molecule increases. 3. The composition of the lipid bilayer across which it is diffusing. Alterations in lipid composition of the membrane change how easily diffusing molecules can slip between the individual phospholipids. For example, cholesterol molecules in membranes pack themselves into the spaces between the fatty acids tails and retard passage of molecules through those spaces [Fig. 3.2, p. 63], making the membrane less permeable.

Normally, when a person eats food, the amount of solutes inside the bowel increases. What will happen to water balance between the blood and the bowel contents? What will happen to blood volume as this process occurs?

1. small bowel filled with food solutes (hyperosmotic) 1. Blood outside small bowel (hyposomotic) 2. H2O moves into bowel 3. Blood Volume decreases

A huge amount of water − 7 to 9 L − moves from the blood into the bowel every day, through osmosis and digestive secretions. Since people only have 5 L of blood, why don't they die from losing all the water from their blood into the bowel? The reason is that, in a healthy person, as the food and ions move down the bowel, they are absorbed into the blood. What will the water do then?

1. small bowel filled with food solutes (hypertonic) 1. Blood outside small bowel (hypotonic) 2. As food travels along the bowel, it is digested and absorbed into the blood Blood outside bowel now contains more solutes (hypersomotic) Bowel now contains fewer food solutes (hyposmotic H2O moves into blood 3. Blood volume increases

A change in pH value of one unit indicates a

10 fold change in [H+].

Lemon juice has a pH of about 2.0, compared with a pH of about 1.0 for stomach acid. Therefore, the concentration of H+ in stomach acid is __________ than that of lemon juice.

10 times higher

How would you make 200 mL of a 10% glucose solution? Calculate the molarity of this solution. How many millimoles of glucose are present in 500 mL of this solution? (Hint: What is the molecular mass of glucose?)

10% glucose=10 g/100 mL or 20 g/200 mL solution. Molarity: 10 g/100 mL=100 g/L×1 mole/180 g =0.556 moles/L or 556 millimoles/L (556 mM). 500 mL of 10% glucose would have 50 g glucose×1 mole/180 g = 278 millimoles glucose.

polyribosome

10-20 free ribosomes that form a group

A solution in which [H+]=10−3 M is (acidic/basic), whereas a solution in which [H+]=10−10 M is (acidic/basic). Give the pH for each of these solutions.

10−3 M=pH 3; acidic. 10−10 M=pH 10; basic.

The net energy yield for the anaerobic metabolism of one glucose molecule is

2 ATP and 0 NADH.

Nuclear envelope

2 membrane structure that seperates the nucleus from the cytoplasmic compartment. Both membranes have pores (holes)

Tertiary structure of a protein

3D shape created from spontaneous folding as the result of covalent bonds and noncovalent interactions (pockets, channels, and protuding knobs)

The following is a list of several levels of organization that make up the human body.1. tissue2. cell3. organ4. molecule5. organism6. organ systemThe correct order from the smallest to the largest is

4, 2, 1, 3, 6, 5.

What is the molarity of the solution that you are supposed to make for the lab?

5.98 M

what are the main components of body fluid

60%+ water, K+, Na, and Cl-

mass flow equation

= concentration of x (amount x/vol) * volume flow (vol/min)

In the hypothetical chemical reaction A+B → C+D, what is/are the reactant(s)?

A and B

covalent bond

A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule

reversible reaction

A chemical reaction that can proceed in both directions is called a reversible reaction

autocrine signal

A chemical signal that acts on the cell that secreted it is called an autocrine signal {auto-, self}.

Define cytoskeleton. List five functions of the cytoskeleton.

A flexible, changeable, three-dimensional scaffold of actin, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Functions: mechanical strength; stabilize position of organelles; transport material; link cells together; movement

solubility

A measure of how much solute can dissolve in a given solvent at a given temperature. (ie. NaCl in water)

Uniport

A membrane transport process that carries a single substance.

antiport

A membrane transport process that carries one substance in one direction and another in the opposite direction.

symport

A membrane transport process that carries two substances in the same direction across the membrane.

ligand

A molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one. (substrate)

Rough ER

A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that synthesize membrane proteins and secretory proteins. The RER's lumen is where proteins undergo chemical modification

Ubiquitin

A protein that attaches itself to faulty or misfolded proteins and thus targets them for destruction by proteasomes

molecular chaperones

A protein that helps other proteins fold or refold from a partially denatured state.

sensor

A sensor or sensory receptor continuously monitors its environment for a particular variable

stimulus

A stimulus is the disturbance or change that sets the pathway in motion. The stimulus may be a change in temperature, oxygen content, blood pressure, or any one of a myriad of other regulated variables.

Starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.

cellulose

A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms

Which of the following situations best demonstrates solubility?

A teaspoon of salt disappears when stirred into a glass of water.

nonpolar covalent bond

A type of covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms of similar electronegativity.

Cholesterol

A type of fat made by the body from saturated fat; a minor part of fat in foods. (needs water soluble carrier molecule)

Gap Junction

A type of intercellular junction in animals that allows the passage of materials between cells. They are the simplest cell-cell junction. Cylindrical proteins called connexins interlock to create passageways that look like hollow rivets with narrow channels through their centers. Allow both chemical and electrical signal to pass trhough rapidly. This is important to the liver, pancreas, ovaries, and thyroid

irreversible reaction

A+B→C+D and its reverse reaction C+D→A+B are both likely to take place. If a reaction proceeds in one direction but not the other, it is an irreversible reaction

Facilitated diffusion and active transport differ in that

ATP is necessary for active transport, but not for facilitated diffusion.

Name three nucleotides or nucleic acids, and tell why each one is important.

ATP: usable energy in a high-energy bond. DNA stores genetic information. RNA translates genetic information into proteins. cAMP: transfer of signals into cells. NAD and FAD transfer energy.

Water molecules can cross a cell membrane to enter a cell by several different mechanisms. Which answer choice is NOT a main way that water is transported into a cell?

Active transport

Which type of molecular movement requires an input of energy (for example, from ATP)?

Active transport

Distinguish between active transport and passive transport.

Active: requires direct or indirect use of energy. Passive: uses energy stored in a concentration gradient.

What would you need to do to make a 13% solution of sodium chloride (NaCl)?

Add 26 g of sodium chloride to a beaker and add water to make a final volume of 200 mL. Add 13 g of sodium chloride to a beaker and add water to make a final volume of 100 mL.

Compare the following: (a) the energy yield from the aerobic breakdown of one glucose to CO2 and H2O, and (b) the energy yield from one glucose going through anaerobic glycolysis ending with lactate. What are the advantages of each pathway?

Aerobic breakdown=30-32 ATP; anaerobic breakdown=2 ATP. Anaerobic is faster and does not require oxygen, but energy yield is lower.

threshold

All sensors have a threshold, the minimum stimulus needed to set the reflex response in motion. If a stimulus is below the threshold, no response loop is initiated.

Which type of reaction releases energy?

An exergonic reaction

List, compare, and contrast the three types of cell junctions and their subtypes. Give an example of where each type can be found in the body and describe its function in that location.

Anchoring junctions (skin)—allow twisting and stretching of tissue. Tight junctions (epithelia)—prevent movement of materials between cells. Gap junctions (some muscles)—allow material to pass directly from cytoplasm of one cell to another.

Arachidonic acid

Arachidonic acid is produced from membrane phospholipids by the action of an enzyme, phospholipase A2 (PLA2)

List the four general functions of the cell membrane.

Barrier between cell and ECF; regulate exchange of material between cell and ECF; transfer information between the cell and other cells; provide structural support.

Chap. 3- List the four general functions of the cell membrane

Barrier between cell and ECF; regulate exchange of material between cell and EXF; transfer information between the cell and other cells; provide structural support

ATPases

Because primary active transport uses ATP as its energy source, many primary active transporters are known as ATPases.

Fibrous protein

Beta strand or long chain of alpha helices insoluble in water and form structural components of cells and tissue (ie. collagen, keratin)

covalent modulator

Binds covalently to protein and changes its activity Ex. Phosphate groups

How do cells regulate the flow of molecules through their metabolic pathways? They do so in five basic ways:

By controlling enzyme concentrations By producing modulators that change reaction rates By using two different enzymes to catalyze reversible reactions By compartmentalizing enzymes within intracellular organelles By maintaining an optimum ratio of ATP to ADP

Which is an example of a cation?

Ca2+

Several types of calcium-dependent events occur in the cell:

Ca2+ binds to the protein calmodulin, found in all cells. Calcium binding alters enzyme or transporter activity or the gating of ion channels. Calcium binds to other regulatory proteins and alters movement of contractile or cytoskeletal proteins such as microtubules. For example, Ca2+ binding to the regulatory protein troponin initiates muscle contraction in a skeletal muscle cell. Ca2+ binds to regulatory proteins to trigger exocytosis of secretory vesicles [p. 147]. For example, the release of insulin from pancreatic beta cells occurs in response to a calcium signal. Ca2+ binds directly to ion channels to alter their gating state. An example of this target is a Ca2+-activated K+ channel found in nerve cells. Ca2+ entry into a fertilized egg initiates development of the embryo.

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide (CO), a gas known mostly for its toxic effects, is also a signal molecule produced in minute amounts by certain cells. Like NO, CO activates guanylyl cyclase and cGMP, but it may also work independently to exert its effects. Carbon monoxide targets smooth muscle and neural tissue.

Cadherins

Cell-cell junctions such as adherens junctions and desmosomes. Calcium-dependent.

Primary structure of a protein

Chain of amino acids, polypeptide chain varied noncovalent interactions as long polypeptide chains loop and fold back on themselves

induced fit model

Change in the shape of an enzyme's active site that enhances the fit between the active site and its substrate(s)

Is the energy of ATP's phosphate bond an example of potential or kinetic energy?

Chemical bond energy is potential energy.

Explain the differences between a chemical gradient, an electrical gradient, and an electrochemical gradient.

Chemical gradient = concentration gradient. Electrical gradient = separation of electrical charge. Electrochemical gradient includes both concentration and electrical gradients.

neurocrine molecules

Chemicals secreted by neurons are called neurocrine molecules

Chap. 1- Name the different levels of organization in a bioshphere

Chemistry, Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Physiology, Ecology

Chap.1- The name for daily fluctuations of body functions such as blood pressure, temperature, and metabolic processes is a(n)...

Circadian rhythm

Chromatin

Clusters of DNA, RNA, and proteins in the nucleus of a cell

α-adrenergic receptors have a higher affinity for norepinephrine than for epinephrine. β-adrenergic receptors have a higher affinity for epinephrine than for norepinephrine. Which characteristics of receptor function do these statements describe?

Competition

ligaments

Connect bone to bone. contain elastic fibers

tendons

Connect muscle to bone. lack elastic fibers and cannot stretch.

Chap. 1- Which organ systems are responsible for coordinating body function? For protecting the body from outside invaders? Which systems exchange material with the external environment, and what do they exchange?

Coordinate- endocrine and nervous systems. Protection: integumentary, digestive, cardiovascular, and immune systems. Exchange with external environment- respiratory exchanges gases; digestive system takes in nutrients; digestive and urinary eliminate waste products. Integumentary loses water and solutes

Diacylglycerol (DAG)

Diacylglycerol (DAG) is a nonpolar diglyceride that remains in the lipid portion of the membrane and interacts with protein kinase C (PKC)

The following graph shows the results of an experiment in which a cell was placed in a solution of glucose. The cell had no glucose in it at the beginning, and its membrane can transport glucose. Which of the following processes is/are illustrated by this experiment? a. diffusion b. saturation c. competition d. active transport Picture: glucose in the cell (y-axis) vs. time (x-axis) The graph shows a positive curve that levels off at 1 mol/L

Diffusion (a). Cannot be active transport because concentrationin never exceeds concentration (out.)

Which property of diffusion best explains why a circulatory system is needed in multicellular organisms?

Diffusion is rapid over short distances but much slower over long distances.

when is Down-regulation decreased

Down-regulation is a decrease in receptor number. The cell can physically remove receptors from the membrane through endocytosis

Eicosanoid signal molecules

Eicosanoid signal molecules are derived from arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon fatty acid and act on their target cells using G protein-coupled receptors. The synthesis process for eicosanoids is a network called the arachidonic acid cascade

Electrical signals

Electrical signals are changes in a cell's membrane potential

Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that speed up the rate of chemical reactions.

True or false? All organic molecules are biomolecules

False. All biomolecules are organic molecules, but the reverse is not true.

State the two laws of thermodynamics in your own words.

First Law: There is a fixed amount of energy in the universe. Second Law: Without input of energy, an open system will become progressively less organized.

Flagella

Flagella have the same microtubule arrangement as cilia but are considerably longer {singular, flagellum, Latin for whip}. Flagella are found on free-floating single cells, and in humans the only flagellated cell is the male sperm cell.

secondary active transport

Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport. Symport of Na and glucose. Glucose moves across its concentration gradient, will Na moves with its sodium potassium pump gradient

ionic bond

Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

When a protein enters the low-pH environment of the stomach, charges on amino acid side chains are changed. These changes break ionic bonds, which changes the structure of the protein. This will change the:

Function of the protein.

____________ are exchanged between or among substrates during exchange reactions.

Functional groups

the first identified signal transduction pathway

G protein-coupled adenylyl cyclase-cAMP system

Explain how H+ movement across the inner mitochondrial membrane results in ATP synthesis.

H+ transported into the inner compartment stores energy in a concentration gradient. When the ions move back across the membrane, the released energy is trapped in the high-energy bond of ATP.

Part complete Which of the following is an exchange reaction?

HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O

Mr. F has taken in a lot of fluid and put out very little. During this period his heart rate has increased a little and his blood pressure has decreased a little. What do you infer from this?

His body is raising blood pressure by both increasing blood volume with all this fluid intake and increasing heart rate. Something may be wrong with his blood volume.

Chap. 1- Name four major themes in physiology

Homeostasis and control systems; structure-function relationships; biological energy; communication

How do endocrine hormones reach their target cells?

Hormones are transported through the blood stream to target cells.

What does it mean if we say that a solution is hypotonic to a cell? Hypertonic to the same cell? What determines the tonicity of a solution relative to a cell?

Hypotonic: net influx of water into the cell at equilibrium. Hypertonic: net water loss at equilibrium. Tonicity is determined by relative concentrations of nonpenetrating solutes in cell versus solution.

neurotransmitter

If a neurocrine molecule diffuses from the neuron across a narrow extracellular space to a target cell and has a rapid-onset effect, it is called a neurotransmitter

If ATP releases energy to drive a chemical reaction, would you suspect the activation energy of that reaction to be large or small? Explain.

If the reaction requires ATP, the activation energy must be large compared to a reaction that does not require ATP.

Glycolysis reaction

In glycolysis (Fig. 4.12), metabolism of one glucose molecule (C6H12O6) has a net yield of two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules, 2 ATP, and high-energy electrons carried on 2 NADH: Glucose+2 NAD++2 ADP+2 Pi→2 Pyruvate+2 ATP+2 NADH+2 H++2 H2O

up-regulation

In up-regulation, the target cell inserts more receptors into its membrane.

Which is NOT an example of homeostasis?

Increased estrogen during the menstrual cycle increases the number of progesterone receptors in the uterus.

Inositol trisphosphate (IP3)

Inositol trisphosphate (IP3) is a water-soluble messenger molecule that leaves the membrane and enters the cytoplasm.

Which of the following is the best example of a first messenger in a signaling cascade?

Insulin, which causes the target cell to take up glucose from the blood

Mr. F's body is trying to increase his fluid levels. It could be responding to abnormal blood osmolarity or to abnormal blood pressure. How will you tell which problem he has? The answer is in the feedback loops. Let's look at blood pressure regulation. Is adjusting fluid content the only way a patient can control his blood pressure?

Integrative center compares blood pressure to set point; finds that blood pressure is too low-> effectors increase blood volume by increasing fluid content AND increase blood flow by increasing heart rate-> sensor measures blood pressure (not enough fluid in the body)

Body fluid levels are normally controlled by a negative feedback loop. What is involved in a negative feedback loop?

Integrative center compares variables to the set point->effectors adjust variable-> sensor measure variable->(back to begining)

Which type of receptor alters the cytoskeleton when a ligand binds to it?

Integrin receptor

Define interstitial fluid, indicating whether it is inside (intracellular) or outside (extracellular) cells.

Interstitial fluid is extracellular fluid outside the circulatory system and the cells.

Identify whether each of the following is a component of the intracellular fluid or extracellular fluid : cytosol of a red blood cell cytoplasm of a neuron interstitial fluid blood plasma

Intracellular fluid: cytosol of a red blood cell cytoplasm of a neuron extracellular Fluid: interstitial fluid blood plasma

You know that two soluble proteins are isoforms of each other. What can you predict about their structures, functions, and affinities for ligands?

Isoforms are structurally similar, with similar functions but differing affinities for ligands. They may function best under different conditions.

List two ways a cell may decrease its response to a signal.

It may down-regulate receptor number or decrease receptor affinity for the substrate.

dissociation constant

Kd=[P][L]/[PL]

Equalibrium constant

Keq= [PL]/[P][L]

__________________ transfer a phosphate group from a substrate to an ADP molecule to create ATP, or from an ATP molecule to a substrate

Kinases

relationship of kinetic energy and potential energy:

Kinetic energy of the moving ball is transformed into potential energy as work is used to push the ball up the ramp (Fig. 4.2a). Potential energy is stored in the stationary ball at the top of the ramp (Fig. 4.2b). No work is being performed, but the capacity to do work is stored in the position of the ball. The potential energy of the ball becomes kinetic energy when the ball rolls down the ramp (Fig. 4.2c). Some kinetic energy is lost to the environment as heat due to friction between the ball and the air and ramp.

There are two major groups of arachidonic acid-derived paracrine molecules to be aware of:

Leukotrienes are molecules produced by the action of the enzyme lipoxygenase on arachidonic acid {leuko-, white+ triene, a molecule with three double bonds between carbon atoms}. Leukotrienes are secreted by certain types of white blood cells. They play a significant role in asthma, a lung condition in which the smooth muscle of the airways constricts, making it difficult to breathe, and in the severe allergic reaction known as anaphylaxis. For this reason, pharmaceutical companies have developed drugs to block leukotriene synthesis or action. Prostanoids are molecules produced when the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) acts on arachidonic acid. Prostanoids include prostaglandins and thromboxanes. These eicosanoids act on many tissues of the body, including smooth muscle in various organs, platelets, kidney, and bone. In addition, prostaglandins are involved in sleep, inflammation, pain, and fever.

List and compare the four classes of membrane receptors for signal pathways. Give an example of each.

Ligand-gated channels (ATP-gated K+ channel); integrin receptors (platelet receptors); receptor enzymes (tyrosine kinase receptor); G protein-coupled receptors (adenylyl cyclase/cAMP-linked receptors).

What factors influence the rate of diffusion across a membrane? Briefly explain each one.

Lipid solubility, so that a molecule can pass through the lipid core of the membrane. Diffusion is slower for larger or heavier molecules and faster when there is more membrane surface area.

Body cells that respond to insulin include

Liver cells, as well as most other cells of the body.

What cells in the body respond to glucagon by breaking down glycogen and releasing glucose?

Liver cells.

Cancer is abnormal, uncontrolled cell division. What property of epithelial tissues might (and does) make them more prone to developing cancer?

Many epithelia are vulnerable to damage and need to be replaced frequently. Cells undergoing frequent mitosis are more likely to develop abnormal cell division.

Which of the following best describes why vitamins are important in the human body?

Many vitamins are precursors of coenzymes, which are necessary for some metabolic reactions.

Membrane enzymes

Membrane enzymes catalyze chemical reactions that take place either on the cell's external surface or just inside the cell.

Membrane receptor

Membrane receptor proteins are part of the body's chemical signaling system

signal transduction pathways:

Membrane receptors and their associated proteins usually either activate protein kinases, which are enzymes that transfer a phosphate group from ATP to a protein [p. 102]. Phosphorylation is an important biochemical method of regulating cellular processes. activate amplifier enzymes that create intracellular second messengers. Second messenger molecules in turn alter the gating of ion channels. Opening or closing ion channels creates electrical signals by altering the cell's membrane potential [p. 157]. increase intracellular calcium. Calcium binding to proteins changes their function, creating a cellular response. change enzyme activity, especially of protein kinases or protein phosphatases, enzymes that remove a phosphate group. The phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of a protein can change its configuration and create a response. The proteins modified by calcium binding and phosphorylation are responsible for the cell's response to the signal. Examples of responses include increased or decreased enzyme activity and opening or closing of gated ion channels.

The protein actin is part of which structures?

Microfilaments

If you were to measure out 1/1,000,000 of a liter, how would you express and abbreviate this volume measurement?

Microliter (μL)

The harder a cell works, the more CO2 it produces. CO2is carried in the blood according to the following equation: CO2+H2O ⇌ H++HCO −3

More CO2 means more H+ by the law of mass action.

What effect does hard work by your muscle cells have on the pH of the blood?

More H+ means a decrease in pH.

aquapori

Most cells have water channels made from a protein called aquapori

duct

Most exocrine glands release their products through open tubes known as duct

glycocalyx

Most membrane carbohydrates are sugars attached either to membrane proteins (glycoproteins) or to membrane lipids (glycolipids). They are found exclusively on the external surface of the cell, where they form a protective layer known as the glycocalyx

paracellular pathway

Movement of materials between cells

Faciliatated Diffusion (passive)

Movement of molecules across cell membrane via special transport proteins that are embedded within the cellular membrane; moving from high to low concentration. Also called carrier-mediated diffusion. no energy used ex. aquaporins

motor proteins.

Movement of the cell or of elements within the cell takes place with the aid of protein fibers and a group of specialized enzymes called motor proteins.

mucous secretion

Mucous secretions (also called mucus) are sticky solutions containing glycoproteins and proteoglycans.

NaCl is a nonpenetrating solute and urea is a penetrating solute for cells. Red blood cells (RBCs) are placed in each of the solutions below. The RBC intracellular concentration of nonpenetrating solute is 300 mOsM. What will happen to the cell volume in each solution? Label the solutions with all the terms that apply: hypertonic, isotonic, hypotonic, hyperosmotic, hyposmotic, isosmotic. Watch units! Assume 1 M NaCl=2 OsM for simplicity. 150 mM NaCl plus 150 mM urea 100 mM NaCl plus 50 mM urea 100 mM NaCl plus 100 mM urea 150 mM NaCl plus 100 mM urea 100 mM NaCl plus 150 mM urea

Must convert units from mM to mOsM. (a) hyperosmotic, isotonic; (b) hyposmotic, hypotonic; (c) isosmotic, hypotonic; (d) hyperosmotic, isotonic; (e) hyperosmotic, hypotonic

The graph shown below represents the binding of oxygen molecules (O2) to two different proteins, myoglobin and hemoglobin, over a range of oxygen concentrations. Based on the graph, which protein has the higher affinity for oxygen? Explain your reasoning.

Myoglobin has a higher affinity for O2 because at lower oxygen concentrations, myoglobin binds more O2 than hemoglobin does.

List two carrier molecules that deliver high-energy electrons to the electron transport system.

NADH and FADH2

nitric oxide synthase (NOS)

NO is synthesized by the action of the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS) on the amino acid arginine: arginine + O2->Nitric oxide synthase-> NO+ citrulline

Na/glucose cotransporter

Na+ and glucose bind to the SGLT protein on the extracellular fluid side. Sodium binds first and causes a conformational change in the protein that creates a high-affinity binding site for glucose 1. When glucose binds to SGLT 2, the protein changes conformation again and opens its channel to the intracellular fluid side 3. Sodium is released to the ICF as it moves down its concentration gradient. The loss of Na+ from the protein changes the binding site for glucose back to a low-affinity site, so glucose is released and follows Na+ into the cytoplasm. The net result is the entry of glucose into the cell against its concentration gradient, coupled to the movement of Na+ into the cell down its concentration gradient. The SGLT transporter can only move glucose into cells because glucose must follow the Na+ gradient.

Chap. 1- Name as many organs or body structures that connect directly with the external environment as you can

Nasal and oral cavities; external ear; lacrimal (tear) ducts; swear, sebaceous, and mammary gland ducts; lumens of esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines; ducts of the salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gall bladder; urinary tract, reproductive, and respiratory organs

Name as many organs or body structures that connect directly with the external environment as you can.

Nasal and oral cavities; external ear; lacrimal (tear) ducts; sweat, sebaceous, and mammary gland ducts; lumens of esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines; ducts of the salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gall bladder; urinary tract, reproductive, and respiratory organs.

Chap. 1- Explain the difference among positive feedback and negative feedback and feedforward mechanisms. Under what circumstances would each be advantageous?

Negative feedback- feedback signal turns response loop off; helps maintain homeostasis. Positive feedback- feedback keeps the response loop going; makes a change bigger. Feedforward- starts response loop before the stimulus does; minimizes change

Neural tissue has two types of cells.

Neuorons and Glial

Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of neural versus endocrine control mechanisms.

Neural control is faster than endocrine and better for short-acting responses. Endocrine control can affect widely separated tissues with a single signal and better for long-acting responses.

Components of Proteins and nucleic acids

Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen (2 AA contain sulfur)

Have you made the correct concentration of solution? Why or why not?

No, using 175 g of sodium chloride in 5 L of solution will give a 3.5% solution.

An atom of carbon has four unpaired electrons in an outer shell with space for eight electrons. How many covalent bonds will one carbon atom form with other atoms?

One carbon atom needs to share four electrons to fill its outer shell; therefore, it will form four covalent bonds.

Choose the correct example of signal amplification.

One hormone molecule causes the activation of more than one second messenger molecule.

Open channels

Open channels are sometimes called either leak channels or pores, as in water pores.

What determines the osmolarity of a solution? In what units is body osmolarity usually expressed?

Osmolarity: concentration of osmotically active particles, expressed as osmol/L or milliosmoles per liter

Name two elements whose presence contributes to a molecule becoming a polar molecule.

Oxygen and nitrogen strongly attract electrons and tend to form polar bonds.

Which of the following processes are examples of active transport, and which are examples of passive transport? Simple diffusion, phagocytosis, facilitated diffusion, exocytosis, osmosis, endocytosis.

Passive: simple and facilitated diffusion, osmosis. Active: phagocytosis, exocytosis, and endocytosis.

After treatment with intravenous fluids, Mrs. M. is feeling better and is able to talk with her doctor. She tells you she has finally agreed to have a colostomy − an operation in which part of her large intestine is removed, leaving an opening on her abdomen (a stoma) where the intestinal contents are emptied into a colostomy bag. She refused this operation for years because her aunt had an ileostomy and struggled with fluid balance and managing her ileostomy bag. In Mrs. M's aunt's ileostomy, all of the large intestine was removed. In Mrs. M's colostomy, only part of the large intestine will be removed.

Patients with an ileostomy will have more problems with water balance because they have less intestinal surface to absorb solutes into the blood.

If you were to throw many phospholipids into an aqueous solution, which of the following would you observe?

Phosphate heads and lipid tails would orient away from each other, with the phosphate heads facing either the extracellular or intracellular fluid and the tails facing each other.

What is the role of activated protein kinases?

Phosphorylate proteins.

Chap. 1- What does "physiology is an integrative science" mean?

Physiology integrates body function across all levels of organization and emphasizes the coordinated function of body systems

Chitin

Polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.

Explain the difference between potential energy and kinetic energy.

Potential energy = stored energy; kinetic energy = energy of motion.

Protein binding of chemical signals obeys the general rules for...

Protein binding of chemical signals obeys the general rules for protein interactions, including specificity, affinity, competition, and saturation

List the four kinds of biomolecules. Give an example of each kind that is relevant to physiology.

Proteins (collagen, hemoglobin, enzymes); carbohydrates (glucose, sucrose); lipids (cholesterol, phospholipids); and nucleic acids (ATP, DNA, RNA).

Describe the Process of protein synthesis, modification, and packaging in diffrent parts of the cell

RNA for protein synthesis is made from DNA templates in the nucleus 1, then transported to the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores 2. In the cytoplasm, proteins are synthesized on ribosomes that may be free inclusions 3 or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum 4. The newly made protein is compartmentalized in the lumen of the rough ER 5 where it is modified before being packaged into a vesicle 6. The vesicles fuse with the Golgi apparatus, allowing additional modification of the protein in the Golgi lumen 7. The modified proteins leave the Golgi packaged in either storage vesicles 8 or secretory vesicles whose contents will be released into the extracellular fluid 10. The molecular details of protein synthesis are discussed elsewhere

Nucleoli function in the production of

RNA for ribosomes.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Receptor-mediated endocytosis takes place in regions of the cell membrane known as coated pits, indentations where the cytoplasmic side of the membrane has high concentrations of protein.

anaerobic respiration

Respiration that does not require oxygen. Yeild small quantities of ATP

aerobic respiration

Respiration that requires oxygen. Yeild the most ATP

Which would have more rough endoplasmic reticulum: pancreatic cells that manufacture the protein hormone insulin, or adrenal cortex cells that synthesize the steroid hormone cortisol?

Rough ER is where proteins are made, so pancreatic cells would have more.

Secretory epithelia

Secretory epithelia synthesize and release secretory products into the external environment or into the blood. composed of cells that produce a substance and then secrete it into the extracellular space. may be scattered among other epithelial cells, or they may group together to form a multicellular gland

Exocrine gland cells produce two types of secretions.

Serous secretions and mucous secretions

Serous secretions

Serous secretions are watery solutions, and many of them contain enzymes. Tears, sweat, and digestive enzyme solutions are all serous exocrine secretions.

Signal transduction

Signal transduction is the process by which an extracellular signal molecule activates a membrane receptor that in turn alters intracellular molecules to create a response.

Primary Active Transporters

Sodium potassium pump (antiport), Ca2+ ATPase (uniport), Proton Pump (uniport), H+ K+ ATPase (antiport)

caveolae

Some endocytosis uses small flask-shaped indentations called caveolae ("little caves") rather than clathrin-coated pits to concentrate and bring receptor-bound molecules into the cell. Caveolae are membrane regions with lipid rafts

Define the following terms and explain how they differ from one another: specificity, competition, saturation. Apply these terms in a short explanation of facilitated diffusion of glucose.

Specificity: Enzyme or transporter works on one molecule or class of molecules. Competition: Similar substrates can compete for the protein binding site. Saturation: Rate reaches a maximum when all binding sites are filled. GLUT is specific for hexose sugars. If glucose and fructose are both present, they compete for GLUT binding sites. If enough sugar is present, transport saturates.

Sphingolipids

Sphingolipids also have fatty acid tails, but their heads may be either phospholipids or glycolipids. Sphingolipids are slightly longer than phospholipids.

Arrange the following terms in the order of a reflex and give an anatomical example of each step when applicable: input signal, integrating center, output signal, response, sensor, stimulus, target.

Stimulus to sensor (sensory receptor) to input signal (sensory nerve) to integrating center. Integrating center (the brain or an endocrine cell) sends an output signal (through nerve or hormone) to target cell (muscles and glands), which reacts to the stimulus with a response.

Chap. 1- Put the following parts of a reflex in the correct order for a physiological response loop: input signal, integrating center, output signal, response, sensor, stimulus, target

Stimulus, sensor, input signal, integrating center, output signal, target, response

Based on what you know from experience about the tendency of the following substances to dissolve in water, predict whether they are polar or nonpolar molecules: table sugar, vegetable oil.

Table sugar dissolves easily, so it is polar. Vegetable oil does not dissolve in water, so it is nonpolar

A liver cell responds to insulin by

Taking in glucose and converting it to glycogen.

Smooth ER

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes. main site for synthesis of fatty acids, steroids and cholesterol

abdominopelvic cavity.

The abdomen and pelvis form one continuous cavity

Which of the following is a definition for homeostasis?

The ability of living systems to maintain a relatively constant internal environment

cotransport

The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient.

How would the lack of a required cofactor for an enzyme affect that enzyme's function?

The enzyme would not be able to function.

Who was Walter Cannon? Restate his four postulates in your own words.

The father of American physiology. (1) The nervous system keeps body functions within normal limits. (2) Some functions have tonic control rather than on-off control. (3) Some signals act in opposition to each other. (4) Cell response depends on the cell's receptor for a signal.

bone

The fibrous extracellular matrix of bone is said to be calcified because it contains mineral deposits, primarily calcium salts, such as calcium phosphate

Chap.1- Define homeostasis. Name some regulated variables that are regulated during homeostasis

The maintenance of internal stability. Examples: body temperature and water balance

bulk flow

The movement of a fluid due to a difference in pressure between two locations.

Cannon's four postulates are:

The nervous system has a role in preserving the "fitness" of the internal environment. Fitness in this instance means conditions that are compatible with normal function. The nervous system coordinates and integrates blood volume, blood osmolarity, blood pressure, and body temperature, among other regulated variables. (In physiology, a regulated variable is also known as a parameter {para-, beside+ meter, measure}). Some systems of the body are under tonic control {tonos, tone}. To quote Cannon, "An agent may exist which has a moderate activity which can be varied up and down." Tonic control is like the volume control on a radio. The radio is always on, but by turning a single knob, you can make the sound level louder or softer. This is one of the more difficult concepts in physiology because we have a tendency to think of responses as being either off or on rather than a response always on that can increase or decrease. A physiological example of a tonically controlled system is the minute-to-minute regulation of blood vessel diameter by the nervous system. Increased input from the nervous system decreases vessel diameter, and decreased input from the nervous system increases diameter (Fig. 6.15a). In this example, it is the amount of neurotransmitter that determines the vessel's response: more neurotransmitter means a stronger response.

If a swimmer cuts his foot on a seashell while wading in the ocean and bleeds into the seawater, his erythrocytes will shrink. What does this tell us about the relative tonicities of the solutions?

The ocean is hypertonic to the erythrocytes.

When blood glucose levels are low

The pancreas releases glucagon, which eventually causes blood glucose levels to increase

When blood glucose levels are high

The pancreas releases insulin.

According to Fick's law of diffusion, diffusion rate is proportional to the surface area of the membrane, the concentration gradient, and which other variable?

The permeability of the membrane

free energy

The potential energy stored in the chemical bonds of a molecule is known as the free energy of the molecule.

What will happen to the cells of a patient who is given an intravenous (IV) solution that is isosmotic to intracellular fluids?

The question cannot be answered with certainty without knowing which solutes are present in the IV solution.

Properties of simple diffusion

The rate of diffusion depends on the ability of the diffusing molecule to dissolve in the lipid layer of the membrane. The rate of diffusion across a membrane is directly proportional to the surface area of the membrane.

Fick's Law of Diffusion

The rate of gas transfer (V gas) is proportional to the tissue area, the diffusion coefficient of the gas, and the difference in the partial pressure of the gas on the two sides of the tissue, and inversely proportional to the thickness.

receptor-ligand

The receptor-ligand complex turns on an amplifier enzyme

Organ systems of the Human body and their integration. Name 4 systems that exchange material between internal and external environements

The respiratory (pulmonary) system exchanges gases; the digestive (gastrointestinal) system takes up nutrients and water and eliminates wastes; the urinary (renal) system removes excess water and waste material; and the reproductive system produces eggs or sperm.

signal pathways share the following features

The signal molecule is a ligand that binds to a protein receptor. The ligand is also known as a first messenger because it brings information to the target cell. Ligand-receptor binding activates the receptor. The receptor in turn activates one or more intracellular signal molecules. The last signal molecule in the pathway creates a response by modifying existing proteins or initiating the synthesis of new proteins.

reaction rate

The speed with which a reaction takes place

microfilaments

The thinnest are actin fibers. Function in muscle contractions

How does the intracellular fluid compartment differ from the extracellular fluid compartment?

There is a higher concentration of potassium ions inside the cell than in the extracellular space.

endergonic

These reactions that require a net input of energy {end(o), within+ergon, work}, or energy-utilizing, reactions.

In which body cavity does the heart sit?

Thoracic cavity

Part complete ________ proteins extend all the way across the cell membrane.

Transmembrane

List the three basic forms of work and give a physiological example of each.

Transport work (moving substances across membranes); chemical work (making proteins); and mechanical work (muscle contraction).

A blood pH of less than 7.00 and greater than 7.70 is incompatible with life.

True

Match each term with the correct definition. bilayer, liposome, micelles Two rows of phospholipids that form a sheet with tails facing each other and heads on either side facing the aqueous solution −bilayer Two rows of phospholipids that form a sheet with tails facing each other and heads on either side facing the aqueous solution − A double membrane droplet containing proteins along the center and an aqueous core − . Droplets of phospholipids containing a lipid core/center

Two rows of phospholipids that form a sheet with tails facing each other and heads on either side facing the aqueous solution −bilayer Two rows of phospholipids that form a sheet with tails facing each other and heads on either side facing the aqueous solution − bilayer. A double membrane droplet containing proteins along the center and an aqueous core −liposomes A double membrane droplet containing proteins along the center and an aqueous core − liposomes. Droplets of phospholipids containing a lipid core/center −micelles

Which of the following best describes dehydration synthesis?

Two smaller molecules join together after a water molecule is removed from between them.

A number of organelles can be considered vesicles. Define vesicle and describe at least three examples.

Vesicles—membranous spheres. Examples: lysosomes, peroxisomes, secretory vesicles.

Foods are broken down into their building blocks by adding water. This would be an example of which characteristic of water?

Water acts as a reactant.

Water acts to dissolve molecules in the body. How does water dissolve the salt (NaCl) in your mouth from a salty pretzel?

Water acts as a solvent because the partial negative charge on the oxygen in water attracts sodium, while the partial positive charge on hydrogen attracts chloride. This results in the separation of sodium from chloride, thus breaking the ionic bond.

You get the results of Mrs. M's blood tests and see that the osmolarity of her blood is higher than normal. What is the most likely explanation for the increased concentration of Mrs. M's blood?What is the most likely explanation for the increased concentration of Mrs. M's blood?

Water has moved from her blood into her intestinal contents, leaving solutes behind.

Explain why it is advantageous for a cell to store or secrete an enzyme in an inactive form.

When inactive, they cannot harm the cell if accidentally released.

Law of mass action

When protein binding is at equilibrium, the ratio of bound and unbound components remains constant

sodium-potassium pump (active transport)

a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell. (3 Na+ or exchange of 2 K+)

fibroblast

a cell in connective tissue that produces collagen and other fibers.

Modulator

a factor that influences either protein binding or protein activity

gene

a gene is a region of DNA that contains the information needed to make a functional piece of RNA, which in turn can make a protein.

basal lamina (basement membrane)

a matrix layer composed of a network of collagen and laminin filaments embedded in proteoglycans.

The membrane receptors and second messengers often activate

a protein kinase.

Specificity

a protein to bind to a certain ligand (requires molecular complementarity)

receptor-enzymes have two regions:

a receptor region on the extracellular side of the cell membrane, and an enzyme region on the cytoplasmic side

van der Waals forces

a slight attraction that develops between the oppositely charged regions of nearby molecules

In plasma, a typical body fluid, protein floating around would be considered to be which of the following?

a solute, specifically both a colloid and an electrolyte

glycogen

a substance deposited in bodily tissues as a store of carbohydrates. It is a polysaccharide that forms glucose on hydrolysis.

Match each definition in the left column with the correct term from the right column (you will not use all the terms): a. reaction that can run either direction b. reaction that releases energy c. ability of an enzyme to catalyze one reaction but not another d. boost of energy needed to get a reaction started 1. exergonic 2. endergonic 3. activation energy 4. reversible 5. irreversible 6. specificity 7. free energy 8. saturation

a) 4, (b) 1, (c) 6, (d) 3

explain the relationships of the terms in each of the following sets. Give a physiological example or location if applicable. gap junctions, connexins, connexon autocrine signal, paracrine signal cytokine, neurotransmitter, neurohormone, neuromodulator, hormone Receptor agonist, receptor antagonist, antagonistic control pathways transduction, amplification, cascade

a) Gap junctions connect two cells using protein channels called connexons, made from connexin subunits. (b) Paracrine signals act on nearby cells; autocrine signals act on the cell that secretes them. (c) Cytokines are peptide autocrine and paracrine signals. Neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and neurohormones are all chemicals secreted by neurons. Neurotransmitters act rapidly on nearby cells; neuromodulators act more slowly. Neurohormones and hormones are secreted into the blood for action on distant targets. (d) Receptor agonists activate receptors just like the normal ligand; receptor antagonists also bind to the receptor but block its activation. Antagonistic pathways create responses that oppose each other. (e) Transduction: A signal molecule transfers information from ECF to the cytoplasm. Cascade: a series of steps. Amplification: One signal molecule creates a larger signal.

Match these definitions with their terms (not all terms are used): a. the ability of a protein to bind one molecule but not another b. the part of a protein molecule that binds the ligand c. the ability of a protein to alter shape as it binds a ligand 1. irreversible inhibition 2. induced fit 3. binding site 4. specificity 5. saturation

a. 4 b. 3 c. 2

Chap. 1- Distinguish between the items in each group of terms a.) tissues and organs b.) x-axis and y-axis c.) dependent and independent variables d.) teleological and mechanistic approaches e.) the internal and external environments for a human f.) blind, double-blind, and crossover studies g.) the target and the sensor in a control system

a.) tissues- collections of cells that carry out related functions. organs- collections of tissues that form structural and functional units b.) x-axis- independent variable, y-axis- dependent variable c.) independent variable is manipulated to change the dependent variable d.) teleological- functional approach, the "why" of a system, mechanistic approach-physiological mechanisms, the "how" of a system e.) internal environment- extracellular fluid; external environment- the world outside the body f.) blind study- subjects do not know the treatment they are receiving. double blind- neither subjects nor experiments know which treatment is the active one. crossover- each subject serves as both control and experimental g.) sensors receive signals. targets respond to signals

signal molecules

act as hormones or other molecules

activation of receptor-channels

activation of receptor-channels initiates the most rapid intracellular responses of all receptors. When an extra-cellular ligand binds to the receptor-channel protein, a channel gate opens or closes, altering the cell's permeability to an ion.

Match the transport process to its description. A. active transportB. passive transportthe movement of molecules via proteins embedded in the cell membrane; requires ATP

active transport

The concentration of calcium inside a cell is 0.3%. The concentration of calcium outside the cell is 0.1%. How could the cell transport even more calcium to the inside?

active transport

acclimatization

adaption of a physiological process to an environment

addition reaction

adds a functional group to one or more of the substrates.

An energy-transferring compound in cells is a nucleotide known as

adenosine triphosphate.

Cell-cell anchoring junctions take the form of either

adherens junctions or desmosomes.

pinocytosis

allowing extracellular fluid to enter the cell—a process called pinocytosis {pino-,drink}

The first law of thermodynamics,

also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that the total amount of energy in the universe is constant. The universe is considered to be a closed system

pH and temp

alter 3D shape of protein by disrupting hydrogen or S-S bonds; may be irreversible if protein is denatured

Blood

an unusual connective tissue that is characterized by its watery extracellular matrix called plasma. Plasma consists of a dilute solution of ions and dissolved organic molecules, including a large variety of soluble proteins. Blood cells and cell fragments are suspended in the plasma (Fig. 3.13d), but the insoluble protein fibers typical of other connective tissues are absent

A negatively charged ion is called a(n) , and a positively charged ion is called a(n) .

anion; cation

immunoglobulins

antibodies (extracellular immune proteins)

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)

are a large and complex family of membrane-spanning proteins that cross the phospholipid bilayer seven times

Protective epithelia

are found on the surface of the body and just inside the openings of body cavities. protective epithelia prevent exchange between the internal and external environments and protect areas subject to mechanical or chemical stresses. These epithelia are stratified tissues, composed of many stacked layers of cells. Protective epithelia may be toughened by the secretion of keratin {keras, horn}, the same insoluble protein abundant in hair and nails. The epidermis {epi, upon+derma, skin} and linings of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, urethra, and vagina are all protective epithelia.

Proteoglycans

are glycoproteins, which are proteins covalently bound to polysaccharide chains

Ciliated epithelia

are located primarily in the airways of the respiratory system and in the female reproductive tract. they are covered with cilia that move fluid over the surface

inclusions

are particles of insoluble materials. Some are stored nutrients. Others are responsible for specific cell functions. These structures are sometimes called the nonmembranous organelles.

Motor proteins

are proteins that convert stored energy into directed movement. Three groups of motor proteins are associated with the cytoskeleton: myosins, kinesins, and dyneins. All three groups use energy stored in ATP to propel themselves along cytoskeleton fibers.

Transporting epithelia

are selective about what can cross them and are found primarily in the intestinal tract and the kidney. transporting epithelia actively and selectively regulate the exchange of nongaseous materials, such as ions and nutrients, between the internal and external environments. These epithelia line the hollow tubes of the digestive system and the kidney, where lumens open into the external environmen

Cilia

are short, hairlike structures projecting from the cell surface like the bristles of a brush {singular, cilium, Latin for eyelash}. These cilia beat rhythmically back and forth when the microtubule pairs in their core slide past each other with the help of the motor protein dynein.

Goblet cells

are single exocrine cells that produce mucus

Ribosomes

are small, dense granules of RNA and protein that manufacture proteins under the direction of the cell's DNA

Hemidesmosomes

are strong junctions that anchor intermediate fibers of the cytoskeleton to fibrous matrix proteins such as laminin.

Loose connective tissues

are the elastic tissues that underlie skin and provide support for small gland

Integral proteins

are tightly bound to the membrane, and the only way they can be removed is by disrupting the membrane structure with detergents or other harsh methods that destroy the membrane's integrity. Integral proteins include transmembrane proteins and lipid-anchored proteins.

Kinesins and dyneins

assist the movement of vesicles along microtubules.

The smallest organizational level is a(n)

atom

anchoring Junctions

attach cells to each other (cell-cell anchoring junctions) or to the extracellular matrix (cell-matrix anchoring junctions). In vertebrates, cell-cell anchoring junctions are created by cadherins, which connect with one another across the intercellular space. Cell-matrix junctions use integrins. Integrins are membrane proteins that can also bind to signal molecules in the cell's environment, transferring information carried by the signal across the cell membrane into the cytoplasm.

fixed ribosomes

attached to the endoplasmic reticulum

chemical modulator

bind covalently or noncovalently to proteins and alter their binding ability or activity

Myosins

bind to actin fibers and are best known for their role in muscle contraction

antagonist (inhibitor)

binds to a protein and decreases its acitivity

irreversible inhibitors

binds to binding site and cannot be displaced

allosteric modulator

binds to protein away from binding site and changes activity; may be inhibitors or activators

Think about the following examples of homeostatic regulation: In response to an increase in plasma K+ concentrations, the hormone aldosterone brings K+ levels back to normal. In response to a decrease in plasma Ca2+ concentrations, parathyroid hormone brings Ca2+ levels back to normal. Which of the statements below is true?

both are examples of negative feedback

A molecule that moderates changes in pH is called a .

buffer

The amplification of the signal from a water-soluble hormone is achieved through an increase in _______.

cAMP in the cytoplasm

An ion widely important in intracellular signaling is

calcium

One intracellular calcium-binding protein is

calmodulin.

Energy

can be defined as the capacity to do work

Atoms in a covalent molecule share electrons

can share electrons in single pairs, double pairs, or triple pairs.

where does carbohydrates, transmembrane protein, peripheral protein, lipid-anchored protein, cholesterol go in the lipid bilayer

carbohydrate

Glycogen is an example of a

carbohydrate.

glycolosis

carbohydrates enter glycolysis in the form of glucose . Lipids are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids [p. 30], which enter the pathway at different points: glycerol feeds into glycolysis, and fatty acids are metabolized to acetyl CoA. Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which also enter at various points. Carbons from glycolysis and other nutrients enter the citric acid cycle, which makes a never-ending circle. At each turn, the cycle adds carbons and produces ATP, high-energy electrons, and carbon dioxid

components of carbohydrates

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (CH2O)

All organic molecules contain

carbon.

components of a lipid

carbons and hydrogen

GLUT

carrier proteins known as GLUT transporters move glucose and related hexose sugars across membranes.

In metabolism, reactions release energy and result in the breakdown of large biomolecules, and reactions require a net input of energy and result in the synthesis of large biomolecules. In what units do we measure the energy of metabolism?

catabolic; anabolic. Kilocalories.

Maryam eats an apple and starts thinking about how the enzymes in her mouth are breaking the large structure of the apple down into smaller, more simple structures. This is an example of

catabolism

The neurotransmitter epinephrine __________.

causes some blood vessels to dilate and others to constrict, because different blood vessels have different receptors for epinephrine

The cell is composed of

cell membrane Nucleus Cytoplasm cytoplasm: has cytosol, membrane organelles, inclusions, and protein fibers

The most significant difference between a paracrine and an autocrine is the

cell that responds to it.

centrosome

centrosome contains two centrioles,

The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by a special fluid compartment known as

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

What two types of physiological signals does the body use to send messages? Of these two types, which is available to all cells?

chemical (available to all cells) and electrical

a proteins affinity for a ligand is not always constant

chemical and physical factors alter (modulate) binding affinity or can eleminate it-> some proteins must be activiated (proteins and enzymes)

free radicals

chemical particles with an odd number of electrons (attributed to aging, disease and cancer)

chemically gated channels

chemically gated channels, the gating is controlled by intracellular messenger molecules or extracellular ligands that bind to the channel protein

Electrolytes are charged particles called ions that are dissolved in body fluids. Which of the following ions would be considered a major anion in the body?

chloride

Examples of circadian rhythms

circadian rhythms for many body functions, including blood pressure, body temperature, and metabolic processes (daily biological rythem- can be cued by light-dark cycles corresponding to rest-activity cycles)

Organic cofactors for enzymes are called

coenzymes Coenzymes do not alter the enzyme's binding site as inorganic cofactors do. Instead, coenzymes act as receptors and carriers for atoms or functional groups that are removed from the substrates during the reaction. Although coenzymes are needed for some metabolic reactions to take place, they are not required in large amounts.

An ion, such as Ca2+ or Mg2+, that must be present in order for an enzyme to work is called a(n) .

cofactors

Essential for Binding Activity

cofactors and proteolytic activation

elastin

coiled, wavy protein that returns to its original length after being stretched

dextran

colloid (sugar-containing)- found in yeast and bacteria

conjugated protein

combine with a lipid or carbohydrate (ie. lipoprotein)

Negative feedback in reflex loops is __________.

common because it promotes homeostasis

Stronger cell junctions can be grouped into three broad categories by function:

communicating junctions, occluding junctions {occludere, to close up}, and anchoring junctions

competitive inhibitor

compete directly with a ligand by binding reversibly to active site

agonist

competing ligands that mimic each others actions (ie. nicotene mimics acitivity of neurotransmitter acetylcholine by bindind to the same receptor)

Modulators and Factors that alter binding or activity

competitive inhibitor, irreversible inhibitor, allosteric modulator, covalent modulator, pH and temp

Albuterol is a drug used to treat asthma. Albuterol and epinephrine are both agonists for a receptor that stimulates the dilation of bronchioles. Albuterol and epinephrine are examples of ________

competitors.

Fick's law of diffusion states that the rate of diffusion across a membrane is proportional to

concentration gradient, surface area, and membrane permeability.

______________=_________________/________________ fill in blanks with concentration, solute amount and volume of solution

concentration=solute amount/ volume of solution

A material that allows free movement of electrical charges is called a(n)___________ , whereas one that prevents this movement is called a(n) ______________.

conductor; insulator

List the four major tissue types. Give an example and location of each.

connective tissue (tendons that hold muscles to bones); epithelium (skin); neural tissue (the brain); and muscular tissue (heart and skeletal muscles)

fibronectin

connects cells to extracellular matrix at focal adhesions

secretory cytoplasmic vesicles

contain proteins that will be released from the cell.

These result when the carbon atoms in phospholipids share a pair of electrons.

covalent bonds

Fill in the blanks with the correct bond type. In a(n) bond, electrons are shared between atoms. If the electrons are attracted more strongly to one atom than to the other, the molecule is said to be a(n) molecule. If the electrons are evenly shared, the molecule is said to be a(n) molecule.

covalent; polar; nonpolar

Channel proteins

create water-filled passageways that directly link the intracellular and extracellular compartments.

cytoplasm consists of

cyctosol (fluid), inclusions (insoluble), protein fibers (insoluble), and organells

cytoplasmic tail

cytoplasmic tail of the receptor protein is linked to a three-part membrane transducer molecule known as a G protein

Removal of an amino group from an amino acid or peptide is a

deamination

Hydrolysis is an example of which type of reaction?

decomposition

down-regulate

decrease in protein number or binding affinity that lessens the response

Down-regulation results in a(n) (increased or decreased?) number of receptors in response to a prolonged signal.

decreased

Peroxisomes

degrades long-chain fatty acids and potentially toxic foreign molecules (reactions inside them generate H2O2-> converts to oygen and water using catalase)

The removal of H2O from reacting molecules is called ___________ . Using H2O to break down polymers, such as starch, is called _______________.

dehydration; hydrolysis

A protein that no longer functions because its shape has changed (for example, as a result of heating) has been __________.

denatured

When an enzyme's activity is inactivated by heat or a change in pH, the enzyme is said to be

denatured.

DNA contains the five-carbon sugar

deoxyribose

Receptor molecules on the surface of a cell

determine that cell's response and allow a particular ligand to bind.

G protein-coupled pathway, phospholipase C (PLC) converts a membrane phospholipid (phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate) into two lipid-derived second messenger molecules:

diacylglycerol and inositol trisphosphate

Fick's equation of diffusion

diffusion rate/surface area=concentration gradient* membrane permiability=flux

Centrioles

direct the movement of DNA during cell division.

concentration gradients

distributions of molecules in which the concentration is higher on one side of a membrane than on the other.

Role of S-S bond in shaping globular protein

disulfide bonds can pull the sections of a chain together

Which of the following phrases best defines something that is hydrophobic? A substance that __________.

does not mix with water

endocrine glands

ductless and release their secretions, called hormones, into the body's extracellular compartment

This subatomic particle has a negative charge.

electron

An ion has gained or lost

electrons

electron transport system (ETS)

electrons carried by NADH and FADH2. These compounds transfer the electrons to the electron transport system (ETS) in the mitochondria. The electron transport system, in turn, uses energy from those electrons to make the high-energy phosphate bond of ATP. At various points, the process produces carbon dioxide and water.

high energy electrons

electrons that can yield energy as they pass through an electron transport chain

Transport work

enables cells to move ions, molecules, and larger particles through the cell membrane and through the membranes of organelles in the cell.

feedback inhibition

end product inhibition

__________glands release hormones, which enter the blood and regulate the activities of organs or systems.

endocrine

Oxidation-reduction reactions are the most important reactions in

energy extraction and transfer in cells. These reactions transfer electrons from one molecule to another. A molecule that gains electrons is said to be reduced. One way to think of this is to remember that adding negatively charged electrons reduces the electric charge on the molecule. Conversely, molecules that lose electrons are said to be oxidized.

kinetic energy

energy of motion

According to the second law of thermodynamics,

entropy increases in living systems without the input of energy.

Name 7 proteins

enzymes, membrane transporters, signal molecules, receptors, binding proteins, immunoglobulins, regulatory proteins

mitochondrial matrix

enzymes, ribosomes, granules, and Mitochondria DNA to manufacture there own proteins.

Chemical reactions that occur in the human body proceed at a faster rate due to special catalytic molecules called

enzymes.

________________ are protein molecules that speed up chemical reactions by (increasing or decreasing?) the activation energy of the reaction.

enzymes; decreasing

transcytosis

epithelia by transcytosis, which is a combination of endocytosis, vesicular transport across the cell, and exocytosis

four primary tissue types in the human body:

epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural, or nerve.

The membrane potential at which the electrical gradient exactly opposes the concentration gradient for an ion is known as the ion's .

equilibrium potential

five functional types of epithelia:

exchange, transporting, ciliated, protective, and secretory

2 options for output

excretion or conversion of material

The graph shows the free energy change for the reaction A+B→D. Is this an endergonic or exergonic reaction? (A+B reactants show a hump that ends in the product D being lower)

exergonic

ground substance

extracellular matrix of connective tissue is a ground substance of proteoglycans and water in which insoluble protein fibers are arranged

Which is a way for solutes to move from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration?

facilitated diffusion

Because anatomy and physiology have different definitions, they are usually considered separately in studies of the body.

false

Metabolic regulation in which the last product of a metabolic pathway (the end product) accumulates and slows or stops reactions earlier in the pathway is called ___________ .

feedback inhibition

feedback loop

feeds back" to influence the input portion of the pathway.

collagen

flexible/inelastic fibers of connecive tissue. it is a white protein that gives strength and resilience to connective tissue, such as bone and cartilage

the flux of a molecule across the membrane, because flux is defined as the diffusion rate per unit surface area of membrane:

flux =concentration gradient* membrane permiability

In some common forms of posttranslational modification, the amino acid chain can:

fold into various three-dimensional shapes. Protein folding creates the tertiary structure of the protein. create cross-links between different regions of its amino acid chain. be cleaved (split) into fragments. add other molecules or groups. assemble with other amino acid chains into a polymeric (many-part) protein. Assembly of proteins into polymers creates the quaternary structure of the protein.

Second structure of a protein

formed by covalent bond angles between amino acids in polypeptide chain (alpha-helix, and Beta Sheets)

Describe Net Free Energy Change

free energy difference of the products to the reactants

distinguish the difference between function and mechanism

function is why it works or the adaptive significance and mechanism is how it works.

The simplest cell-cell junction is called a(n)

gap junction.

theme 3: information flow, storage, and within a single organism and within a species

genetics

The fuel molecule cells use to run all their activities is

glucose

Sucrose

glucose + fructose

lactose

glucose + galactose

Maltose

glucose + glucose

Phospholipids are key components of cell membranes and made up of which molecules?

glycerol and fatty acids

Phospholipids are made of a_______ .

glycerol backbone with two fatty acid chains extending to one side and a phosphate group extending to the other

Aerobic production of ATP from glucose commonly follows two pathways:

glycolysis {glycol-, sweet+lysis, dissolve} and the citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle).

List four factors that increase the rate of diffusion in air.

greater concentration gradient, smaller distance, higher temperature, and smaller molecular size

The number of mitochondria in skeletal muscle cells is ________ the number of mitochondria in adipose (fat) cells.

greater than

theme 2: energy transfer, storage, and use

growth, repro, movement, and homeostasis

Muscle tissue

has the ability to contract and produce force and movement. The body contains three types of muscle tissue: cardiac muscle in the heart; smooth muscle, which makes up most internal organs; and skeletal muscle. Most skeletal muscles attach to bones and are responsible for gross movement of the body.

Mitochondria

have a double wall that creates 2 seperate compartments for the mitochondrial matrix at the center and the intermembrane space between the outer and inner membrane.

the second law of thermodynamics

he human body is not a closed system, however. As an open system, it exchanges materials and energy with its surroundings. Because our bodies cannot create energy, they import it from outside in the form of food

two types of cell-matrix anchoring junctions

hemidesmosomes and focal adhesions

Golgi apparatus or Golgi Complex

hollow curves and sacs called cisternae stacked on top of one another and surrounded by vesicles. Makes proteins made on the rough ER and modifies them and packages them into vesicles.

Homeostasis does not mean equilibrium

homeostasis is about to stability of ECF In a steady state, there is no net movement of materials between the compartments.= stable Steady state is not the same as equilibrium {aequus, equal+libra, balance}, however. Equilibrium implies that the composition of the body compartments is identical.

The body's tendency to maintain relatively constant internal conditions is called

homeostasis.

These are weak attractive forces that are responsible for the surface tension of water.

hydrogen bonds

The weak interactions between atoms that keep atoms near each other are called

hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces.

a substrate changes into one or more products through the addition of water.

hydrolysis reaction {hydro, water+lysis, to loosen or dissolve},

Drag and drop each term so that it matches with the correct portion of the phospholipid.

hydrophilic head hydrophobic tail

Water will always move from ________ areas to ________ areas, if the membrane is permeable to water.

hypotonic, hypertonic

neuromodulator

if a neurocrine acts more slowly as an autocrine or paracrine signal, it is called a neuromodulator.

law of mass balance

if the amount of a substance in the body is to remain constant, any gain must be offset by an equal loss.

Which of the systems listed in Table 1.1 has parts that include the thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes?

immune system

Mechanical work

in animals is used for movement. At the cellular level, movement includes organelles moving around in a cell, cells changing shape, and cilia and flagella beating

binding proteins

in extracellular fluid, bind and transport molecules throughout the body. (ie. hemoglobin)

up-regulation

increase in protein number or binding affinity that increases the response of the target cell

Mr. F's body is reacting in a way that will increase his fluid levels, by using his effectors and other body systems to increase fluid intake and decrease fluid output. But how can the body detect when the fluid levels have been returned to the normal set point? What consequences of fluid intake will Mr. F's body be able to detect using sensors?

increased blood pressure, decreased blood osmolarity

When you review Mr. F's fluid intake and output, how does his body appear to be adjusting his fluid levels?

increasing his fluid levels by raising intake and decreasing output. His body is reacting in a way that will increase fluid levels: his integrative center must be detecting that fluid levels are below the set point.

complicated reflex control pathways

information must be transmitted throughout the body using chemical signals or a combination of electrical and chemical signaling.

input

input (afferent) signal to the integrating center for the reflex.

3 parts of a response loop

input signal, an integrating center to integrate the signal, and an output signal.

control systems have three components

input, controller, and output this can be local or long-distance reflex

Reflex pathway response loops have three major components: i

input, integration, and output

Endoplasmic Reticulum

interconnected membrane tubes with 3 functions: synthesis, storage, and transport of biomolecules.

protein fibers

internal support system

Arrange the following compartments in the order a glucose molecule entering the body at the intestine would encounter them: interstitial fluid, plasma, intracellular fluid. Which of these fluid compartments is/are considered extracellular fluid(s)?

intracellular fluid; interstitial fluid; plasma. Interstitial fluid and plasma are ECF.

cofactor

ion or small organic functional group (Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+)

Which results when an atom has such a strong attraction for electrons that it pulls one or more electrons completely away from another atom?

ionic bond

Cholesterol

is also a significant part of many cell membranes. Cholesterol molecules, which are mostly hydrophobic, insert themselves between the hydrophilic heads of phospholipids (Fig. 3.2b). Cholesterol helps make membranes impermeable to small water-soluble molecules and keeps membranes flexible over a wide range of temperatures.

Brown fat

is composed of adipose cells that contain multiple lipid droplets rather than a single large droplet. This type of fat has been known for many years to play an important role in temperature regulation in infants. Until recently it was thought to be almost completely absent in adults.

Adipose tissue

is made up of adipocytes, or fat cells.

Activation energy

is the initial input of energy required to bring reactants into a position that allows them to react with one another. This "push" needed to start the reaction

Chemical work

is the making and breaking of chemical bonds.

A few enzymes come in a variety of related forms (isoforms) and are known as ____________ of one another

isozymes {iso-, equal} Isozymes are enzymes that catalyze the same reaction but under different conditions or in different tissues.

regulated variables

kept within their acceptable (normal) range by physiological control mechanisms that kick in if the variable ever strays too far from its setpoint, or optimum value.

organ that lies outside the abdominal cavity, between the peritoneum and the muscles and bones of the back,

kidneys

nuclear pore complex

large protein complexes with a central chanel. Ions and small molecules move freely through this channel when it is open. To move large molecules (protein and RNA) requires energy

intermediate filaments

larger intermediate filaments may be made of different types of protein, including keratin in hair and skin, and neurofilament in nerve cells

Liposomes

larger spheres with bilayer phospholipid walls. This arrangement leaves a hollow center with an aqueous core that can be filled with water-soluble molecules. Biologists think that a liposome-like structure was the precursor of the first living cell. Today, liposomes are being used as a medium to deliver drugs and cosmetics.

microtubules

largest protein fibers are the hollow microtubules, made of a protein called tubulin. Function in the movement of cilia, flagella, and chromosomes; intracellular transport of organelles; cytoskeleton

A molecule that binds to another molecule is called a(n) .

ligand

An enzyme-catalyzed chemical reaction in which two substrates are joined using the energy of ATP is known as __________.

ligation

Adherens junctions

link actin fibers in adjacent cells together,

Cell membranes are mainly made up of __________.

lipids and proteins

Proteins combined with fats are called , and proteins combined with carbohydrates are called .

lipoproteins; glycoproteins

fluids

liquids and gases

Homeostatic control that takes place at the tissue or cell by using paracrine or autocrine signals is called

local control

Enzymes increase reaction rate by

lowering the activation energy of a reaction.

The space that is surrounded by the tissue wall of hollow organs is known as the

lumen

interior of any hollow organ is called

lumen

competitive inhibitor of Glucose transport system

maltose (competes with glucose )

mediated transport

mediated transport is passive and moves molecules down their concentration gradient, and if net transport stops when concentrations are equal on both sides of the membrane, the process is facilitated diffusion

Integrin

membrane spanning protein that links the cytoskeleton to extracellular matrix proteins

cadherin

membrane-spanning protein of adhesive junctions that link 2 cells together

A lysosome is a(n)

membranous organelle.

control cell responses can be broadly grouped into four categories:

metabolic enzymes motor proteins for muscle contraction and cytoskeletal movement proteins that regulate gene activity and protein synthesis membrane transport and receptor proteins

four categories:

metabolic enzymes motor proteins for muscle contraction and cytoskeletal movement proteins that regulate gene activity and protein synthesis membrane transport and receptor proteins

The sum of all chemical processes through which cells obtain and store energy is called .

metabolism

cell membranes consist of

microscopic double layers, or bilayers, of phospholipids with protein molecules inserted in them

the four major groups of organelles:

mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, the endoplasmic reticulum, and membrane-bound spheres called vesicle

Most of the ATP required to power cellular operations is made in the

mitochondria.

Intermembrane space

mitochondrial ATP production. ex. if a muscle uses a lot of energy it will have more mitochondrias in it.

The term matrix can be used in reference to an organelle or to tissues. Compare the meanings of the term in these two contexts.

mitochondrial matrix—the internal compartment; tissue matrix—noncellular material found outside cells

globular proteins

mix of alpha helices, beta sheets, and amino acid chains that fold on themselves. create pockets, channels, and protuding knobs in tertiary structures.

fluid mosaic model

model that describes the arrangement and movement of the molecules that make up a cell membrane

theme 1: structure and function across all levels of organization

molecular interaction and compartmentalization

When atoms bind tightly to one another, such as H2O or O2, one unit is called a(n) .

molecule

Glycosylated molecules

molecules to which a carbohydrate has been attached ie. glycoprotein

How many diffrent ion channels are there?

more than 100 types of ion channels have been identified

GLUT transporters

move glucose and related hexose sugars across membranes

membrane transporters

move substance back and forth between intracellular and extracellular compartments ; may form channels in cellular membrane, or bind to molecules and carry them through membrane

These visible membranes are tissues: thin, translucent layers of cells.

mucous membranes (mouth and vagina) , peritoneal membrane (abdomen lining), pleural membrane (lung lining), pericardial membrane (heart lining

excitable tissues

muscle and neural—are collectively called the excitable tissues because of their ability to generate and propagate electrical signals called action potentials. Both of these tissue types have minimal extracellular matrix, usually limited to a supportive layer called the external lamina. Some types of muscle and nerve cells are also notable for their gap junctions, which allow the direct and rapid conduction of electrical signals from cell to cell.

Define and distinguish between inclusions and organelles. Give an example of each.

nclusions: particles of insoluble material, such as glycogen and ribosomes. Organelles, such as mitochondria and Golgi apparatus, are separated from cytosol by membranes.

Part complete Which are used to keep our systems at or near their setpoints?

negative feedback loop

Which two body systems maintain homeostasis by monitoring and responding to changes in the environment?

nervous and endocrine systems

neurohormone

neurocrine molecule diffuses into the blood for body-wide distribution, it is called a neurohormone

What are the two routes for long-distance signal delivery in the body?

neurons and blood

storage cytoplasmic vesicles

never leave the cytoplasm

nitric oxide (NO)

nitric oxide (NO), but carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide, two gases better known for their noxious effects, can also act as local signals.

cartilage

nose, ears, knee, and windpipe. It is solid, flexible, and notable for its lack of blood supply. Without a blood supply, nutrients and oxygen must reach the cells of cartilage by diffusion. This is a slow process, which means that damaged cartilage heals slowly.

The nucleus is surrounded by a(n)

nuclear envelope.

Nucleic acids are polymers of units called

nucleotides.

Receptors for signal pathways may be found in the ______ ,_______ , or _______ of the cell.

nucleus, cytosol, cell membrane

GPI anchor

on the external surface of the cell, are held by a GPI anchor that consists of a membrane lipid plus a sugar-phosphate chain.

Voltage-gated channels

open and close when the electrical state of the cell changes

In a negative feedback loop, the response moves the system in the (same/opposite) direction as the stimulus moves it.

opposite

setpoint

or desired value of the variable. If the variable has moved out of the acceptable range, the integrating center initiates an output signal.

Neurons

or nerve cells, carry information in the form of chemical and electrical signals from one part of the body to another. They are concentrated in the brain and spinal cord but also include a network of cells that extends to virtually every part of the body.

Glial cells

or neuroglia, are the support cells for neurons.

Biomolecules (4 major types)

organic molecules which combine to form living organisms; includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids

output

output (efferent) signal is an electrical and/or chemical signal that travels to the target.

elements that make up more than 90% of the body's mass

oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen

Which pH is more acidic, a pH of 3, a pH of 7, or a pH of 9?

pH of 3

Define the pH of a solution. If pH is less than 7, the solution is ; if pH is greater than 7, the solution is .

pH=H+ concentration. pH<7 is acidic. pH>7 is basic or alkaline.

A molecule that moves freely between the intracellular and extracellular compartments is said to be a(n) solute. A molecule that is not able to enter cells is called a(n) solute.

penetrating; nonpenetrating

Which of the following is a measurement of concentration?

percent solutions molarity

Exchange epithelia

permit rapid exchange of materials, especially gases. exchange epithelia are composed of very thin, flattened cells that allow gases (CO2 and O2) to pass rapidly across the epithelium.

Cyclic AMP is degraded by __________.

phosphodiesterase

What are the two primary types of biomolecules found in the cell membrane?

phospholipids and protein molecules

Three main types of lipids make up the cell membrane:

phospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol.

In 1972, Singer and Nicolson proposed the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane. According to this model, the membrane is composed of a bilayer of and a variety of embedded , with on the extracellular surface.

phospholipids; proteins; carbohydrates

The addition of a phosphate group to a substrate is called ________. The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is referred to as a ________.

phosphorylation, kinase

Addition of a phosphate group is called

phosphorylation.

Water-soluble hormones affect target cells by binding to __________.

plasma membrane receptors

The fluid substance of blood is called

plasma.

Oxytocin is a hormone released in response to cervical dilation. This causes more uterine contractions that will further dilate the cervix. Which type of feedback does oxytocin trigger?

positive feedback

The general term that describes energy stored in chemical bonds is

potential energy

In most resting cells, the concentration of sodium ions is higher outside of cells compared with the intracellular fluid. When cells are stimulated, sodium ion channels open, and sodium diffuses from the outside of the cell to the inside of the cell. Sodium ion concentrations in a resting cell are an example of ___________, and sodium ion movement in a stimulated cell is an example of ___________.

potential energy; kinetic energy

Integrins

primarily found in cell matrix junctions. Function in cell signaling

primary (direct) active transport

primary (direct) active transport, the energy to push molecules against their concentration gradient comes directly from the high-energy phosphate bond of ATP.

The two types of active transport are , which derives energy directly from ATP, and , which couples the kinetic energy of one molecule moving down its concentration gradient to the movement of another molecule against its concentration gradient.

primary (direct) and secondary (indirect)

differentiation

process in which cells become specialized in structure and function

Cyclic AMP activates

protein kinase A.

Most enzymes are which type of molecule?

proteins

Matrix always has two basic components:

proteoglycans and insoluble protein fibers.

Homeostasis is the ability of the body to

quickly restore changed conditions to normal.

Describe activation energy

reactants

In a chemical equation, what are the chemicals on the left side of the arrow called?

reactants

exergonic reaction

reaction releases energy

In a signal transduction pathway, the signal ligand, also called the first messenger, binds to a(n) , which activates and changes intracellular .

receptor, targets (effectors), or proteins

In an oxidation-reduction reaction, in which electrons are moved between molecules, the molecule that gains an electron is said to be ______________, and the one that loses an electron is said to be ___________.

reduced; oxidized

competitors

related ligands compete for binding sites

Exocrine glands

release their secretions to the body's external environment {exo-, outside+krinein, to secrete}

Aerobic metabolism of glucose

requires oxygen and produces more ATP per glucose than anaerobic pathways

translational research

research that uses knowledge derived from basic research to develop and test solutions to real-world problems (prevention of human disease) "bench to bedside"

fixed cells

reside in the tissue for an extended period of time. Responsible for local maintenance, tissue repair, and energy storage

mechanically gated channels

respond to physical forces, such as increased temperature or pressure that puts tension on the membrane and pops the channel gate open.

You go outside on a very cold day and you start to shiver because you do not have on the proper clothing. The act of shivering would represent what step in a response loop?

response

physiological reflex (2 parts)

response loop and a feedback loop

mobile cells

responsible mainly for defense

Equalibrium

reversible binding reactions where the rate of binding is equal to the rate of unbinding

Cell membranes are said to be

selectively permeable barrier.

Match the term with its description: A. thresholdB. effectorC. integrating centerD. setpointE. sensory receptorcontinuously monitors its environment for a specific variable

sensory receptor

Chap. 3- Exocrine glands produce watery secretions (tears/sweat) called _____ secretions, or stickier solutions called ____ secretions

serous; mucous

Homeostasis: Regulating Blood Sugar

set point (Negative feedback.) Eat snack->glucose enters the blood stream Insulin: hormones from pancreas- glucose leaves blood to beta cells in pancreas -Beta cells release insulin->insulin goes in blood stream to go to all cells In the liver: insulin binds to receptors on liver-> intake more glucose-> convert to glycogen (storage)-> glucose leaves blood stream when taken up by liver->less insulin is made by pancreas skipped Lunch? Low blood sugar? Alpha cells in pancreas. release Glucagon-> glucagon goes to blood-> goes to liver receptors_> acts on target cells in the liver->glycogen breaks down to glucose-> glucose released->less glucagon is released by pancreas

signal amplification

signal amplification turns one signal molecule into multiple second messenger molecules

signal transduction pathway

signal transduction pathway can be broken down into the following events: An extracellular signal molecule (the first messenger) binds to and activates a membrane receptor. The activated membrane receptor turns on its associated proteins and starts an intracellular cascade of second messengers. The last second messenger in the cascade acts on intracellular targets to create a response.

signal transduction pathway

signal transduction pathway form a cascade. A signaling cascade starts when a stimulus (the signal molecule) converts inactive molecule A (the receptor) to an active form.

List the three physical methods by which materials enter cells.

simple diffusion, protein-mediated transport, or vesicular transport

histologists classify exchange tissue as

simple squamous epithelium becuase it is a thin flatted cells such as the lining of the heart and blood vessels is also called the endothelium.

The largest carbohydrate molecules are called polysaccharides because they are made up of ________ molecules bonded together with one another.

simple sugar

isoforms

slightly different versions of the same protein

Micelles

small droplets with a single layer of phospholipids arranged so that the interior of the micelle is filled with hydrophobic fatty acid tails. Micelles are important in the digestion and absorption of fats in the digestive tract.

If the adrenal cortex produces lipid hormones such as aldosterone, which organelle would be higher in cells of the adrenal cortex?

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

SGLT

sodium glucose transporter

hydrophilic

soluble in water (usually polar)

You take salt and add it to a beaker containing pure water. Which of the following have you created?

solution

Protein receptors exhibit

specificity, competition, and saturation.

Cortisol is a type of lipid hormone. Which type of lipid would cortisol be classified as?

steroid

Response loops

stimulus-> sensor or receptor-> input signal-> integration center-> output signal-> target-> response

Lysosome

storage vesicle. digest old organelles with enzymes to be reused and reabsorbed into the cytosol or dumped out of the cell. (atrophy can be attributed with the action of the lysosome)

potential energy

stored energy

List the four functions of membrane proteins, and give an example of each.

structural proteins (link cell to matrix), transporter proteins (water channels), receptors (hormone receptors), and enzymes (intestinal digestive enzymes)

structural proteins

structural proteins of membranes have three major roles. They help create cell junctions that hold tissues together, such as tight junctions and gap junctions [Fig. 3.8, p. 74]. They connect the membrane to the cytoskeleton to maintain the shape of the cell [Fig. 3.2, p. 63]. The microvilli of transporting epithelia are one example of membrane shaping by the cytoskeleton [Fig. 3.4b, p. 66]. They attach cells to the extracellular matrix by linking cytoskeleton fibers to extracellular collagen and other protein fibers

Histology

study of tissues

extracellular fluid

subdivides further into plasma, the fluid portion of the blood, and interstitial fluid {inter-, between+stare, to stand}, which surrounds most cells of the body.

In the reaction shown, identify the role of each of the participants. CO2 + H2O ⟶carbonicanhydrase-> H2CO3 A. enzyme B. substrate(s) C. product(s)

substrates CO2 +H2O carbonicanhydrase enzyme H2CO3 Products

In the reaction CO2+H2O→H2CO3, water and carbon dioxide are the reactants, and H2CO3 is the product. Because this reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme, it is also appropriate to call water and carbon dioxide ______________. The speed at which this reaction occurs is called the reaction________________ , often expressed as molarity/second.

substrates; rate

Insoluble protein fibers

such as collagen, fibronectin, and laminin provide strength and anchor cells to the matrix.

Free ribosomes

suspended in the cytosol

A cotransporter is a protein that moves more than one molecule at a time. If the molecules are moved in the same direction, the transporters are called carriers; if the molecules are transported in opposite directions, the transporters are called carriers. A transport protein that moves only one substrate is called a(n) carrier.

symport; antiport; uniport

Which of the following are especially important for growth and repair processes?

synthesis reactions

target

target, or effector {effectus, the carrying out of a task} is the cell or tissue that carries out the appropriate response to bring the variable back within normal limits.

Cells that respond to signals are usually called

targets

Immunoglobin superfamily CAMS

temporary cell-cell adhesions

Hemoglobin molecules are made from four globular protein subunits. The three-dimensional shape of these globular subunits is an example of which level of protein structure?

tertiary

cell-cell adhesions

that may be transient or that may develop into more permanent cell junctions

Load

the amount of a substance in the body "sodium load"

Energy is defined as

the capacity to do work.

three major body cavities:

the cranial cavity (commonly referred to as the skull), the thoracic cavity (also called the thorax), and the abdominopelvic cavity

the cell is divided into 2 parts

the cytoplasm and the nucleus

thorax contains

the heart, which is enclosed in a membranous pericardial sac {peri-, around+cardium, heart}, and the two lungs, enclosed in separate pleural sacs.

the more metabolically active a membrane is,

the more proteins it contains.

passive transport (simple diffusion)

the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell (material moves from high to low concentration)

Physiology is the study of

the normal function of living organisms

Drag and drop each of the following expressions of solute amount with the correct definition. Drag the terms on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the sentences.​

the number of atoms of each element atomic mass of each element

positive feedback

the response sends the regulated variable even farther from its normal value.

Connective tissues

the second major tissue type, provide structural support and sometimes a physical barrier that, along with specialized cells, helps defend the body from foreign invaders such as bacteria

Diseases fall into two general groups according to their origin:

those in which the problem arises from internal failure of some normal physiological process, and those that originate from some outside source.

Homeostasis depends on the activity of body systems to adjust a variable. Because our bodies work so well to maintain variables at set point, we often do not even notice the systems they use to do it. But in someone who is ill, these systems may not be able to maintain homeostasis; you need to be aware of this to head off possible problems. Which of the following can directly impact fluid balance? Select all that apply.

throat muscles urinary system muscles sweat glands Respiratory system

Focal adhesions

tie intracellular actin fibers to different matrix proteins, such as fibronectin.

This junction contributes to the blood-brain barrier.

tight junction

occluding junctions

tight junctions of vertebrates that limit movement between cells

Groups of cells performing related tasks are known as __________.

tissues

Addition of an amino group is amination, and the transfer of an amino group from one molecule to another is

transamination.

negative feedback

tries to get back to setpoint

regulatory proteins

turn cell process on and off or up and down. (ie. transcription factors)

two types of layering and 3 cell shapes

two types of layering—simple (one cell thick) and stratified (multiple cell layers) {stratum, layer+facere, to make}—and three cell shapes—squamous {squama, flattened plate or scale}, cuboidal, and columnar

white fat

typically contains a single enormous lipid droplet that occupies most of the volume of the cell (Fig. 3.13e). This is the most common form of adipose tissue in adults.

polar covalent bond

unequal sharing of electrons

secondary (indirect) active transport

uses potential energy [p. 94] stored in the concentration gradient of one molecule to push other molecules against their concentration gradient. All secondary active transport ultimately depends on primary active transport because the concentration gradients that drive secondary transport are created using energy from ATP. uses the kinetic energy of one molecule moving down its concentration gradient to push other molecules against their concentration gradient. The cotransported molecules may go in the same direction across the membrane (symport) or in opposite directions (antiport). The most common secondary active transport systems are driven by the sodium concentration gradient.

Lipophilic hormones

usually bind to receptors inside the cytoplasm or nucleus.

hydrophobic

usually nonpolar molecules that cannot form H bonds with water (lipids, and oils)

exocytosis and endocytosis

vesicles that move material.

clearance

volume of blood cleared of drug per unit time

The most important polar molecule is ________ because it is a universal solvent in biological solutions.

water

hydrogen bond

weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and F, O, N responsible for surface tension

local control

which is restricted to the tissue or cell

Claude Bernard

wrote of the "constancy of the internal environment

bioenergetics

{bios, life+ -, in+ergon, work}. The study of energy flow through biological systems

cytosol

{cyto-, cell + sol(uble) }, or intracellular fluid: The cytosol is a semi-gelatinous fluid separated from the extracellular fluid by the cell membrane. The cytosol contains dissolved nutrients and proteins, ions, and waste products. The other components of the cytoplasm—inclusions, fibers, and organelles—are suspended in the cytosol.

Desmosomes

{desmos, band+soma, body} attach to intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton. Desmosomes are the strongest cell-cell junctions. dense glycoprotein bodies, or plaques, that lie just inside the cell membranes in the region where the two cells connect. Desmosomes may be small points of contact between two cells (spot desmosomes) or bands that encircle the entire cell (belt desmosomes).

epithelial tissues or epithelia

{epi-, upon+thele-, nipple; singular epithelium}, protect the internal environment of the body and regulate the exchange of materials between the internal and external environments. cover exposed surfaces, such as the skin, and line internal passageways, such as the digestive tract.

paracrine signal

{para-, beside+krinen, to secrete} is a chemical that acts on cells in the immediate vicinity of the cell that secreted the signal.

Peripheral proteins

{peripheria, circumference} attach to other membrane proteins by noncovalent interactions [p. 39] and can be separated from the membrane by chemical methods that do not disrupt the integrity of the membrane. Peripheral proteins include some enzymes as well as structural binding proteins that anchor the cytoskeleton (the cell's internal "skeleton") to the membrane (Fig. 3.2b).

Phagocytosis

{phagein, to eat+cyte,cell+-sis,process} is the actin-mediated process by which a cell engulfs a bacterium or other particle into a large membrane-bound vesicle called a phagosome

Transmembrane proteins

{trans-, across} are also called membrane-spanning proteins because the protein's chains extend all the way across the cell membrane

normal blood pH

~7.4 cannot be below 7 or above 7.7

chondrocytes

—the cells that synthesize the extracellular matrix of cartilage—the cells are seeded into a scaffold.