Policy Chapter 4

African-Americans

17.9% of the U.S Population 45 Million Poverty rate is increasing for black people Poverty: Black poverty rates remain high. Median household income was only 59% of their white counterparts Family Structure: Only 28% of black families are married 41% are headed by a single female living below the poverty line Labor Force Participation and Income: Laws have not adequately prevented discrimination practices. The black unemployment rate is 9.4, compared to whites at 4.3 Explanations? Jared Bernstein--> employment discrimination( lax antidiscrimination laws) --> jobs in vulnerable sectors of the labor economy --> lower rates of unionization--> erosion of workers rights DOES NOT EXPLAIN THE LARGE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COLLEGE EDUCATED VS WHITE COLLEGE EDUCATED Franklin Wilson: 1. decline during the 80's of public sector jobs and 2. failure to penetrate the occupations that have managerial or supervisory responsibilities Crime: Black people are overrepresented in prisons They are four times more likely to be murdered than whites Black Lives Matter was created by Patrisse Cullors, Opal Tometi, Alicia Garza after George Zimmerman got acquitted. Police Brutality: Tamir Rice, Trayvon Martin, Michael Brown, Tanisha Anderson, Freddie Gray, Laquan Donald Housing: Households are poorer and more likely to be renters Health: Black infant mortality rate is 11.1 per 1,000 live births --> ranks high internationally --> low birth weight is a significant cause Black men are more likely to be diagnosed with HIV African -Americans have a lower life expectancy rate than their white counterparts Education: Black and White students graduate high school at nearly the same rate However, more white than black people earned a bachelors degree Welfare Dependency: Welfare dependency is increasing for African Americans In 2009, 11% received more than half their income from public assistance programs Life expectancy is lower for African-Americans

Gay and Lesbians: Two Populations at Risk

1993: The Psyciatric Association removed homosexuality as a disorder from the DSM-III Attitudes have shifted towards homosexuality and people have become more accepting Laws forbidding sodomy were repealed --> Texas Lawrence v Texas--> made the sodomy statute unconstitutional There is no federal law that bans discrimination based on sexual orientation, many states have adopted the policies California and Massachusetts were the first two states to make same sex marriage legal Despite advances, the LGTBQ community still faces backlash from society. They are subject to discrimination, hate crimes, bullying, assault, and murder based on their sexual orientation Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act--> expanded the 1969 federal hate crime laws to include the LGBTQ community --> first law to offer legal protections to transgender people Transgender: the gender identity assigned at birth differs from their real gender identity Transsexual-->may surgically change their gender genderqueer--> identifies with neither gender, both genders, or a combination of genders Transgender people have a reduced life expectancy, 72% of hate crime victims were transgender Transgender are one of the most vulnerable populations in the LGBTQ community Bathroom Issue: Should transgender people be allowed to use restrooms where they feel most comfortable? Bathroom Bill: Conservative approach--> requires people to use the bathroom according to the identity they were assigned at birth --> argue that it protects privacy and safety

Asian Americans

25 Asian Pacific groups in America Fastest Growing: Chinese,FIlipino, Japanese, Asian Indian, Korean, Vietamese high median family income Great strides in the educational arena *Many recent asian immigrants work in sweatshops in urban Chinatowns *Southeast Asians are at a higher risk of poverty than whites *Roles can be forced upon them Historical Discrimination: Internment camps for 127,000 Japanese Americans during World War 2--> Govt feared they would be loyal to their "home" country --> To make it right, Congress awarded each survivor 20,000 to right the wrongs "Model Minority": experience internal and external pressure around achievement and success--> discriminated because of academic performance--> redoubled efforts to join mainstream U.S society

American Indians

562 federally recognized tribes 5.2 million or 2% of the U.S population poorest group in the United States Population dwindled as a result of disease, westward expansion, wars, genocidal policies Suffer from a "quiet crisis" Unemployment, substance abuse, school dropout are among the highest in the nation Face staggering health problems --> 770% more likely to die from alcoholism 650% more likely to die from Tuberculosis 420% more likely to die from diabetes 280% more likely to die from accidents Tribes are sovereign nations under federal law --> states may not enforce their civil code on reservations Economy: Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988-->allows tribes to operate gambling within their borders --> employment increased but not by American Indians Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978: restored child placement decisions to individual tribes Indian Self Determination Act of 1975: emphasized tribal self-government, self- sufficiency, independent health, education, and welfare services

Aids and the Gay Community

AIDS has been used to justify homophobic attitudes In the past, people wanted to quarantine AIDS victims and punish homosexual behavior The movement of AIDS to the heterosexual community sparked sympathy for the gay population homphobia: the irrational fear of homosexuality --> continues to limit civil rights and legal protections for gays--> justification found in religious texts that view homosexuality as a sin against God Conversion Therapy has been outlawed in many states and many professional organizations denounce the practice

Ageism

Ageism: discrimination against people based on age. America is aging, yet most are invisible America does not value older Americans for their wisdom America needs to look into healthcare solutions since many people are living longer than ever

Healthcare and the Elderly

As the number of elderly increase, the demands on society for housing, health, recreational services, and health care become greater Elderly women live longer than men, but only make 57% of their income More healthcare costs will be put on the government and the families Older people vote in LARGE numbers Older Americans Act (OAA): 1960's provides adequate retirement income, promotion of good physical and mental health regardless of economic status, centrally located adequate affordable housing,meaningful employment, civic cultural and recreational opportunities, adequate community services (low cost transportation and supported living arrangements)

Desegregation and the Civil Rights Movement

Brown v Board of Education: Rules that separate but equal facilities were unconstitutional in 1954 --> hindered the educational and mental development of black children de facto segregation: racial, ethnic, or other segregation resulting from societal differences between groups, as socioeconomic or political disparity, without institutionalized legislation intended to segregate. Swann v Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education--> 1971 mandated court ordered busing to achieve racial integration of school districts with a history of discrimination Rosa Parks: non-violent protest when she refused to give up her seat Selma March Protest at North Carolina Diner

Gay and Lesbian Family Life

Civil Unions were the only type of union that the LGBTQ community could make. Same-Sex marriage was legalized in June 2015 by the U.S Supreme Court --> caused an uproar in conservatives. Businesses, such as Memories Pizza, tried to close their doors after stating they would not cater gay weddings Kim Davis, country clerk in Kentucky refused to issue marriage licenses to gay couples even under a court order Parental Rights: Many states unofficially do not permit same sex couples from adopting children

People with Disabilities

Disability is difficult to define--> medical, economic, and functional limitation model focus on what a disabled person cannot do Psychosocial model: views disability as a socially defined category --> "disabled are poor due to discrimination not deficits" People are stigmitized and experience discrimination and oppression--> experience poverty at alarming rates especially women, African-Americans July 26, 1990: George Bush signed the ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) the most comprehensive legislation for people with disabilities and extends to civil rights --> prohibits discrimination in employment and makes public businesses accommodate people with disabilities Still, Discrimination is WIDESPREAD

Gender Discrimination and Violence in an International Context

Female Genital Mutilation: involves injury or removal of outer genital parts for cultural or religious reasons --> has no health benefits, causes severe bleeding, urination problems, infections, infertility, childbirth complications, and increased risk of post natal death ---> internationally recognized as a human rights issue Patriarchal Societies: Saudi Arabian women have fewer rights than men and face widespread discrimination--> movement requires a male's permission (grocery shop, travel rent hotels apartments)--> women are forbidden to be in physical contact with other men which denies them access to employment, parks, museums, libraries --> children belong to the father not the mother Taliban: strict interpretation of Sharia law ---> excluded women from public and government life--> severely restricted women's access to education, healthcare, employment--> women were not supposed to be heard and were beaten for showing too much ankle or wearing noisy--> they were beaten or killed for minor infractions Increase in preventable deaths in women due to lack of access to healthcare Rape was still used to terrorize the population even though the Taliban values modesty U.S Invasion: overthrew the Taliban in 2001 Human trafficking: typically for sexual purposes of women and young girls --> commonly recruited from poor oppressed communities and are often homeless or drug addicts--> traffickers promise citizenship, employment,marriage, education and a better quality of life or threaten to harm or kill their family --> However those promises are rarely ever met

Immigrants and Immigration

Immigration is expected to increase by 2050. 2/3 of immigrants live in 6 states: California , Texas, New York, Florida, Illinois, New Jersey Economic Growth 1990's: immigrants filled the jobs that many Americans looked down upon ex. Blue collar low-level 1.filling an increasing share of jobs 2. by taking jobs in labor scarce regions 3.by filling the types of jobs shunned by native born American workers Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA): granted legal status to undocumented immigrants who were in the United States continiously since 1982 or who had worked in agriculture By 1995: Those admitted by 1995 were half that of those admitted in 1991 More Asians than Europeans migrated to the United Stats Unaccompanied Alien Children: The number of unaccompanied children increased significantly to escape widespread violence in their home country 2015: Obama let in 10,000 Syrian Refugees --> several states have refused to let Syrian refugees reside in their states 1996: Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act: disentitiled most legal immigrants from receiving food stamps, public assistance, and SSI Only immigrants who could receive benefits were those who became citizens or worked and paid social security taxes for 10 years or veterans of the U.S army who were noncitizens. After 9/11: USA Patriot Act, Enhanced Border Security Act, Homeland Security Act --> carefully screens and monitors foreigners who temporarily visit

Hispanic Americans

Largest minority community The population is increasing Hispanic: origins from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Caribbean Islands, Central and South America, and the U.S 26.6% live below the poverty line Hispanic population is concentrated in three states: California, Texas, Florida Poverty and Income: Remain significantly poorer than white. The Hispanic poverty rate is triple that of non-hispanic whites Diversity in the Hispanic Population: Many hispanic subcultures may have little in common with other hispanic subgroups due to differing cultures and experiences ex. Cuban Americans and Mexican Americans Mexican Americans compromise the majority of the hispanic population--> experience high rates of poverty due to deficits in educational attainments Hispanic businesses have increased

Myths around Women and Work

Myth 1: A working mother's wages are not for the survival of the family. Her job is just a "hobby" --> it requires two paychecks to maintain a good standard of living Myth2: Working mothers are unreliable because her family is their primary concern --> 75% of mothers return to work within a year after childbirth Some mothers are forced into the "mommy track" because of a lack of affordable day care Myth3: Working women leave the workforce to raise children --> the choice to become a full time homemaker is the exception rather than the rule. More mothers are continiuing to be in the workforce Myth 4: Small businesses cannot afford to provide good benefits for mothers and for large businesses these cost decrease competetiveness --> Family assistance programs raise productivity, increase worker loyalty, decrease turnover etc... Majority of employers report no change in cost to family leave legislation Myth5: Women are doing better economically and closing the wage gap --> In 2015 Women earn 79% of a male's wage, it would take over 100 years to close this gap

Legal Attempts to Remedy Discrimination

Plessy v Ferguson: was overturned in the 1950's --> separate but equal was unconstitutional

Elderly Poverty and Social Programs

Poverty in older adulthood is increasing Older women are more likely to live in poverty than older men Minorities, especially African-Americans, tend to be poorer than Whites Majority of income comes from Social Security, government pensions, earnings, income from assets, private pensions Elderly are the only age group that has universal healthcare and the only group to receive non-means tested government assistance

Feminization of Poverty

Poverty is a women's issue Women make lower wages than men and receive less benefits than men Many women have to resort to public assistance (18 million in 2014) Causes? When women are deserted or divorced with children, many must find jobs or go on public assistance Those who work are kept in poverty by the low salary wages and those who go on public assistance are kept in poverty by the low benefits Women enter the workforce through service and retail trades which are marked by low pay Children expenses cause women to be in poverty Public transfer programs: Benefits being transferred to the spouse --> retirement benefits are lower for spouses

Abortion and Women's Rights

Pro Choice: argues that women have the right to do what they want with their bodies. Male legislators should not get to dictate that Anti Abortion (Pro Life): argues that life begins at conception and that abortion is murder 1973: Sarah Weddingtion argued Roe V Wade --> abortion was legalized in the United States --> aftermath: 500 bills have been introduced to restrict abortions through a constitutional amendment, power to the states, or limiting federal funding Hyde Amendment of 1977: prohibited the federal govt from funding abortions except to save the life of a mother Harris v McRae 1980: upheld the constitutionality of the Hyde Amendment Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act of 1994: expanded the civil liberty of persons to have unobstructed access to any abortion or reproductive health services clinic Anti- Abortion movement is trying to whittle away at Roe v Wade by attempting to restrict abortions on the state level Rust v Sullivan: United States can prohibit federally financed family planning programs from giving out abortion information (gag rule) --> Bill Clinton overturned the gag rule Emergency contraception has caused the number of abortions to decline Anti-Abortion Tactics: Texas Law: 2011 required women seeking an abortion to make two visits to the abortion clinic to receive an ultrasound and to wait 24 hours to receive an abortion ---> also requires clinics to give alternative information, such as adoptions, to patients----> Strategy is to impose restrictions on getting abortions Personhood Amendment: defines a person as beginning at the moment the sperm fertilizes the egg and does not discriminate in terms of rape incest or saving the life of a mother because the egg would have the same legal rights as the mother ---> would have made abortion illegal, emergency contraception illegal and many doctors would not perform invitro fertilization for fear of persecution

Discrimination

Psychological: attempt to explain discrimination in terms of intrapsychic variables -Frustration-aggression hypothesis: J Dollard discrimination is a form of aggression when individual needs become frustrated . When people can not direct their aggression at the real source, they replace it with a substitute target usually a weaker minority group. Ex. Poor Southern Whites who direct their anger at African-Americans -Normative Culture: individuals hold prejudicial views because of their socialization. A society teaches discrimination and awards those who conform to prevailing attitudes and behaviors. Resistance becomes very difficult. Ex. Liberal whites who broke governing laws to interact with Blacks Economic: dominant group discriminates to maintain their economic and political advantage. ex. male workers may discriminate against female workers because they perceive them on encroaching on their employment prospects. Discrimination must have moral social and theological themes to remain legitimate ex. People use the bible to make women inferior

Gay Rights

Results have been mixed when gay and lesbian people demand equal rights under the law Cities now have adopted laws that protect the LGBTQ community Most Recent Attack: Rights and Religious Tolerance Issues --> numerous states, including Arizona, have tried to pass laws that made it legal to discriminate on the LGBTQ community based on "freedom of religion"

Women and Society

Sexism: discriminatory and prejudicial treatment of women based on their gender. Violence and Sexism: 25% percent of women were raped or physically assaulted Most intmate partner victimizations are not reported to the police 1/5 of all rapes 1/4 of physical assualts 1/2 of stalking by intimates are reported to the police 1994: Violence Against Women Act (VAWA): comprehensive approach to domestic violence and sexual assault. The law was designed to improve the response of police prosecutors and judges. Nationwide enforcement of protection orders and provides penalties for crossing state lines. Prohibits anyone with a restraining order for domestic violence from owning a firearm. Provides federal funding for domestic violence shelters

Gays and Lesbians in the Military

The LGBTQ community was not accepted into the military. During high times of war, the LGBTQ community was overlooked, but by the time the war was over exclusionary policies were enforced Bill Clinton: Don't Ask, Don't Tell--> prohibits the military from asking questions about sexual orientation as long as homosexuals behaved discreetly. Any mention of being in the LGBTQ community would result in expulsion from the military

Daycare: A Barrier to Female Employment

The cost of daycare has risen significantly 1970s: Title XX Social Services Block Grant is the largest federal program for child care services 1990: increased legislation that increased the supply of child care and expanded early childhood education Congress provided new funds to help families with childcare costs and help states improve the quality and supply of services The United States does not offer paid maternity leave 1993 Family and Medical Leave Act: provides UNPAID maternity leave

Immigration-Based Discrimination in Europe

There has been an intense flow of refugees in European countries ex. Syria Many countries, such as Hungary or Slovakia, oppose refugees coming into their countries One of the largest Immigrant groups in Europe are Muslims--> it has been hard to mix European culture with Muslim culture--> ex. Dilemma of practicing Sharia Law in Muslim Neighborhoods in the United Kingdom --> Europeans oppose Sharia Law because it is oppressive to women and male-dominated Anti-Islamic Sentiment in Europe has been fueled by several terrorist attacks including: Madrid Commuter Train Bombings Terrorist Suicide Attack on London Subways Danish Newspaper depicting Muhammad as a Cartoon--> sparked riots that killed 100 people etc... Fueled by Honor Killings: a murder of a woman usually by a male family member because the individual "dishonored" their family. European govts have placed bans on Muslim clothing in schools

The Minority Middle Class

There is no definition of what is deemed the middle class Educational gains by minorities have increased 92% of blacks graduated high school in 2014 Black college graduates have risen from 13 to 22 % Hispanic College graduates rose from 8 to 15% There is still an educational (college) gap between hispanics/blacks and whites Hispanic and black businesses have increased

Other Obstacles Faced by Working Women

Women need flexible family leave arrangements--> U.S currently does not have mandated paid leave FMLA 1993: requires public employers with 50 or more workers to offer job-protected family or medical leave for up to 12 weeks to qualifying employees --> it does allow health coverage while on leave and the worker is guaranteed the same job or comparable job upon return Sexual Harrassment:unwelcomed sexual behaviors, including jokes, teasing, remarks, questions, deliberate touching etc... Title VII of Civil Rights Act of 1964: prohibits sexual harrassment However, it is still too common in the workplace Comparable worth:idea that workers should be paid equally for different types of work if the jobs require the same skill level education knowledge training responsibility and effort--> based on the belief that the dual-labor market --> women's work (teaching, social work, secretarial etc) are less valued than traditional male occupations Equal Pay Act of 1963: requires employers to compensate male and female employers equally for performing the same job under the same conditions Presidential Executive Order 11375 (1972): mandated that employers practicing sex discrimination be prohibited from federal contracts Title IX of the Educational Amendments 1972: prohibited discrimination in educational institutions receiving federal funds Equal Credit Act of 1975: prohibited discrimination by lending institutions on the basis of sex or marital status

Affirmative Action

affirmative action: ensures that women and minorities are admitted, hired, and promoted in direct proportion to their numbers in population --> preferential treatment is given to minorities and women to right the past wrongs Opponents: leads to racial quota systems, preferential treatment, and reverse discrimination--> argue that it violates the equal protection clause under the fourteenth amendment--> also punishes whites who have not done anything wrong Affirmative action has not been perfect, but it is a start to right the wrongs of the past and current injustices Affirmative action policies have had little to no effect on minorities and women being poor

Racism

discrimination against and prejudice treatment of a racially different minority group ex. differential hiring and firing practices, resource allocations in healthcare and education , segregated housing policies Institutional racism: racial discrimination that is strongly entrenched in the society

Income and Job Disparities between Men and Women

occupational segregation: Traditional female roles include cashier, receptionist, home health aides, teachers which are typically some of the lowest paying jobs Women still make up only 2% in male dominated fields such as engineers.electricians, and police Women wages still lag behind men in female dominated professions as well

Forms of Discrimination

religious, gender, race, sexual orientation, colorism, national origin culture, political, personal characteristics(disability age appearance)