POLISCI 100 FINAL
Bourgeoisie
(Associated w Marx) class that has essential economic power (owners) = control over proletariat (workers)
developmental state
(HIGHLY REGULATED) gov & business partner together to concentrate on rapid economic growth = greater social // economic equality thru growth
night-watchman state
(NON INTERFERING) minimal role of state = "maximize freedom"
liberal democracy
Canada, India, USA : free fair elections, universal suffrage Utilitarian democracy gives rise to the idea of liberal democracy: Conjoining of capitalism and democracy
international organization
Clusters of ideas and coalitions of interest that exist at a transnational level and actively work towards certain desired outcomes • May be public or private, and made up of state or non-state actors many forms, variety
International Civil Society
Combination of social movements and NGOs • Groups or collectives include professional associations, charities, interest groups, businesses, etc. • Sometimes in opposition to formal state-based or state-generated activities • Viewed favourably by proponents of cosmopolitan democracy The importance of social movements and international civil society does offer a challenge to traditional "realist" views of IR
Problems with parties
Declining membership • Decreased funding (more reliance on corporate donors) • Decreasing representation (more reliance on party professionals) • Increasing apathy (lack of interest) about parties
fundamental rights
Developed over time from a focus on political right to broader social rights broad range of political and social rights
diplomacy
Diplomacy refers to the pattern of interactions between states. Statecraft is an allied notion, denoting the skilful conduct of state affairs. Although heads of governments are involved in diplomacy, most day-to-day activities are handled by professional diplomats Diplomacy implies peaceful or non-violent solutions to conflict • "Diplomatic solutions" are often contrasted with military ones Generally, diplomatic persuasion is more likely to serve the "national interest" than open aggression or force
socialism
Divisions within socialism differ in both method and end goals. Means is either: revolutionary: divided on the point of how it will happen - by popular uprising (Marx) - by way of a disciplined party (Lenin USSR) evolutionary: • Universal suffrage can make socialism possible through democratic means • Assumes that the state can be responsive to the interests of the working class **socialism criticized of being utopian FINE line between public and private ownership (property)? KEY SOCIALIST PRINCIPLES: • Generally optimistic view of human nature • Human nature can be shaped by social, economic, and political circumstances • Equality of outcomes • Community and communal values
MERCANTILISM
Economic theory that trade generates wealth, and so it is in the interest of the state to promote exports and restrict imports • Economic power and military power generate each other STILL RELEVANT IN TODAY'S GLOBAL ECONOMY
conservatism
Emphasis on law and order, respect for authority, patriotism, civic virtue Typically defends traditions and long-standing institutions, fear of and works against the "threats" posed by an increasingly global culture. DESIRE TO CLING TO PAST NEOCONSERVATISM: patriotism, opposition to world gov, good vs evil outlook on world: you are either with us or you're with the terrorists, promotion of american goals thru FORCE (bush presidency).. =undermines international institutions and resulted in current global recession
UN
Establishes basic principles of order all members must agree to including: • "Faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small," • Intended to ensure the most prominent states played a special role in international system, correcting one of the issues with the League • Questions have been raised as to how well the arrangement reflects today's balance of power • Some see permanent membership as unfairly representing developed states to the exclusion of those from Africa, the Middle East, South Asia or South America
Freedom (=liberty)
Freedom: absence of constraint... what counts as constraint: physical, rational, psychological, economic negative freedom: (Locke) right to non-interference positive freedom: (Rosseau) duty of the state to provide a decent standard of living
OTHER ORGANIZATIONS
Government-organized NGOs (GONGOs) typically serve as fronts for government agendas; the state disguised as civil society • Quasi-NGOs (QUANGOs) receive funding from governments, but operate independently of them • Donor-Organized NGOs (DONGOs) are organized and funded by agencies such as the UN Development Program (UNDP)
human nature
Hobbes: people are competitive and self serving, NEED political structures to be decent Locke: human character shaped by social and economic structure of society BLAMES political structures
STATE
Humans have basic needs - Food - Shelter - Sleep - Sex : easier met with help of group than alone Structure of rule and authority within a particular geographical area A state is a type of polity that is an organized political community living under a single system of government a state is strong or weak based on its ability to manage/provide - Human security - Predictable methods of adjudicating disputes - Freedom of participation, tolerance for dissent, civil and human rights
Asymmetric decentralization
Hybrid of federalism and consociationalism • Certain regions have more power than others ex: canada- the territories have far less self- governing power than the provinces do
Intergovernmental Organizations
IOs whose members are states • TheUNisthemost important of them • Built as a follow up to the failed League of Nations International organizations have become integral
structure
Impact of a particular configuration of institutions structuration: factors that both constrain and provide resources for changes in the operation of both systems and structures can account for highly complex decision making structure and agency work to shape each other
Arrow's Impossibility Theorem
In a situation where there are three or more options, it is impossible to determine the one that is "most preferred" unless more than 50% vote for it
Liberalism
Individual as a central theme Calls for a neutral, pluralist state. Sees individuals as free formed classic liberalism- • Primary emphasis on the individual and individual liberty • The state should have a minimal role: only interfere in regard to providing security and Enforcement of property rights NEW LIBERALISM: • Emphasis on social reform • State intervention could increase liberty by expanding individual opportunity emphasizes positive liberty (freedoms)- duty of state to provide decent standard of living
Interest groups
Insider groups focus on lobbying Outsider groups focus on winning over public opinion
International Political Economy IPE
Interplay between political power and economic forces from the national level through to the international and global • Takes into consideration norms, values, and interests of institutions and organizations • Emphasis on the state and the market • Often considers them to be in tension with each other • One thrives on sovereignty, the other on the absence of barriers to trade
alternative approaches to IR
Marxism Dependency Theory World System Theory: Broadens dependency theory, calling into question the assumption that the international system is based on a nation-state model Critical Theory: criticizes traditional approaches, rooted in marxism- addresses the effects of capitalism on social life Constructivism- Argues that social order (beliefs, norms, values, interests, rules, institutions, etc.) is an ongoing human production, happens thru institutions RATIONALIST V REFLECTIVIST
DISTRIBUTION OF POWER IN IR
Multipolarity - division of power among three or more states within a system. Used to define international politics from 1648-1945 • Bipolarity - power divided between two major states. Typically refers to the USA and USSR in the Cold War era (1949-1991) Some have argued that the bipolar system and the deterrent effect of nuclear weapons is responsible for the "long-peace" of the Cold War • The stability of a unipolar system is debated and its assumptions are challenged by the rise of non-state actors such as Al Qaeda • Recent conflicts do not lend themselves to realist balance-of-power analysis since they are not essentially state-based
security
Once restricted to military issues, security has expanded to a wide range of issue areas including • Energy, food and water, biosecurity • Energy security in particular links a wide range of traditional and non-traditional concerns Although traditional understandings of security have not withered away, since the end of the Cold War other approaches have grown in importance shift from state security to human security New areas such as health, employment, environment, and crime become seen as security matters state to ---> individual
Globalization
Ongoing movement towards economic, political, social, and cultural interdependence. (The future of the state- globalization is coming to a forefront) = boarders more porous ... Global citizenship (?)
LIBERALISM IN IR
Operates on an optimistic view of human nature • Rational, self-regarding action tends to produce outcomes beneficial to all, or at least a majority • Humans can progress over time towards a better state of existence • Progress is based on the actions of individual agents
nationalism
Political, cultural, and moral concept • Emphasis is placed on the self-determination of nations 3 approaches to nationalism: primordialists (nation is a natural phenomenon), modernists (nation is "imagined" by elites), ethno symbolists (see nation imagined out of communal past) Civic nationalism - loyalty to the institutions and values of a particular political community *inclusive Ethnic nationalism - loyalty to a shared inheritance based on culture, language, or religion *exclusive
colonialism
Primary purpose was exploitation of resources • Spread European bureaucratic structures world-wide, if only in a simplified form
Propaganda
Propaganda is the promotion of particular ideas and values through some form of communication
environmentalism
Reformist "environmentalism" focus on sustainable development and ecological modernization: renewable energy etc Radical "ecologist" see economic growth as incompatible with environmental protection: limits to growth, consumption levels, and population size
Institutions
Regular patterns of behaviour that give stability and predictability to social life informal: family, social class formal: gov
SELF DETERMINATION
Right of states to freely determine their own policies and practices Right of states to determine their own government The quest of a nationalist group to secure political autonomy
Consociationalism
Rose as a challenge to federalism in the 1970s • Small states with deep multiethnic or confessional cleavages • Based on power sharing between elites • Netherlands as example Proportional representation • Agreement on minority vetoes for certain types of legislation
Illiberal democracy
Russia, Malaysia : elections are held, little protection for rights or liberties. EX: media control, opposition parties at disadvantage
Neomercantilism
Saw liberal ideas of global free trade as "utopian" • Called for economic conservatism based on national interest, which is still popular with realists and conservative critics of globalization • Fell out of favour with the collapse of communism in the late 1980s and early 1990s
Neoliberalism
Sees a range of non-state actors , NGO's, etc., as having an important role in international civil society • States are not unitary actors, but influenced by domestic constraints as well • Security expanded to include not only military but economic factors • International system characterized by complex interdependence
Communitarianism
Sees the state as uniting the society around a common set of values. Sees individuals as product of social / historical context
State of nature
Society BEFORE any form of gov has been establish
pluralism
Society is made up of many groups, gov does what it can to reflect these groups: gov is shaped by population's public agenda) different groups prevail in different issue areas = pluralist fragmentation of power Elite pluralism argues that interest groups are themselves under the control of elites Pluralism can be seen as overemphasizing difference in society and undervaluing public interest
Regionalization
Some say that the nation-state is giving way to the "region-state" • Regionalization is a complex process of political, social, and economic integration
Marxism
State is always controlled by economic elite, state designed to benefit certain class classes based on material status, who has what • Marxists argue that the ruling class will only make concessions to the subordinate class for two reasons • First, to benefit itself • Second, to prevent social unrest Marx: the state exists solely for the benefit of the ruling class • Eliminate classes and there is no role for the state
Internal contradiction of empire
Stronger = CONQUEST expand Weaker = expand
how media works
The "magic bullet" or "hypodermic needle" model: Powerful media either "inject" their audiences with messages or batter them into acceptance The "two-step" flow of influence model: The media are influential only in so far as their messages are reinforced by personal interaction of readers or viewers with local opinion-formers.
Citizenship
The state of being a citizen, w social and political rights required to participate in decision making
public diplomacy
The ways in which governments attempt to influence public opinion abroad Draws on concepts such as Nye's "soft power" and Gramsci's hegemony • "the ability to get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments. It arises from the attractiveness of a country's culture, political ideals, and policies. When our policies are seen as legitimate in the eyes of others, our soft power is enhanced. . ." (Nye, 2004)
Theory vs ideology
Theory: aimed at political elites Ideology: aimed at mass mobilization
nation
a kind of collective identity that is grounded in a shared history and culture and may or may not lay claim to some kind of political recognition as well as a specific territory
empirical analysis
analysis of factual information- WHAT IS as opposed to what ought to be: How well do they reflect the reality of any given political system? Empirically, states are no longer as economically powerful as they once were
Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
are international organizations with an economic focus
Charismatic authority
based on personal traits of an individual, usually associated w totalitarian or authoritarian regimes.. charismatic leaders emerge at times of crisis
Legal rational authority
based on status of either the ruler's office as a part of a system of constitutional rules (democracy) or in a religious text such as the Koran (islamic regimes)
constituencies
body of voters in a specified area who elect a representative to a legislative body. "Gerrymandering" - the drawing of electoral boundaries to favour one's own party
civil society
community of citizens (interest groups, non-gov organizations) intermediary (acts as a link) btwn individual and the state
Corporatism
coordination between the state, industry and trade groups to achieve economic interests
SOCIAL MOVEMENT
denote some kind of collective action, driven by a particular set of social concerns and emerging independently of government initiatives. Sometimes they are actively opposed to governments. Typically they represent global causes, such as the drive to end world poverty, to stop environmental DESTRUCTION
embedded autonomy
describes the position of state economic policy makers in developmental states: they are embedded into society and are aware of its needs and priorities while still detached enough to determine public interest CONTRIBUTED TO JAPANS ECONOMIC SUCESS the "embedded autonomy" of state decision makers played an important role behind the success of south korea in particular
fascism
extreme form of nationalism Rejects intellectualizing in favour of action, instinct, and emotion Fascism is anti-Enlightenment and opposes ideas of liberalism, democracy, reason, individualism demands strong central leader
justice
giving others what they are entitled to • Procedural justice - fairness of the process through which an outcome is reached • Social or distributive justice - fairness of the outcome itself • All theories of justice are based in equality if not in terms of outcomes, at least in the sense of consistency of treatment need based v merit based justice
Mill
greater freedom leads to greater happiness • Maximum possible freedom for the expression of ideas (even obviously false ones) • Only those actions harming others should be prevented by public opinion or the state
Social contract
idea that individuals in state of nature must accept limitations on their freedom in return for benefits of having a government
authoritarian state
no fair elections, rulers set on individual or family, military, ruling party or religious institution (1/3 of world lives under authoritarian state)
institutions
regular patterns of behavior that provide stability and regularity in social life
Cosmopolitan democracies
takes globalization into account, Calls for international institutions to control global developments and be accountable to democratic control
constitutions
the overall structure of a state's political system • a specific document that outlines the basic institutions of the state, the procedures for changing them, and the basic rights and obligations of the citizens Constitutionalism: The view that the constitution is the most fundamental principle of political life
political culture
the totality of ideas and attitudes towards authority, discipline, governmental responsibilities and entitlements, and associated patterns of cultural transmission such as the education system and family life 3 possible dimensions for political culture by almond and verba: - 'Parochial' groups, who were barely interested in national politics - 'Subject' groups, which were interested in national politics but were essentially passive - 'Participant' groups, which wanted to contribute to decision-making, beyond an occasional vote. Political culture is best understood as 'a set of narratives and symbols of national identity which different groups try to manipulate to their political advantage'. Political culture is the configuration of a particular people's political orientations • Generalized beliefs of the many
corporatism
top down model : economic interests control over society thus economic elite groups obtain more power
empire
various forms throughout history, Characterized by explicit relations of dominance and subordination Suggests a central role for agriculture NEW DEF: nation-state that dominates other nation-states and exhibits one or more of the following characteristics: (1) exploits resources from the lands it dominates, (2) consumes large quantities of resources— amounts which are disproportionate to the size of its population relative to those of other nations, (3) maintains a large military that enforces its policies when more subtle measures fail, (4) spreads its language, literature, art, and various aspects of its culture
modern corporatism
• "Societal" corporatism - relationships are formed through pressures originating outside government • "State" corporatism - relationships are formed through state-led choice of partners • Notable during the era of Keynesian economics in the 1960s and 1970s used predominately in Europe
NGOS
• Aspire to self-governance according to their own constitutional rules • Private in that they operate independently of governments • Non-profit Members are non-state actors - Individuals - Groups • Issue specific focus • Generally regarded as positive - World Wildlife Federation - Red Cross / Red Crescent
Transnational Criminal Organizations (TCOs)
• Associated with the globalization of both licit and illicit markets • Increasingly seen as threatening to both national and international security
multiculturalism
• Challenge to traditional models of national citizenship • Advocates pluralistic states that include a variety of religious, cultural, and ethnic identities
Key Ideological Approaches
• Classical Liberalism • Conservatism • Socialism • Nationalism • Fascism • Anarchism
functions expected of the modern state:
• Healthcare • Education • Infrastructure (roads, railways, communications) • Banking system with national currency • Space for civil society • Distributive regulation Strong (developed) states tend to provide these services to the satisfaction of their citizens Size (both geographic and population) • Economic power • Military might all contribute to the states external capacity and strength internal: LEGITIMACY
national character
• National character studies seek to identify the cultural features specific to a given population • Often done using survey research problematic w an increasingly globalized world
Normative Analysis
• Normative analysis is concerned with norms, values and ethics • Does not claim itself to be "scientific" • Challenges the positivist claim that it produces objective knowledge, noting instead how often the bias of the scientist appears • Some claim that all knowledge is a matter of interpretation
Federalism
• Power is divided between different authorities that have their own particular responsibilities • Each authority has sovereignty within its own sphere of responsibilities 2 key federalist institutions: Two chamber parliament or legislative body Constitutional court federalism works bc of geographical size and diversity of population
global
• Typically used to refer to the entire world • Tends to erase boundaries • Allows for a larger sense of community (cosmopolitanism) and larger ethical order • "Globalization" emphasises interconnectedness across state boundaries
Authoritarian
A form of rule that restricts personal liberty and is not accountable to the public
elections
A method of assessing preferences through votes • Central to democracy • Two basic types of electoral systems; plurality: "first-past-the-post", simple: most votes wins, Encourages strong opposition parties/ problems: Can exaggerate margins of victory, "wasted vote" proportional representation: Prioritizes adequate representation of the range of public opinions. • Favours the participation of minority groups and smaller parties Reduces the "wasted vote" problem, problem: May encourage fragmentation of the party system
neorealism
Aimed for a more scientific, parsimonious theory of IR to generate testable hypotheses • Emphasis on the structure of the international state system as determining state behaviour
Elitism
Argues that all societies are led by a unified elite "Iron law of oligarchy"- all organizations will develop under the direction of a dominant group Elites can be economic, military, administrative, or religious
new right theory of state
Argues that the state tends to overstep its bounds thru: 1.Overpromising to secure votes 2. Expanding state bureaucracy
feminism
Assumes that the status of women is unequal to that of men liberal feminism (late 19th -early 20th century): Argues that women should have the same formal rights as men in the public sphere (suffrage movement, alteration of marriage laws) 2nd wave: 1960s The problem is not women's role in the system, but the system itself: systematic oppression must be understood and eliminated socialist and marxist feminism: Capitalist society is exploitative of all working -class people, but especially women • A transformation of society is needed to ensure that domestic life no longer has a economic function
Postmodernism
At its best offers insights into the relationship between power and knowledge • At its worst it does not move beyond criticism to suggest a pathway towards positive change • Some see it as relativistic, nihilistic, and even ultimately incoherent Poststructuralism emphasizes the role of language in the production of knowledges (plural)
Behavioralism
Behavioralism arises in the study of IR after WW2, especially in the USA • Rejects legal, historical and comparative studies in favour of quantifiable data • Reliance on the scientific method to produce objective, positive knowledge • Closely related to positivism which presupposes neutral, universally valid body of knowledge about politics and IR
Utilitarianism
Doctrine: Actions are right if they are useful or benefit the majority
totalitarian state
EXTREME interventionist state: absence of public / private distinction.. state reach is TOTAL ex nazi Germany, stalinist USSR, & currently: "democratic republic" of north korea
agency
Effect of one or more agents: individuals, groups Agency, the impact of actions taken by one or more agents, plays an important role
International Relations (aka "international politics," "world politics," "global politics")
Emerges as a discipline following WW1 • Initial focus on the causes of war and conditions of peace • Primary focus on relations between sovereign states The discipline has since broadened to include political, social, and economic factors
conditions for just law
General in scope, Public, Prospective rather, than retroactive, Clear, Consistent, Relatively constant, Capable of being obeyed, Enforced as written
law
Law determines criminal behaviour, punishments for criminals, and provides impartial rules for the adjudication of disputes • Everyone is society is expected to obey the law and is considered equal before it, states have legislatures
Four different understandings of 'justice'
Legal positivism - the idea that judges should stick to the letter of laws which have been passed. 'Politicised' justice - in countries like the former Soviet Union, the letter of the law can be subordinated to the needs of the ruling Religious justice - practised, for example, in Islamic states, where law-makers and judges are all supposed to defer to the revealed law of the shari'a. Procedural justice - making sure that verdicts are consistent with each other. In Western states, this is reflected in a respect for precedent, the right to appeal from one court to a higher one
Authority
Legitimate power, individual or group exercising it is regarded as having the right to do so *implies legitimacy, consent
Typology of political parties by general types
Liberal or radical parties - equal legal and political rights, free trade Conservative parties - traditional norms; nationalism; possibly neoliberal Environmental parties - consensus-based decision making and social justice; skeptical of free markets Nationalist parties - based on a "whole nation" ideology; seeks to dominate political system Socialist or social democratic parties - worker's control of state production; strong welfare systems; state regulation of capitalist marketplace Communist parties - often Leninist; unconditional party loyalty; strict party discipline
interest groups
Organization for defence or promotion of an interest or cause... Sectional groups protect the interests of their members Cause groups promote a particular group or ideal
realism
Places emphasis on "the way things are" rather than on "how they ought to be" • Not a single theory, but an approach that emphasizes the struggle for power and security by states in conditions of anarchy • Formally emerges in the 1930's
Democracy
Regime in which political power is widely distributed and power in some way rests with the people • Political equality as a central theme • This leaves lots of room for differing interpretations as to what counts as democracy • Direct democracy - Direct rule by the people, traditionally considered possible only in small societies • Representative democracy - Rule by representatives elected by the people economic theory: Parties will position themselves to match the interests of the voters in order to maximize the votes they receive
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles is registered with the newly founded League of Nations PLACES FULL BLAME ON GERMANS Establishes a reparation regime that takes 93 years to pay off
functions of legislatures
Three primary functions; representational, governmental, and procedural US: Bicameral Representation each state has two Senators, and a number of Representatives based on its population Two thirds of the world's legislatures are unicameral (one chamber) • Legislatures hold governments accountable for their actions • Can work to keep campaign promises in check • Often the media performs the same function Helps set the agenda and form political opinions
summit diplomacy
Top level meetings in which heads of government negotiate over key issues • May be bilateral or multilateral • Some of the best known meetings include APEC, OAS, ASEM • Contributes to the building of international society
the modern state
Two sets of roles or functions: Internal - regarding their own populations: pursue own interests, state as a guardian External - regarding other states: protect territory, manage relations law boundedness major feature of modern state
the voting paradox
Voting is a mechanism for making collective decisions • Key component to representation • Assumed to ensure that majority preferences are reflected in decisions Voter turnout increases even more with the rise of mass parties, implying a strengthened democracy
anarchism
WITHOUT ruler or central guiding principle The state is regarded as illegitimate, possibly criminal Anarchic society will conduct itself in a morally correct and responsible way
Legal positivism
Western conception that law is what the state says it is
state
a formally constituted, sovereign political structure encompassing people, territory and institution
governance
all processes of governing, includes not just traditional institutions but many other factors that influence society (role of interest groups, etc)
post modernism
challenge to modern assumptions about reason "a real world exists apart from our knowledge of it" focused on progress • Suggests that the world is too complex to be fully understood, so the search for ultimate answers is futile • Diversity should be celebrated • The world can't be objectively observed, but is socially constructed root thinking Possibility of seeing the world differently allows for the possibility to live in the world differently
politics
deals with power relations.. MARX definition: "merely the power of one class for oppressing another" vs. harold laswell "who gets what when and how"
Steven Lukes "3 faces of power"
first face: a has power over b 2nd face: Power exercised in less obvious ways, ex: when a dominant elite keeps issues that might threaten its position off of the public agenda 3rd face: A may exercise power over B by getting him to do what he does not want to do, but he also exercises power over him by influencing, shaping or determining his very wants" (Steven Lukes, 2005) MEDIA, ADVERTISEMENTS- RELATED TO MARX'S idea of false consciousness The third face of power implies that there can be a difference between perceived interest and actual interest
civil society
society considered as a community of citizens linked by common interests and collective activity. interest groups play a large role in civil society
power
the ability to force behavior upon others who would not otherwise choose it *implies coercion
legislation
the shaping and passing of a law
Party system
the system of interactions resulting from inter party competition (Sartori 1976)
Political socialization
the way in which individuals are oriented towards the political world: family, school system, media
religious fundamentalism
• Religion becomes ideological when it organizes political principles and seeks power to enforce them • Fundamentalism is an insistence on the absolute truth of your doctrine
Sovereignty
(Intended to replace feudal structures = division of authority - flawed bc ultimately lead to to seperation of loyalty) SOVERIGNTY replaces this division of loyalty with the STATE ** = state has highest form of authority in given territory
General will
(Rousseau) state ought to promote altruistic (unselfish) morality rather than selfish individual interests
