Poli 170 Final

Common goods

"Common goods" are non-excludable and rivalrous: ex=fishing. You cannot stop people from fishing but if you catch a fish, no one else can catch it. The exception is if you are fishing purely for sport and throw it back, in which case you have turned that particular fish into a "public good". Problem of "tragedy of the commons" in which a good is over-exploited and requires regulation (whales). common goods: like public goods, if the commons is exhaustible, regulation may be required. But some common goods can be turned into club goods or private goods since they are rival and might be made exclusive. Some commons have been "privatized" (high seas). Others have been "collectivized", such as Antarctica or the moon. Countries still cheat - Japan and whaling, countries with claims to Antarctica.

Pan-Arabism

"Pan" movements claim a common identity to a language or ethnicity group and are used when liberating or resisting colonialism, however, the actualy business of government requires the instruments of a state (budgets, police, civil service) which don't exist on a "pan" basis. The identity of the state began to replace that of the "pan" movements, however, the romanticism of the "pan" movement lingers as a disruptive force. Middle East often appeals to pan-Arabism. The forces of the state have prevailed over pan-nationalist movements. Postcolonial world leaders appealed to national identity, pan-Arab identity, and religous identity; all contributing to the complexity of the forces that create conflict in the Near East and Middle East region. Especially fostered by Arab leaders in conflict over Israel. Failure of states to modernize effectively explains why some of their citizens turned toward fundamentalism or terrorism. Pan-Arabism mentioned in a few questions. Could be part of the Arab Spring- that every state in that region grew up. Not ISIS. About nationalism more than anything else. Understand more generally.

Private goods

"Private goods" are excludable: It is possible to prevent others from getting them and there is a rivalry. Ex= your personal car Private good: ownership and the enforcement of property rights will minimize the problem of theft.The market and states generally manage private goods. In some ways, each state's sovereignty over territory is like private property, too.

Public goods

"Public goods" are non-excludable and non-rivalrous: there is no way of preventing others from enjoying them, and if you have some, it does not effectively diminish what is available for the benefit of others. Problem of underprovision: because everyone can benefit from a public good, no one has a strong incentive to shoulder the cost of providing it. Ex= breathing clean air Public goods: while non-rival and non-excludable, they may be exhaustible. If so, the solution may involve regulation and governance

UN set up

1. General Assembly based on one vote one state. Can pass resolutions. 2. Security Council composed of five permanent members and a rotating pool of 10 nonpermanent members. Can pass binding resolutions under Chapter VII. Big Five can veto. now an assembly of 193 sovereign states.

Flashpoints

1. Realists would expect lots of flashpoints - especially involving rising and declining powers or regions where major power influence overlaps. 2. Liberals would expect most flashpoints occur where norms of cooperation and respect for law are low, but hold out hope that democratic regimes and collective institutions can facilitate peacemaking. 3. Constructivists would expect flashpoints where identities and basic ways of thinking are in flux or in conflict. The result of the struggle will shape which identities and ways of thinking will prevail. 4. Feminists will focus on how masculine ways of approaching issues lead to violence while Marxists will focus on how capitalist exploitation leads to class conflict. To what degree are the flashpoints linked to competition between major powers over spheres of influence? Russia in Ukraine, China in the South China Sea, India-Pakistan, North Korea-South Korea, Iran nuclear program

Balance of Power

1. The distribution of power in the international system at any given time 2. A policy of allying with another state or group of states so as to prevent some other state of group of states from gaining a preponderance of power 3. A "realist" theory about how states behave under anarchy 4. The multipolar system of Europe in the nineteenth century

UN history

1943-1945= designed to prevent repeat of WWII 1945=49 states sign the UN Charter- making force illegal with few exceptions 1947=UN recommend patition of Plestine-rejected by Arabs 1950= collective security intervene in Korean War 1956= institution of peacekeeping, UNEF deployed by General Assembly into the Sinai between Egypt and Israel 1965= peacekeepers mitigate conflict between Greek and Turkish Cypriots- still in Cyprus 1991=collective security intervene in Kuwait 1992=UN created a Department of Peacekeeping Operations. 69 peacekeeping operations and 16 currently. 1990s=peacekeepers helped in Haiti and Cambodia, but failed to prevent genocide in Rwanda and Sudan or stop civil war in Angola 1994= Bosnia peacekeepers had to be replaced by stronger NATO force as part of Yugoslav conflict 2013= creation of peacebuilding through UNAMI - dedicated to Iraq. Four present peacebuilding missions.

Genocide

1948 UN Genocide Convention after Holocaust Genocide is defined as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: 1. Killing members of the group 2. Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group 3. Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part 4. Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group 5. Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group 6. Rape in some cases Definition provides ample opportunity for the international community to justify inaction in the face of atrocity.

End of history

1989 Francis Fukuyama argued that with the demise of communism we had reached the end point of ideological evolution and the emergence of Western liberal democracy as "the final form of human government." The end of the Cold War sugested that liberal capitalism had prevailed over other movements like fascism and communism. Correct in the sense that there is no longer one single competitor to liberal capitalism as an overarching ideology and teh relations among rich democracies have improved as their complex interdependence forms large islands of democratic peace in the world today. Return of history= more normal circumstances in which a single ideological cleavage does not drive the larger conflicts in international politics.

Transnational actors

A characteristic of the global information age is the increased role of transnational actors, nonstate entities acting across international borders. Qualitatively, tnas have played a role for centuries, but the quanitative shift in the last half of the 20th century marks a significant change in the international system.

Containment

A foreign policy designed to prevent a potential aggressor from expanding its influence geographically. Containment was the cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy toward the Soviet Union and Soviet-supported communist movements during the Cold War. More recently, China has begun to feel that the rebalance of U.S. forces to Asia- coloquially known as "the Pivot"- is actually a form of containment. That is largely a misperception, however, some very real conflicts of interest overshadow U.S.-China relations.

Preventive war

A preventative war occurs when leaders believe that war is better now than later. German general staff in 1914. U.S. 2003 Iraq War. Not an exception to the rule of nonintervention.

Rogue states

A rogue state is one that goes against international norms and customary laws, flaunt breaking international rules, dangerous because hard to predict since they don't follow international law and are generally seeking to expand power without regard to consequences. North Korea. Contraversial term referring to states considered to be threatening to international peace. I.e. they are ruled by authoritarian regimes restrictive of human rights, sponsor terrorism, and seek to proliferate wmd. Ex= North Korea.

International nongovernmental organizations

A subset of NGOs (private, non-profit agencies) with an international focus. Of more importance than NGOs. Typically headquartered in one country but have operations and activities in many countries. Violent political organizations (terrorists) don't count. NGOs=private associations not motivated by profit or politics. increasing numbers and activities. peaked in the 1990s when they were involved in many UN-sponsored global conferences. States facilitate their operation, both by registering them and allowing them to work - but also by sub-contracting to them. NGOs can help shape the debates in international relations, but they are vulnerable to shifts in state policies and attitudes.

Peacebuilding

A term coined by UN Secretary-General Boutros Buotros-Ghali in 1992 describing a range of activies to foreign military and civilian personnel intended to stabilize war-torn societies; build durable governance structures; and lay the groundwork for long-term peace, security, and development. Part of complex peacekeeping. normally go in knowing that there isn't a peace to keep and that there will be a lot to do. Peacebuilding is taking a situation that is not at peace and try to figure out how to build it, often through force or training police, lawyers, journalists, etc. within the country. Election monitoring is a huge part. The UN is not the only agency that does this.

Network effects

A term used by economists to refer to situations in which a product becomes more valuable once many other people also use it. One telephone is useless, but its value increases as the network grows. That is why the Internet is causing such rapid change. As interdependence has become thicker and quicker, the relationships among different networks have become more important. There are more interconnections among the networks. "System effects"=small perturbations in one area can spread throughout a whole system.

Rivalry (of goods)

A term used when talking about types of goods. Rival goods cannot be owned by two people at the same time. Private goods (like your bike) cannot belong to both you and someone else because you cannot both use the bike at the same time. Common goods (like fish in the sea) are rival goods because if one person catches a fish it means that another person cannot catch that fish. It diminishes the supply. Club goods (satellite TV) and common goods (clean breathing air) can be shared by many people, so they are not rival goods.

Excludability

A term used when talking about types of goods. The term "excludable" means it can be owned. Private goods (like your bike) and club goods (like satellite TV) can be owned. Common goods (fish in the sea) and public goods(clean breathing air) cannot be owned.

Diffusion of power

A third vision of the future: the view that technology, particularly information technology, is leading to a diffusion of power away from central governments. Economic and information networks are moving some functions of governance to higher and lower levels of government and some from formal government to the private and nonprofit sectors. Governments will lose monolopoly over foreign policy and have to share the stage in world politics with nonstate actors. One country shares power and technology with other countries in order to diffuse power. Ex= If US was worried about Russia's military power, it might share military secrets and technology with Russia's neighbors to diffuse Russia's power. One country Benign vision=more economic development and less authoritarian regimes Malign vision=a new feudalism in which destructive individuals, terrorist groups, and weak states gain access to WMDs and create true anarchy.

Aggression

Aggression= physical or verbal, includes property damage. Behavior is classified as aggression even if it does not succeed in causing harm or pain. Behavior that accidentally causes harm or pain is not aggression. States rarely go to war with each other, still become involved in the domestic affairs of other states= meddling (speeches favoring certain candidates) to economic engagement or blockades, to various levels of military involvement. Almost all intervention is illegal, since it must be approved by the UN security council to be legal. Exceptions= preemption, humanitarian intervention, saving nationals, assisting national independence movements

Nonintervention

Almost all intervention is illegal, since it must be approved by the UN security council to be legal. Exceptions permitted= 1. Preemptive intervention 2. To balance a prior intervention 3. Humanitarian intervention 4. Assisting national independence movements Exceptions to nonintervention must be judged on a case-by-case basis by looking at the motives, means, and consequences.

Collective security

An agreement between two or more states to respond jointly to aggression (i.e. to treat an attack upon one as an attack upon all.) The United Nations is founded on the principle of collective security, as is NATO. Two examples of collective security actions conducted under the auspices of the United Nations were the Korean War (1950-1953) and the Persian Gulf War (1991). Under collective security, the U.n. has successfully deployed troops in south korea (1950), Iraq (1990) and other places. In the 2000s, states have accepted the "responsibility to protect" civilians against genocide and the U.N. has authorized missions in Libya and the sudan, with mixed results.

Multipolarity

An alternative to power transitions in the future. The great powers following the Cold War are far from equal, so very different from 19th century Europe. Some analysts predict the world will be organized around three economic blocs: Europe, Asia, and North America. Global technological changes and the increase of nonbloc, nonstate actors such as multinational corporations and ethnic groups will resist the capacity of these three blocs to constrain their activities. Current distribution of power is one of multilevel interdependence. The paradox of U.S. power in the 21st century is that the strongest military power the world has seen since the days of Rome is unable to provide security to its citizens by acting alone.

Marxism

An analytical approach to international relations , inspired by the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, that sees economic classes as the primary actors and that explains patterns and events in world affairs in terms of the interactions between classes. Immanuel Wallerstein is a prominent Marxist international relations theorist.

Liberalism

An analytical approach to international relations in which states function as part of a global society that sets the context for their interactions and that stresses the domestic sources of foreign policy.

Constructivism

An analytical approach to international relations that emphasizes the importance of ideas, norms, cultures, and social structures in shaping actors' identities, interests, and actions. Constructivism has gained credibility as the best answer to describe why the Soviet Union fell.

Intergovernmental organization (IGO)

An organization whose members are sovereign states. The United Natins, IMF, and World Bank are examples of IGOs. Commonly referred to as international institutions.

Military interdependence

Arises from military competition.Physical aspect in the weaponry. Social aspect in the perception of intent. ex= Cold War, STAR-not so much the number of Soviet weapons that made the difference; rather, it was the change of perception of Soviet hostility or intent.

Asymmetry

At the heart of interdependence. Asymmtrical conflict= situations in which states or other actors with unbalanced power are in opposition to one another. The U.S. war against al-Qaeda is widely regarded as an asymmetrical conflict. Asymmetry in trade, security, the creation or prevention of linkage between issues, deterrence via economic sanctions. the country that has more to lose is motivated to negotiate more effectively and often comes away from the bargaining table with the better end of the deal. Regional trade pacts such as NAFTA may increase interdependence and lessen the asymmetry in a relationship

Globalization

Broadly describes worldwide networks of interdependence, which can diminish state's abilities to control own futures. It has a number of dimensions, including economic, cultural, military, and political globalization. It is not a new phenomenon- it dates back to at least the Silk Road- but due to cheap technology, communication, and trade, its contemporary form is "thicker and quicker" than previous ones. "farther, faster, cheaper, and deeper".Thick globalism is not uniform: it varies by region and locality and issue. A convergence of nations' interests may result in rejection of alien lifestyles. Does not imply either universality or equity or a universal community. A truly globalized world market would mean free flows of goods, people, and capital, and similar interest rates everywhere. 1. Environmental: pandemics, climate change, transboundary pollution 2. Military: transnational threats, transcontinental weapons, regional coalitions 3. Social: migration, communication, identity sharing 4. Political: international rules and institutions, diffusion

Centrifugal forces

Centrifugal forces destabilize and weaken a state by disrupting the internal order of the state. Balkanization (the process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among ethnicities), as happened in the Balkans during WWI. Centrifugal forces are closely related to devolution, which is the breaking apart of a state. Ex= religion sometimes

Club goods

Club good: make ownership exclusive, but attractive enough that a critical mass of consumers will buy it so it can be produced. The market and states generally manage club goods.The E.U. for example is a club. If you accept the responsibilities you're in and you get the benefits (and some costs). "Club goods" are excludable and non-rivalrous: Ex=satellite TV. Satellite TV signals are encrypted and you can prevent people from watching by controlling access to the set-top boxes that decrypt them. Anyone with a decoder can watch, however. Your decoding the signal does not weaken it for others.

Complex interdependence

Complex interdependence describes relationships between states that are dense and multi-layered, involving many transnational actors and including close trade and investment ties, high levels of cross-migration and communication, and political convergence. Both realism and complex interdependence are "ideal types", meaning they are imaginary concepts that do not perfectly describe the world. The real world lies somewhere between the two. The liberal paradigm describes this international relationship much better. The Middle East is closer to the realist end of the spectrum. Relations between U.S. and Canada closer to the complex interdependence end of the spectrum.

Conflict

Conflict means the actors want things that are mutually incompatible - like when you want to turn left across a busy lane. There cannot be cooperation without some conflict.

Cooperation

Cooperation means that at least one actor has adjusted its behavior and/or goals so they no longer conflict with the other actor - like when you stop and wave someone through the intersection In other words, there cannot be cooperation without some conflict Mutual cooperation=working or acting together while resisting a temptation to cheat, defect, or "free ride". Cooperation does not normally come easily. Someone or something, must usually arrange it. Cooperation is often essential to ensure that people can benefit from any type of good at all. Many of the most effective solutions to cooperation problems involve rules and norms, often created and enforced by government or other authorities. International cooperation is more difficult than domestic because there is not a higher authority. The overwhelming majority of international conflicts are resolved peacefully though.

Humanitarian intervention

Cosmopolitans justify intervention if it promotes individual justice and human rights by intervening on the side of "the good". Question of how to define "the good"? Liberal cosmopolitans argue justification against right-wing remies. Conservative cosmopolitans argue justification against left-wing governments. State moralists believe intervention is justified only to defend a state's territorial integrity or to defend its sovereignty against external aggression. External aggression is often ambiguous as well- Israel and Egypt 1967.

Crimes against humanity

Crimes against humanity include genocide, but you cant actually prove their intent was the result. Always illegal and forbidden, nothing a government can do to justify their behaviors. A government loses its legitimacy if it commits crimes against humanity, at which point the UN is given the right to intervention based on the R2P. Example of Syria bombing. R2P normally involves more long-term intervention.

Cyberwarfare

Critical infrastructure of states (electrical power, finance, telecommunications, health care, transportation, water, defense and the Internet) is highly vulnerable to cyberattack. An unidentified cyberattack on ngo infrastructure might be severely damaging, ex=electric power grids. "An electronic Pearl Harbor." illustrates the diffusion of power from central governments to individuals. The information revolution enables individuals to perpetrate sabotage at unprecedented speed and scope. Terrorists can engage in asymmetrical warfare with governments and exploit new vulnerabilities in cyberspace.

Customary law

Customary law- not everything has to be written down in order to be international law. ex= Genocide trials after WWII before it was codified as a law. International law is "horizontal" in that it involves agreements between equal states and is enforced by those same actors. As a result, it is up to states to define, interpret and reforce the laws- leading to many nonwritten laws (customary laws) that are constantly changing. (think Calvinball). International law is only as strong as states want it to be but having written rules and well-established customary law can help make international life more predictable and give actions greater legitimacy. Canada, for example, almost always tries to do what is required by international law. The u.s., not so much...

Democratization

Direct public participation in global affairs. The democratization of technology, finance, and information came because diminished costs have made what were previously luxuries available to a much broader range of society. ex= international investment, travel, etc. Pluralization is a better word than democratization because it suggests the vast increase in the number and variety of participants in global networks. This dramatic expansion of transnational channels and contacts at intercontintental distances means that more policies, regulations, and practices are up for grabs internationally, which were formerly regarded as the prerogatives of national governments. Thick globalism is not uniform-varies by region, locality, and issue.

Economic interdependence

Economists view imperfect markets as inefficient. politicals view imperfections in international markets as "useful inefficiencies" because they slow down and buffer political change. In economic interdependence, states are interested in absolute gains as well as gains relative to other states. Because they share a common currency, economic interdependence between France and Germany means that the best predictor of whether France is better off economically is when Germany is growing economically. It is in the self-interest of the French politicians that Germany does well economically and vice-versa- this is also called "intermestic" because the distinction between domestic and foreign often becomes blurred in the politics of interdependence. Social choices and physical shortages affect it. Liberals think that as globalization makes the world more interdependent, cooperation will replace competition, interdependence creates joint benefits and that those joint benefits encourage cooperation. But economic interdependence can also be used as a weapon, ex= trade sanctions

Environmental globalization

Environmental is the oldest form of globalization. Transfer of diseases and new crops, pandemics. Current issues of global climate change and trans-boundary pollution. Need a "green revolution."

Integration

Fragmegration= a new term to express the idea that both integration toward larger identities and fragmentation into smaller communities can occur at the same time The Arab Awakening in 2010 made it clear that the information revolution has fundamentally changed regional political dynamics- little evidence yet that it has affected political identities.

Inter-state war (and trends)

From 1946 until 1990, there were roughly three interstate wars going on each year. Since 1990, the number has dwindled to about one. intrastate wars rose from about a dozen a year in the 1950s to 40 a year during the 1908s and 1990s, down to about 30 a year since then. So, while states rarely fight each other directly, ethnic and communal violence has risen dramatically, although it may have plateaued.

Just cause

From the part of just war doctrine that specifies the conditions under which states may morally resort to war (jus ad bellum). Traditionally jus ad bellum includes just cause, right intention, legitimate authority, last resort, and reasonable chance of success. States need a legitimate reason to go to war. Can go to war to defend yourself, R2P. War is not justified, especially under international law, unless if it is in self-defense.

Harmony

Harmony simply means two actors want what the other wants - sort of like cars going down the highway alongside each other. Harmony=a situation in which people share the same preference and everyone can be happy at once. Harmony requires simple coordination. Ex= orchestra and conductor- everyone wants to play at the same time so it sounds good.

Military intervention

High coercion to influence the domestic affairs of another sovereign state. 1. Limited military action=air and ground support for local forces, air attacks. 2. Full-scale military invasion or occupation=U.S. in Dominican Republic in 1965 It is not only great powers that intervene with force ex=Vietnam invading Cambodia against Pol Pot. Some interventions are multilateral but often one state takes the lead.

Human security

Human rights and the broader concept of human secrutiry are becoming more important than ever before. International humanitarian law and R2P. UN Charter pledged states to collective responsibility for observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms. Human rights are increasingly treated as more than just national concerns. Security Council may act ifit determines that internal violence or development of WMDs are likely to spill over into a more general threat to the peace in a region. Epidemics, health risks, etc.

Clash of civilizations

Huntington. Counter to "End of History" theory. Argued that rather than the fundamental sources of conflict in the new world being primarily ideological or economic, the great divisions that would dominate conflict would be cultural. Divided the world into eight great civilizations=Western and Latin American, African, Islamic, Sinic, Hindu, Orthodox, Buddhist, and Japanese and predicted conflict along the fault lines of these civilizations. Problems= more conflicts have occurred within the large "civilizations" than between them.

Social globalization

Identity sharing through the spread of peoples(migration), cultures(four great religions-CBJI), images, ideas (communication,scientific method, enlightenment). Influences political globalization=constitutional arrangements, democracy, international rules and institutions.

Transnational relations

Interactions across state borders outside the central control of the foreign policy organs. Include but are not limited to migration of populations, rapid transfer of capital for ome country to another that occurs daily in the world stock and money markets, illegal trafficking in weapons and drugs, terrorism. Governments can try to control these activities, but control often comes at a very high price. "Global civil society" actors are increasingly important.

International regime

Interdependence in a given area often occurs within a framework of rules, norms, and institutions that are called a regime. Ex=the international oil regime=OPEC. An international regime= European Union good example. A big collaborative state that governs other states. Oil companies all get together to make mutually beneficial decisions. A regime is a governing body.

Non-military intervention

Intervention=external actions that influence the domestic affairs of another sovereign state. Non-military intervention is low coercion. 1. speech and broadcasts designed to influence domestic policies in another state(rarely effective) 2. to economic assistance (which itself ranges to bribing and managing foreign elections) 3. provision of military advisors and aid (US in Vietnam) 4. Support for the opposition (Soviet Union channeled money to peace groups in Western Europe countries) blockade

International law

It is a horizontal system made mostly by states for states and primarily derived from treaty law, although some unwritten agreements (customs) have binding effect.Laws are not equal, in that some are paramount (jus cogens), while others are of low significance (especially narrow, regional, and older agreements). Compliance seems mostly tied to national interest, but one could argue that national interest is at least partly defined by what is permissible. States are interested in international law for predictability and legitimacy. International law reflects the fragmented nature of international organizations and consists of treaties which are agreements among states but is different than domestic because of enforcement (no executive) and adjudication(only deal with cases brought to them by states and pass ambiguous non-binding resolutions). muscular (deploying troops) vs. somewhat muscular international law (peacekeepers).

Communal war

Makes up a portion of intrastate wars where combatants divide along ideological lines. Governments unable to mediate conflict. Communal wars often stem from ethnic wars or religious differences . Conflict in Yugoslavia can be regarded as one between rural and urban areas. Urban communities had intermarried and identified themselves as "Yugoslavs" rather than Croats, Serbs, or Muslims. Once Yugoslavia collapsed and fighting broke out, some of these people had new identities thrust upon them. Communal war and ethnic war are almost always the same. Communal are people that are gathered by one common identity, usually ethnicity. Sometimes based on religion, but even then normally focused on ethnicity.

Ethnic war

Many intrastate conflicts and communal wars are ethnic wars in which belligerants define themselves in part along cultural lines such as language, religion, or similar characteristics. Constructivists point out that ethnicity is not an immutable fact that inevitably leads to war. It is socially constructed. Ex=Rwanda genocide 1994 and breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991, which prompted ethnic conflict for 11 years. Ethnic distinctions are better described by Sigmund Freud's term "the narcissim of minor differences." Common dynamic is that ethnic symbols and myths create divisions; economic rivalries or the weakening of state authority create fears for group survival. Elites or leaders then mobilize support by appealing to ethnic symbols and any number of events (such as Bosnia's declaration of independence in 1992) can spark the fighting. In addition to the problem that rational actors face in the structural conditions of anarchy, the security dilemmas involved in the early stages of ethnic conflict often grow out of the manipulation of emotional symbols by those who prefer and profit from violence.

Civil war (and trends)

Of the 71 conflicts that have occurred since the end of the Cold War, 52 were purely intrastate (civil wars) and another 11 were instrastate with foreign intervention. All are "globalized" in involving state actors, international organizations, ngos, and nonstate actors. Most intrastate wars occur when established mechanisms for mediating conflicts break down; frequently follows in the aftermath of a collapsed empires. Ex=Soveit Empire in the Caucasus and Central Asia. Such "failed states" either never had a strong government or their governments were undermined by economic conditions, loss of legitimacy or outside intervention.

Cyberfeudalism

One of five future world orders involving structures that overcome the dilemmas of anarchy. - Centralized bureaucratic governments will become decentralized organizations and governmental functions will be handled by private markets. - Virtual communities will cut across territorial jurisdictions and develop their own patterns of governance - States will still exist but become less important and central to people's lives -Analogous to the feudal world before the Westphalian system Problems=claims of virtual and geographical communities will conflict, how issues of violence and security will be handled, increased technology generates increased desire for security

World federalism

One of five future world orders involving structures that overcome the dilemmas of anarchy. -One of the oldest traditions of European thought -International federation solution=states would agree to give up their national armaments and accept some degree of central government -Believe that history is a record of progress toward larger units (13 colonies forming a central government) Problem=people want justice, welfare, and autonomy in addition to peace and do not trust world governments to protect them.Different cultures have different concepts about these terms. Would not necessarily be the end of war as internal war is increasingly common.

Ecologism

One of five future world orders involving structures that overcome the dilemmas of anarchy. 1970 Richard Falk's This Endangered Planet 1.the growing importance of transnational, non-territorial actors 2.growing interdependence under conditions of scarcity A gradual evolution of grassroots, populist values that would transcend the state and result in international norms of peace, justice, and ecological balance and a new form of world order Problems= technological change and economic growth have accentuated ecological problems, Falk overestimated how scarce resources would become and underestimated how technology would compensate for scarcity, finding our way to an ecologically sustainable future is perhaps the single greatest cooperation challenge facing the world today.

Functionalism

One of five future world orders involving structures that overcome the dilemmas of anarchy. Predicts issue-specific international institutions with real decision making power.States have less reason to squabble, eliminating war. Formal shell of state continue to exist, drained of its hostile content. Gave rise to specialized UN agencies, NGOs. Problems=Most states are reluctant to allow themselves to become so interdependent that they become highly vulnerable to others

Regionalism

One of five future world orders involving structures that overcome the dilemmas of anarchy. The functional approach at a regional level Schumann Plan, Treaty of Rome 1957, EU 1992, Increased complex interdependence in the belief that the cost-benefit ratio favors cooperation over full national independence Problems=Some recent pushback towards how much sovereignty to cede to a regional government, but the general trend shows that the EU system is far better than any other Europe has tried Regionalism is just the idea that countries from a particular region decide to collaborate with each other in a special way. A separate concept from functionalism. Regionalism and integration often go together for the obvious reason that it is hard to integrate your economy with a country that is not nearby. Functionalist often put in charge of the process. Ex= European Union. However these concepts are usually separate but can work together.

Legitimacy

One of the two reasons states have an interest in international law. Legitimacy: international law legitimizes states' own policies. Legitimacy enhances a state's soft power.

Predictability

One of the two reasons states have an interest in international law. Predictability:international law allows governments to avoid conflicts at a high level when friction arises. Handling them by international law and agreed principles depoliticizes them and makes them predictable. Predictability leads to an orderly handling of conflicts.

Complex peacekeeping

Peacekeeping vs. Peacebuilding. Fairly similar, normally go in knowing that there isn't a peace to keep and that there will be a lot to do. Peacebuilding is taking a situation that is not at peace and try to figure out how to build it, often through force or training police, lawyers, journalists, etc. within the country. Election monitoring is a huge part. The UN is not the only agency that does this. Complex peacekeeping and peacebuilding are so similar they can be almost used interchangeably. Peacekeeping has had mixed results, especially as additional duties were gradually added to their missions in the 1990s (e.g. peacebuilding). The suez deployment helped bring about peace between Israel and Egypt. The troops in Rwanda did little to stop genocide. Good guys come in with guns blazing ready to take down the bad guys-not sure who the bad guys are. Dealing with a whole array of nation-building activities. An organization that was good at simple peacekeeping (Cyprus) may not be good at complex (Congo).

Political globalization

Political globalization= constitutional arrangements, democracy, international rules and institutions. Political reactions to political globalization= 1. Reactions to globalization helped stimulate fundamentalism (Middle East conservatives) 2. Increasing inequality among and within some countries (increasing flow of information make people more aware of inequality and increases protests) 3. Economic interdependence (Imperfections in international markets slow down and buffer political change. Globalization is removing these buffers, and creating more linkages among issues leading to more friction)

Competitive credibility

Politics has become a contest of competitive credibility. Narratives are more important than ever before. The world of traditional power politics is typically about whose military or economy wins, but in an information age, it is increasingly important whose story wins. Governments compete with one another and with other organizations to enhance their own credibility and weaken that of their opponents. Competitive credibility=information sources. One of the challenges in the world is whom to believe. Which news source is going to give the most reliable information?

Responsibility to Protect

Resolution 1973 developed in reaction to failure to intervene in Rwanda genocide. "The principle of nonintervention yields to the international responsibility to protect." Obstacles to success= power politics, self-interest, and free rider problems. States are generally reluctant to take on stronger states. States are reluctant to take action against allies or set precedence allowing intervention. Peace, justice, and security are public goods: states have incentive to let other states shoulder the benefit of providing them. R2P asserts obligation to deal with "mass atrocity", including but not limited to genocide. Little effect on intrastate violence thus far. First implementation in 2011 Libyan civil war imposing no-fly zone. R2P always envisages military intervention as a last resort. If there were crimes against humanity, the UN invaded the country and tried the people. Problems=vague wording. People who didn't want to intervene could find excuses not to. Free-rider problem. Public good. Situation with the Chilean president moving him all over the place. It infringes on sovereignty, which is highly unusual for international law.

Secession

Secession movements can be a justification for intervention. Question of defining "a people"? Additional issues: does secession harm those left behind? What about the resources the secessionists take wtih them or the disruption they create int eh country they leave? Ex=Sudetenland seceeded from Czechoslovakia and joined Germany 1938, leaving Czech's borders undefended due to loss of mountainous terrain. Was it right to allow self-determination for the Sudeten Germans, even if it meant stripping Czechoslovakia of its military defenses?

Sensitivity (to interdependence)

Sensitivity refers to the amount and pace of the effects of dependence; how quickly does change in one part of the system bring about change in another part? ex=1987 stock market crash because of foreigners' anxieties about US interest rates.

Symmetry

Situations in which states or agents with relatively balanced power capabiliteies are in opposition to one another. The latter half of the Cold War is widely regarded as a symmetrical conflict because of the rough nuclear balance between the United States and the Soviet Union. Symmetry=situations of relatively balanced versus unbalanced dependence. Being less dependent than others can be a source of power. If two parties are interdependent but one is less dependent than the other, the less dependent party has a source of power as long as both value the interdependent relationship. Perfect symmetry and complete imbalance are both very rare

Empire

Some analysts improperly describe the international order as a U.S. world empire. The U.S. has politics of primacy but not empire- not wide reaching political control over other nations. Difference between empire and hegemon. Similar in sense that they involve a powerful country dominating a large part of the world. Difference in how. An empire directly takes it over and puts together a colonial administration that runs the country and takes full responsibility for it and exploit it. Historically, that comes to an end and the imperial power leaves. Hegemons control things indirectly. We're not going to take you over, but if you want any money or protection, you are going to join this alliance. Hegemons create the rules of the system and if countries want to succeed they have to follow those rules. Somewhat crueler because hegemons don't take responsibility for their client states. Hegemons can be more powerful than empires and with fewer burdens.

Transnational terrorism

Territorial terrorist groups are different from NGOs since they generally want to control a state. Ultimately they can be grouped into normal politics- IRA, PLO. Transnational terrorist groups generally do not seek to control a state but rather to disrupt the international system. Ordinary states cannot meet their demands. The key for transnational terrorist groups is to sow enough fear that the target society transforms itself into a security-state and loses its legitimacy. Terrorists try to destroy the character of democracy, tie down its hard-power assets, and erode its soft-power attractiveness. 9-11 considered an unusually successful terrorist attack not because of the deaths it caused, but because of the overreaction it provoked. I.e. War on terror is counterproductive.

Veto (in UN Security Council)

The UN was founded at the end of WWII in order to prevent war, promote human rights and respect for state sovereignty. These are probably inherently incompatible. States were each given a seat in the General Assembly, but only five received permanent seats on the Security Council. These five can veto any resolutions on the use of force.These are China, France, Russia, the UK and the US.

Hegemony

The ability to exercise a specific kind of control within a system of states (military, financial, or both). The United States is often said to be both a military and a financial hegemon today. An international system with a true hegemon is said to be unipolar. Difference between empire and hegemon. Hegemons control things indirectly. We're not going to take you over, but if you want any money or protection, you are going to join this alliance. Hegemons create the rules of the system and if countries want to succeed they have to follow those rules. Somewhat crueler because hegemons don't take responsibility for their client states. Hegemons can be more powerful than empires and with fewer burdens.

Soft power

The ability to obtain desired outcomes through attraction or persuasion rather than coercion or payment. One implication of the abundance of free information sources, and the role of credibility, is that soft power is likely to become less a function simply of material resources than in the past. The close connection between hard power and soft power is likely to be somewhat weakened under conditions of complex interdependence is an information age.

Zionism

The belief that Jews are entitled to a state of their own in their biblical lands. Started with the Balfour Declaration written by the Brish government during WWI promising a Jewish homeland in Palestine. After Turkey's defeat in WWI, Britain took control of Palestine. Jewish immigration to Palestine increased- by 1936 40% of Palestine was Jewish. Israelis argue that the horrors of the Holocaust proved the need for a Jewish state. 1948 Jewish settlers willing to accept a partition of Palestine- native Arabs were not. The UN recognized the new Jewish state but Israel has had to fight to preserve it from concerted Arab attack. Arabs argue that they already lived there and they didn't commit the Holocaust so why should they have to pay for it? Have since been five Arab-Israel wars.

Zero sum games

The benefits of interdependence are expressed as zero-sum and non-zero-sum.One party is going to win and one party is going to lose. Zero-sum =Your loss is my gain and vice versa. Ex=dividing a pie The distribution of benefits - who gets how much of the joint gain. The result is that there is almost always some political conflict in economic interdependence Even when there is a larger pie, people can fight over who gets the biggest slices Both zero-sum and non-zero-sum aspects are present in mutual dependence

Positive sum games

The benefits of interdependence are sometimes expressed as zero-sum and non-zero-sum. Non-zero-sum 1. Positive-sum. We both gain. Ex= baking a larger pie 2. Negative-sum.We both lose. Ex= dropping the pie on the floor

Dependence

The condition of one state depends on the state of another. Interdependence is mutual dependence between two or more states. In interdependence, the states with higher dependence on something are more vulnerable. If one country is more dependent on another, the relationship is asymmetrical. If they are equally dependent, they are symmetrical.

Universal jurisdiction

The doctrine of universal jurisdiction allows national courts to try cases of the gravest crimes against humanity, even if these crimes are not committed in the national territory and even if they are committed by government leaders of other states.In recent years, however, several state governments have limited the use of universal jurisdiction by their domestic courts, after pressure from countries like the United States, Israel and China and creation of International Criminal Court.

Preemptive war

The first exception to the strict rule on nonintervention. If there is a clear and imminent threat to a state's territorial integrity and political sovereignty it must act right away before it doesn't have a chance to. Different than preventive. A preemptive strike occurs when war is imminent. Preemptive vs. preventive. Preventive thinks it will get worse in the future so its better to do it now, preemptive is when they believe there is an immediate threat so they have to ask first. Preemptive has more credibility than preventive in world so George W. Bush going to war in Iraq called it preemptive when it was in fact preventive.

Self-determination

The right of a people to decide their own political fate (which may or may not involve ruling themselves; they may choose to be part of a larger political community). Most commonly expresses itself in the desire to form a state. Can lead to problems of determining whether it justifies an exception to the rule of nonintervention. Self-determination= ambiguous moral principle. Question of who determines?Ethnic groups. Voting doesn't solve problems of self-determination. Where one votes? Ex=Crimean referendum 2014 and Russian interference. Argument against secessionist movements because they harm the former nation economically.

Unipolarity

The structure of an international system in which one state exercises preponderant power. Some analysts consider the current international system to be unipolar because the United States enjoys military preponderance; economically, however, the world is clearly multipolar. In the global information age, power is distributed among countries in a pattern that resembles a complex 3D chess game you play vertically as well as horizontarlly. On the top chessboard of political-military issues, military power is unipolar with the U.S. the middle board of economic issues the U.S. must meet Europe halfway. Bottom chessboard of transnational relations are outside the control of governments and power is chaotically dispersed.

Realism

The view that international politics is inherently a struggle for power and security and, at least potentially, what Thomas Hobbes called "a war of all against all."

Tragedy of the commons

Tradgedy of the commons refers to when a common good is over-exploited. If the common good is exhaustible it often has to be regulated. Ex= the fishing of whales.Tragedy of the commons is ecological overuse of an environmental resource. Like the ocean or wilderness areas. Can't really be bought or sold. Strong tendency for people to make the calculation as individuals that it is in their interest to use this resource as much as possible without regard to the long term effects of that use. A whaler is going to kill a whale. Everyone does that, so the whale population plummeted. Individually it makes sense to use as much of a free resource out there as you can. But as making those individual choices, collectively we end up with a collapse of resources, which benefits no one. Can't rely on the market- have to fiddle with capitalism so people don't do what is in their immediate interest.

Treaties

Treaties= UN charter, environmental treaties, Paris-Accords. Main idea is to be able to define a treaty as a formal written agreement between countries that is supposedly consistent with international law. Different from an international custom, like the custom against genocide. Both international customs and treaties are binding.

Vulnerability (to interdependence)

Vulnerability refers to the relative costs of changing the structure of a system of interdependence. It is the cost of escaping from the system or of changing the rules of the game. The less vulnerable of two countries is the one for whom adjustment is less costly. Ex=1973 oil crisis- U.S. was sensitive to the Arab oil boycott but was less vulnerable than Japan was because it could avoid damage by making simple adjustments of a few degrees. Depends on whether a society is capable of responding quickly to change, whether substitutes are available and whether there are diverse sources of supply.

Obsolescing bargain

When a multinational corporation goes into a resource-rich country with a new investment, it can strike a bargain in which the multinational gets a large part of the joint gains. From the pov of the poor ountry, having a multinational come in to develop its resources will make it beffor off even if it only gets 20% of the revenues. Over time, however, the multinationals inadvertently transfer resources to the poor countries, nout out of charity but in the normal course of business. Ex= the difference in the oil regime in 1973. The poor countries wanted a better division of the profits so over time the power of the multinational companies, particularly in raw materials, diminished in terms of their bargaining with host countries. It was the "obsolescing bargain." Obsolescent bargain comes up in the specific context of oil. Certain kinds of goods require certain kinds of investments. Oil is underground and not moving, so it is very different from making software because you have to go where the oil is. Companies make massive investments drilling land. Once they are there, they have to stay there to get a return on their investment. The bigger the investment, the longer they stay, the weaker their leverage with the local people. Oil companies are usually at their strongest politically at the beginning- that is when their bargaining leverage is highest and the bargaining ability of the local government is weakest. As time goes on, this relationship reverses. Oil countries can really put pressure on oil companies to increase their benefits, like increasing royalties. Oil companies have to put up with it, because they can't leave. Raw material companies are often subject to obsolescent bargains- like gold mining or coffee plants. Most of the time corporations have tremendous power because they can just get up and live.

Feminism

When examining flashpoints, feminists will focus on how masculine ways of approaching issues lead to violence.

Traditional peacekeeping

When violence erupted in the middle east in the 1950s, the UN security council wanted to act but not by invoking collective security. Secretary-general dag hammarskjold proposed "peacekeeping". Peacekeepers in the early years would only deploy lightly armed troops from impartial countries in zones that had been vacated by the belligerents. Their purpose was not to "win" the war but to create peace, thereby limiting casualties and allowing belligerents a chance to negotiate. Traditional peacekeeping= 50s and 60s. Start out with a peace to keep. Peacekeepers are sent to a DMZ and wait for the politicians to tell them what to do, once a peace treaty is created, they go home.

Centripetal forces

a force or attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state. They provide stability, strengthen the state, help bind people together, and create solidarity. Ex= religion sometimes

Exclusive Economic Zone

an area of coastal water and seabed within a certain distance of a country's coastline, to which the country claims exclusive rights for fishing, drilling, and other economic activities. Japan and China had a minor disagreement over islands in the East China Sea- stakes rose when it appeared the East China Sea held significant oil and gas reserves.1996 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea established for the first time a 200-mile offshore exclusive economic zone in, rendering all the more important who enjoyed sovereignty over the territory from which EEZs extend. More recently these islands have come to symbolize and act as a lightning rod for national hatreds and unresolved historical grievances between China and Japan.

Power transition

hegemonic transfer of power and a theory about the cyclical nature of war, in relation to the power in international relations.Ex=end of Cold War represented an opportunity for Russia and the West to embark on a new path that benefitted both. But fundamental disagreements on whether the Cold War had a "winner" and "loser" and on whether Russia was being reated with the respect it deserved, plus oppositional national identities, resulted in a vicious spiral of misunderstanding, mistrust, and ultimately hostility. Now engaged in a "deep-freeze" with Russia. Power transitions can be dangerous, especially if people believe that conflict is inevitable and act in ways tha make it a self-fulfilling prophecy. Rapid power transitions are one of the leading causes of great power conflict and hegemonic wars.

Decolonization

many western empires dissolved during 50's and 60's, giving rise to a bunch of new countries. The UN was a midwife to decolonization- it did such a good job that it basically worked itself out of a job. Nearly every colony out there that wants to be independent is. With decolonization came a ballooning number of countries. With something like the general assembly where each country gets a vote, that is a huge deal. Voting blocs, agenda of the UN general assembly making a big switch in the 1960's because developing countries basically took it over. In 1960, half the OPEC countries were colonies of Europe; by 1973, they were all independent- drastically affected the balance of international oil regime. You need to listen to countries when there is a group of fifty of them. Decolonization is often followed by rising nationalism.

Jurisdiction

the official power to make legal decisions and judgments. Normally framed within territories- territorial jurisdiction. This might change in the future with the development of institutions that overcut territorial jurisdiction, i.e. cyberfeudalism, universal jurisdiction, etc. Jurisdiction is the generic term for which tribunal has the authority to pass judgement- normally thought of in geographic terms. International legal system allows for the possibility that some crimes (like genocide) transcend geographical location and the whole country has to take responsibility. Being tried in England for a crime committed in Chile. Countries don't like to use it because it opens a whole can of worms.

Nuclear proliferation

the spread of nuclear weapons, technology, and information, to nations which are not recognized as "Nuclear Weapon States" (such as North Korea) by the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, also known as the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty or NPT. General idea that nuclear weapons should be spread. Nuclear states= India, Israel, Pakistan, and North Korea are making nuclear weapons without being a part of the treaty. Other countries are against their nuclear programs.

Military globalization

transnational threats (Al-Qaeda), transcontinental weapons, regional coalitions, world wars, the impact of the Cold War on world affairs.

Interdependence

where the condition of one depends on another and vice versa. Essentially, it means mutual dependence. Ex= marriage vow "for richer, for poorer, for better, or for worse." Sources=Physical (natural) and social (economic, political, or perceptual)- normally both. The four types of goods- public, common, private, club. The distinction between domestic and foreign often becomes blurred in the politics of interdependence= intermistic. Costs of Interdependence(zero-sum games)= 1. Sensitivity: speed and scope of "ripple effect" of changes in the system 2. Vulnerability: cost of opting out of the system 3. Symmetry: mutual dependence is relatively equal across parties 4. Asymmetry: depending on the issue, one party is far more sensitive and vulnerable than the other