Politicial Science 1100 Exam 3 (Haselswerdt)

Right to privacy

-No "right to privacy" is mentioned in the Constitution or Bill of Rights -However, the Supreme Court has determined, based on the First, Third, Fourth, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments, that such a right exists

Duverger's Law

-Our electoral system (single-member districts, winner-take-all) whittles the number of competitive parties down to two.

Free trade agreements

-Pacts between countries that make it easier to trade goods across national boundaries •It is now common for the U.S. to negotiate free trade agreements with specific countries or sets of countries. -North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP; never ratified) •FTAs deal with a number of issues beyond lowering tariffs -Harmonization of regulations -Agreements not to subsidize domestic industry -Protections against currency manipulation

Collective bargaining

-Process by which a union representing a group of workers negotiates with management for a contract

Government vs private control of media

-State-run media: Government run -Independent but state-founded and funded: PBS, BBC -Private (for-profit and nonprofit): CNN, The New York Times

Miranda rule

-Suspects must be informed of their rights when taken into custody.

National convention

-a convention of a major political party, especially one that nominates a candidate for the presidency.

"Clear and present danger" test

-a doctrine adopted by the Supreme Court of the United States to determine under what circumstances limits can be placed on First Amendment freedoms of speech, press, or assembly. -Incitements to violence; "fire" in a crowded theater; "clear and present danger"

Lobbying

-a strategy by which organized interests seek to influence the passage of legislation by exerting direct pressure on government officials

Wealth tax

-a tax on an individual's wealth

Prior restraint

-censorship imposed, usually by a government or institution, on expression, that prohibits particular instances of expression.

Public interest groups

-groups that claim they serve the general good rather than only their own particular interests

Sanctuary cities

-it's a city (or a county, or a state) that limits its cooperation with federal immigration enforcement agents in order to protect low-priority immigrants from deportation, while still turning over those who have committed serious crimes.

"Marketplace of ideas"

-rationale for freedom of expression based on an analogy to the economic concept of a free market.

Party machines

-strong party organizations in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century American cities; these machines were led by often corrupt "bosses" who controlled party nominations and patronage

Fiscal policy

-taxes and spending

Monetary policy

-the money supply and interest rates

Penumbras

-the penumbra includes a group of rights derived, by implication, from other rights explicitly protected in the Bill of Rights.

Freedom of speech

-the right to express any opinions without censorship or restraint.

Regulatory policy

-the rules government sets for the economy

Pluralism

-the theory that all interests are and should be free to compete for influence in the government; the outcome of this competition is compromise and moderation

Importance of membership

-ultimate power source of an interest group

Perfect information

-when buyers and sellers know everything about all of the products within their market

Double jeopardy

-when one has been convicted or acquitted, the government cannot place that person on trial again.

No bills of attainder

laws targeting an individual.

Stigma

mark of disgrace or shame

"Deserving" vs. "undeserving"

"Deserving: •Little or no stigma or shame •Benefits generous; indexed to grow over time •Near-universal; eligibility easy to establish & generally permanent •Positive interactions with bureaucracy; beneficiaries protected by rules •Nationally uniform •Beneficiaries feel politically empowered "Undeserving": •Heavy stigma or shame •Benefits meager; may not keep up with inflation •Strict income and asset limits; eligibility must be re-established •Negative interactions with bureaucracy; beneficiaries at the mercy of caseworkers •Often vary by state •Beneficiaries feel politically discouraged and disengaged

"The Hidden Welfare State"/ "Submerged State"

"The Hidden Welfare State": •American public policy provides very large but subtle benefits to the economically prosperous. •The largest is the exclusion of employer-provided health benefits from taxation - the biggest single tax break. •Other big tax breaks subsidize employer-provided retirement savings benefits and home mortgages. •These policies are beneficial to private companies (employers, lenders, realtors, insurers) as well as individuals. "Submerged State": •Because these policies don't "look like" government, many underestimate how much they rely on social policy.

Cap & trade vs. carbon tax

-"Cap and trade": government sets a limit, then allows businesses to sell or trade emissions credits. -Carbon tax: increase the price of carbon by taxing it, forcing the buyer to bear more costs.

13th, 14th, 15th Amendments

-13th Amendment: ended slavery everywhere (not just in Confederate states) -14th Amendment: equal protection under the law -15th Amendment: right to vote

Equal protection clause

-14th amendment clause that prohibits states from denying equal protection under the law, and has been used to combat discrimination

Monopoly

-A market in which there are many buyers but only one seller.

Antitrust policy

-A policy designed to ensure competition and prevent monopoly, which is the control of a market by one company by government intervention.

De jure vs. de facto segregation

-De jure Segregation: Segregation imposed by law. -De facto Segregation: Segregation imposed by fact.

Powers of party leaders in government

-Expedite progress on key party initiatives -Keep their members from taking tough votes -Force the opposition to take tough votes

Bill of Rights

-I.Freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, petition -II.Right to bear arms -III.No quartering of troops -IV.No unreasonable search & seizure -V.Due process in criminal trial -VI.Speedy & public trial by jury -VII.Right to jury in civil trial -VIII.No cruel & unusual punishment -IX.Other rights retained by the people -X.Other rights retained by the states

Libel vs. slander

-Libel: a published false statement that is damaging to a person's reputation; a written defamation (written). -Slander: the action or crime of making a false spoken statement damaging to a person's reputation (spoken).

Freedom of religion (establishment and free exercise clauses)

Establishment Clause: •"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion..." •Government may not promote religion or favor one religion over another. •In colonial Virginia, government favoritism for Anglicans over Baptists incited a young James Madison to go into politics. This was a familiar issue for the Framers. Free Exercise Clause: •"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof..." •Government must let individuals practice their religion as they see fit, though there are limits.

Informational/material/ solidary/ purposive benefits

Informational benefits: •Membership in a group may also give you special access to information- e.g., newsletters, listservs. Material benefits: •Some interest groups provide such valuable material benefits that people don't know they also lobby! -Automobile Association of America: roadside assistance, discounts -Money members pay for these benefits helpsto fund advocacy efforts. Solidary benefits: •Solidary benefits are about the social advantages of group membership. -Friendship -Professional networking Purposive benefits: •Purposive benefits are less tangible - they include the satisfaction at having done something you believe in. •Purposive benefits could also include avoiding the shame that comes with doing nothing. •Social pressure and inspiring rhetoric can increase the purposive value of participation.

Public-facing & behind-the-scenes actions

Public-facing: •Awareness Campaigns •Rallies and demonstrations •Campaign endorsements •Direct campaign contributions behind-the-scenes actions: •Lobbying •Super PAC Donations

Strategies and tactics of interest groups

Recuiting Members: -Members have some incentive to join-shared values, economic benefit, etc. -Members bring financial and political clout -Membership is the ultimate power source of an interest group -Lobbying -Super PACs

Jim Crow laws (segregation and voting)

Segregation: •With Reconstruction over and a blessing from SCOTUS, southern states were more or less free to discriminate. •So called "Jim Crow" laws throughout the south established strict segregation -Of schools, transportation, and all sorts of public accommodations •Authorities tacitly permitted vigilante justice in the form of lynching to enforce the racial hierarchy. Voting: •Southern states also devised many ways to evade the voting protections of the 15th Amendment. •Poll taxes •Literacy tests •All-white primary elections •Grandfather clauses

Upsides and downsides of free trade

Upsides: •Free trade is good for growth and prosperity. -More markets, more customers. •Free trade also takes advantage of specialization - some countries do specific things better than others. •Ideally, free trade leads to better and more efficiently made (cheaper) goods for customers. Downsides: •Why, exactly, are goods made overseas cheaper? -Often, it's because workers are paid very little or that labor or environmental standards are very low. -Viewed this way, trade is a way to exploit cheap labor and avoid high regulatory standards common in the developed world. •A rising tide may not lift all boats after all. -Trade may grow the economy as a whole, but specific sectors, regions, and people may come out worse off.2013 Savar building collapse

Top-down vs. bottom-up organization

Top-down: is essentially the breaking down of a system to gain insight into its compositional sub-systems in a reverse engineering fashion. In a top-down approach an overview of the system is formulated, specifying, but not detailing, any first-level subsystems. Bottom-up: is the piecing together of systems to give rise to more complex systems, thus making the original systems sub-systems of the emergent system. Bottom-up processing is a type of information processing based on incoming data from the environment to form a perception.

Unified vs. divided government

Unified government: •When one party controls both houses of the legislature and the executive, it's much easier to make policy. -Though presidents, Representatives, and Senators don't always see eye to eye, even when they belong to the same party. Divided Government: •When government is divided, enacting legislation is much more difficult. -Especially when the parties sharply disagree, as they do today.

Civil rights movements for other groups: women, Latinos, gays, people with disabilities, etc.

Women's Rights: •Women's suffrage - 19th Amendment •Title IX and equality in educational opportunities •The narrow failure of the Equal Rights Amendment Native Americans: •As Europeans colonized the U.S. and moved westward, they forcibly displaced native populations. •Later, Native American reservations would be come the basis for tribal self-governance. Gay rights: •LBTQ Americans have long faced discrimination in terms of marriage, employment, etc .•Modern victories for gays -End of anti-sodomy laws (Lawrence v. Texas) -Serving openly in the military -Same-sex marriage •But issues remain (employment discrimination, the "bakery issue" Immigrants: •For Latinx and Asian Americans, civil rights are related to how immigrant groups and individuals are treated. •Some civil rights and liberties extend to all human beings, not just citizens. -Court rulings: even unauthorized immigrants are entitled to education and emergency medical care. •But immigrants don't have all the protections of citizens. -Courts have ruled that immigrants can be excluded from social welfare programs. •Asylum claims and detentions at the border People with Disabilities: •Stores not having access ramps and no signs for people with disabilities.

Habeas corpus

cannot be held without cause

No ex poste facto laws

criminalizing past behavior that was legal.

Gaines v. Canada

•Denial of Gaines' application did violate his Equal Protection rights. •Segregation was still permissible, but the state had to provide equal facilities. •State hurried to establish Lincoln University Law School rather than actually admit Gaines to Mizzou •Another lawsuit challenged on the basis that the new law school was inferior... -But Gaines himself disappeared and was never found.

Labor market effects of immigration

•Does immigration take jobs from or depress wages of American workers? A hotly contested question. •The Mariel Boatlift study on Miami's labor market in 1980 suggested no real effects. •But does that generalize? •Growing populations and labor forcesare generally a good thing, economically speaking.

Affective polarization

•"Affective polarization" - intense dislike of the other party-Distinct from ideological polarization, which may not actually be occurring in the public.

Equal time rule

•"Equal time" rules for political campaigns - must offer campaigns equal opportunity to appear, advertise.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

•"Jane Roe" (pseudonym) was a woman who sought an abortion in Texas -Only legal in TX to save the mother's life. •SCOTUS ruled that abortion fell within the Griswold right to privacy. •Established a trimester-based system -First trimester - fetus not viable; state does not have a compelling enough interest to infringe on privacy rights. -Second & third trimester - increasing levels of state interest; restrictions more permissible. •Ruling affected 46/50 states. •Decades of subsequent litigation over what sorts of restrictions are permissible (e.g., parental notification). •The political aftermath is even more important -Beginnings of the modern "religious right" -evangelical Protestants & conservative Catholics as a political force. -Defending Roe is a major motivator for women's rights organizations -The central issue in modern SCOTUS confirmation battles -The front line of the "culture war" in America.

Federalist 10

•(Federalist 10) was concerned about the "mischiefs of faction." -"the mortal diseases under which popular governments have everywhere perished..." •"Factions" also refers to parties, but context suggests it includes what we call "interest groups" today.

Griswold v. Connecticut(1965)

•1879 Connecticut law banned any drug or product used for contraception. •A Yale gynecologist & the Planned Parenthood organization opened a birth control clinic in New Haven in 1961. •The gynecologist & Estelle Griswold of PPwere arrested and convicted. •"[S]pecific guarantees in the Bill of Rights have penumbras, formed by emanations from those guarantees that help give them life and substance. Various guarantees create zones of privacy." -Cited the reference in Mapp v. Ohio to a right of privacy •Concurring opinions cited the 9th and 14th Amendments; not all agreed on the "penumbras" concept. •Decision itself concerned freedom to use contraception for married couples only. •Subsequent decisions would expand this freedom to unmarried people. •Most importantly, Griswold is the key precedent for Roe v. Wade.

Primary election/caucus

•A caucus also involves the public, but participation is much lower than in primary elections. •States also began to move toward a primary (or caucus) model for presidential nominations. -Elections or caucuses to choose who the state party's delegates would support at the national convention. •Today, this takes the form of a (somewhat) coordinate sequence of sequential state caucuses and primaries. •The ordering of these contests gives some states (IA, NH) outsized political importance.

Trump on trade

•Donald Trump is unique in the modern era: a president who is openly critical of free trade. •He has taken some aggressive steps toward trading partners he believes are exploiting the U.S. •But the results aren't always what he might have hoped. -China "trade war"

Party organizations

•A party is not just an idea or a label - it is also an actual organization with committees, paid staff, etc. •Party committees are the organizational backbone of the organization. •Committee members are elected at local party business meetings (caucuses). •Parties hold conventions to choose candidates. •A party is not just an idea or a label - it is also an actual organization with committees, paid staff, etc. •Party committees are the organizational backbone of the organization. •Committee members are elected at local party business meetings (caucuses). •Parties hold conventions to choose candidates. •Support candidates in their campaigns with money, expertise, and staff/volunteer help•Recruit candidates to run in races•Run the nomination process

Progressive taxation vs. regressive taxation

•A tax system or policy that puts the heaviest burden on those most able to pay is progressive. • A tax system or policy that puts a relatively heavy burden on those least able to pay is regressive. •Income and property taxes are very progressive. -Graduated income tax: higher percentage rates for higher incomes. •Sales and consumption taxes tend to be more regressive. -People with more money do spend more... -But people with less money spend more as a percentage of their income or wealth.

Rationales/justifications for regulation

•Address market externalities •Promote information and transparency •Ensure continued competition •Address power imbalances in market relationships

Affirmative action

•Affirmative action policies seek to remedy past discrimination against disadvantaged groups. •This takes the form of some sort of preference for minority or female applicants or those with disabilities... -In education -In employment •This is perhaps the most aggressive extension of the idea of civil rights •Opponents argue that this amounts to government-sponsored discrimination against whites and/or men. •Legal challenges to affirmative action (usually in university admissions) based on civil rights framework. •Previously, civil rights laws and legal standards protected disadvantaged minorities... •Anti-affirmative action suits argue that theyalso apply to members of the majority who face discrimination. •Lawsuits against affirmative action in education have been successful, to a point. •The courts have generally thrown out schemes where race is too prominent or "mechanical" a factor in decisions... -E.g., quotas for a certain number of minority students•But has stopped short of saying institutions must not consider race at all. •In a "strict scrutiny" test, SCOTUS has found that campus diversity is a "compelling interest." -But actual policies may or may not be "narrowly tailored" enough.

Americans with Disabilities Act

•Americans with Disabilities Act prohibits discrimination •Especially important in public accommodations. -Requirements for ramps, elevators, etc. - accessibility

Immigration enforcement challenges

•As a free and open society with thousands of miles of non-militarized border with our two neighbors, we face challenges in enforcing immigration law. •How do we deal with the 10-12 million undocumented? -Even undocumented immigrants are entitled to due process under the 5th and 14thAmendments (due process applies to "persons," not "citizens"). -Obama administration accelerated deportation efforts, but focused on people convicted of crimes. -Under Trump, deportations have accelerated and targeted others besides convicted criminals.•How difficult do we want to make it for visitors and new legal immigrants to enter the country? •Conservative Republicans' distrust that Obama would enforce any new immigration regulations scuttled bipartisan immigration legislation in 2013. •Since then, conservative rhetoric has focused on border security, including Trump's proposed border wall. -About 700 miles of the Mexican border is alreadyfortified per the FENCE Act. •At its current size (<20,000 employees), ICE cannot hope to deport a significant portion of the 10-12 million. •Should, would, or can state and local governments help? -Some are eager to (Arizona immigration law). -Many more, particularly big cities, are specifically refusing to do so ("sanctuary city" movement). -Trump has suggested making federal funding to state and local governments contingent on cooperation.

How Facebook affects the news media

•As smartphones & social media spread in the developing world, misinformation has affected more than elections. •In India, hoaxes spread on WhatsApp (owned by Facebook) has sparked riots, beatings, and lynchings. •In Libya, Facebook has been used to trade weapons and target artillery strikes. •False information and hateful rhetoric has sparked violence against Muslims in Sri Lanka and Myanmar. -"The germs are ours, but Facebook is the wind."

Nomination

•Before the modern party era, the party organizations themselves chose the candidates. -A big source of power for "party bosses." •Beginning in the early 20th Century, reformers began pushing for primary elections.-Letting voters decide the nominee. •A caucus also involves the public, but participation is much lower than in primary elections.

Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)

•Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969): as long as speech falls short of actually inciting action, it cannot be prohibited. -The speech must be likely to succeed in incitement to violence, lawbreaking.

Civil Rights vs. Civil Liberties

•Civil liberties are negative: what government cannot do to you. -"Freedom from..." -Freedom of speech - the government cannot punish you for protected speech. •Civil rights are positive: things the government must take action to provide or protect. -"Freedom to..." -Freedom to shop at the same stores as everyone else.

Conservative perspective on social policy

•Conservatives worry that social policy erodes work ethic and makes people dependent. •Their social policy proposals advocate for smaller benefits and rules that encourage "personal responsibility." •They also favor block grants to let statesmake more social policy decisions -1996 "welfare reform" and TANF

Factions within Democrats and Republicans

•Democrats: -Democratic "establishment"; centrist/liberal (Clinton, Pelosi, Schumer) -"The left" (Warren, Sanders, AOC) -"Blue Dogs" - centrists from centrist/conservative districts •Republicans: -Traditional Reagan-style conservatives (Paul Ryan) -"Populist" conservatives (Donald Trump) -Libertarian conservatives (Rand Paul, Mike Lee) -"Tuesday Group" / "Main Street" Republicans - centrists from centrist/liberal districts

The scope and bias of the "pressure system"

•E.E. Schattschneider identifies a number of problems with pluralist theory. •A group cannot affect the process if it never organizes. •He also documented that the "pressure system" was heavily tilted toward the rich. -More groups representing business and wealthy interests -Even groups representing the disadvantaged (e.g., the NAACP) were made up of a relatively small number of higher-income people. •"The flaw in the pluralist heaven is that theheavenly chorus sings with a strong upper-class accent." •The narrowness of the interest group system, E.E.S. argues, is the whole point. •Narrow economic interests cannot win when the scope of conflict is broad (e.g., in electoral politics). •But they can get what they want in interest group politics because the scope of conflict is narrow.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

•Evidence obtained during an illegal search may not be used in a trial. -Even if the evidence clearly establishes guilt. -"The right to privacy, no less important than any other right carefully and particularly reserved to the people..." •Since then, SCOTUS has relaxed this strict standard somewhat. -"Good faith effort" exception -Exception for evidence that probably would have been discovered anyway.

"Personal responsibility" requirements

•Examples include time limits, work requirements and drug testing of recipients. •These requirements make it harder to maintain eligibility. •Experts suggest they are not always successful in encouraging self-sufficiency. •Michener & Kohler-Hausmann: people with drug problems need support and health coverage.

Major provisions of the Affordable Care Act

•Expansion of Medicaid (existing program) to insure more poor people (mostly poor, able-bodied adults without children). •Regulations of private insurance to improve coverage and eliminate discrimination. -Preexisting conditions, gender rating •Tax credits to help middle-income people who are not insured through work afford coverage on the "nongroup market."

Levels of legal scrutiny for classifications/discrimination

•First level: rational basis test - weakest standard -Government must show a rational basis for discrimination -E.g., age minimums for drivers' licenses, voting, etc. •Second level: intermediate scrutiny -Discrimination must serve important government interest -Has been applied to cases involving classification by gender, sexual orientation, and gender orientation. •Third level: strict scrutiny -Burden of proof is on the government to show that discrimination serves a "compelling interest"... -And that law is "narrowly tailored to achieve that goal." -"Suspect classifications": race, religion, national origin.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

•Florida man convicted of felony breaking & entering after having to represent himself in court. -FL only provided counsel in capital cases. •SCOTUS: the 6th Amendment guarantee of counsel applies to the states via the 14th Amendment. •Everyone is entitled to a public defender if they cannot afford their own lawyer.

Tax breaks

•Government uses the tax code for many purposes other than raising revenue. •Tax breaks (deductions, credits, exclusions, special rates) are essentially a form of spending or subsidy. •Example: the home mortgage interest deduction. •Tax breaks make the tax code very complex, and they tend to be regressive: the rich benefit the most. •They also distort the economy by making some investments cheaper/more expensive than they otherwise would be.

Criminal due process

•Habeas corpus: cannot be held without cause •4th Amendment: no unreasonable search & seizure •5th Amendment: grand jury; no double jeopardy; no forced testimony against self; general "due process" -Also no taking of private property without "just compensation" •6th Amendment: speedy & public trial by jury; informed of accusation; confronted with witnesses; able to obtain own witnesses; assistance of counsel •8th Amendment: no excessive bail; no excessive fines; no cruel & unusual

Factors affecting party identification

•Ideology (liberal vs. conservative) •Self-interest •Group identities (gender, race, ethnicity, religion, economic class) •Family and social influence (most people identify with the same party as their parents) •Political events (especially during formative years) -E.g., Americans who came of age during the Iraq War and the Great Recession under President George W. Bush more likely to be Democrats.

Accountability, access, and "going off the record"

•If every source knew they would be quoted in a story by name, many would be reluctant to talk to reporters. -E.g., could be fired for releasing information that is politically damaging to their boss •Reporters grant anonymity in some cases - allow sources to speak "off the record" or "on background." •A dilemma: allowing sources to speak off the record can uncover valuable information... •But it can also be a path for powerful people to avoid accountability. -Savvy political insiders manipulate news coverage this way. •Reporters value information, and they value sources. -The more "well-placed" (powerful, influential) the source, the better. •Access to such sources is prized, and the sources themselves know this. They can withhold access. •A reporter can ingratiate herself to a powerful person by writing favorably about that person. -"Beat sweeteners" and "puff pieces"

Public budget impact of immigration

•Immigrants expand the tax base - more taxpayers. -Even undocumented immigrants pay some taxes (especially sales taxes), though less so than documented immigrants. •Both documented and undocumented immigrants benefit to some degree from public services (e.g., public education). -But undocumented immigrants tend to be able-bodied and of working age; utilize services at relatively low rates. -They also may avoid public services for fear of deportation.

Externalities

•In a free market, buyers and sellers make choices to maximize their own utility. •This is optimal for society as long as the buyer and seller receive all the relevant benefits and burdens. •But what if they don't? What if the transaction creates a cost or benefit for society as a whole?•Pollution is the classic negative externality. -Neither polluters nor their customers pay the costs of pollution. -A free market produces more pollution than is optimal.

NAACP's litigation strategy

•In the 1930s, the NAACP began to litigate against segregation very aggressively in many areas. •They were looking for a "test case" for discrimination in postgraduate/professional education

Modern immigration system

•In the 1960s, the U.S. moved to a new system of immigration law. -Based heavily on family ties (relatives of current residents or citizens) and job skills. -Does not discriminate against specific nationalities, in contrast to many earlier policies (Chinese Exclusion Act) •About 33 million foreigners enter the U.S. every year, most on temporary visas. •About 1 million of those are admitted as new permanent residents; most are relatives of those already living here legally. •Some 10-12 million "undocumented" or "illegal" immigrants live in the U.S. on a long-term basis. -Some cross the border illegally, some simply overstay their visas.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

•Is a confession admissible if the suspect didn't know that he or she could refuse to confess? •In Miranda v. Arizona (1966), SCOTUS ruled that it isn't. •Suspects must be informed of their rights when taken into custody.

Katz v. United States (1967)

•Katz v. United States (1967): Yes - similar standards apply to listening to phone calls as to search & seizure. -"The Fourth Amendment protects people, not places." -Potter Stewart -Standard: "reasonable expectation" of privacy. Katz made calls from a public phone booth, but reasonably assumed his conversations were private.

Keynesian theory

•Keynes argued that government should not just let the boom-bust cycle happen. •During a bust, intervene with fiscal policy to put money into the economy. -Spending increases, tax cuts - "stimulus" •Note that this is somewhat counterintuitive: spend moreduring tough times. -This is the opposite of what businesses or private households would do - but that's the point!

Deficits & debts

•Keynesian theory suggests governments should engage in deficit spending - spending more than they take in. -Financed by debt, usually in the form of bonds •The U.S. federal government is very well-positioned to deficit spend because it can borrow at very low interest rates. -Most U.S. bonds currently yield under 2.5% -This means markets see the federal government as a very good credit risk -extremely unlikely to default. •State governments in the U.S. cannot deficit spend - they have to balance budgets. Makes the federal government crucial in recessions. •How much debt is too much? -Again, private markets at home and abroad are still quite happy to lend money to the U.S. at low rates! •But some are concerned that the growing debt is unsustainable. •"Fiscal conservatives" are often accused of using deficits/debts as a false pretense for cutting spending. -Republicans favor large tax cuts, which also increase the deficit. -"Deficits don't matter." -Dick Cheney

Lemon test

•Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971): struck down state funding for non-public, non-secular schools. •Three-part test for whether a law violates the establishment clause: -Government involvement must have secular purpose. -Its principle or primary effect must neither advance nor inhibit religion. -It must not entangle government and religious institutions in each other's affairs.

Freedom of the press

•Like speech, an independent press is crucial to democratic government. •Print media generally cannot be prevented from publishing what it wants. •But can be sued for statements made in "reckless disregard of the truth" -Written: libel -Spoken: slander

Lloyd Gaines

•Lloyd Gaines of St. Louis was a promising plaintiff. •Gaines was a top student who wanted to be an attorney. •But Mizzou law had never admitted a black student... -And the public university for negroes (Lincoln University) had no law school or other postgraduate programs. -Black students could apply for scholarships to attend such programs out of state. •With NAACP lawyers' help, Gaines sued, alleging a violate of his Equal Protection rights.

Self-interest vs. public interest

•Material self-interest tends to dominate the interest group system... •But some interest groups are motivated by their vision of the public interest -values and ideology.

Means testing (income and asset limits)

•Means testing is the process of establishing eligibility for programs targeted to the poor. •Usually includes income limits, and sometimes asset limits as well (requiring "spending down"). •Intended to keep people who don't really need help from benefitting... •But creates perverse incentives to stay poor (keep income low, avoid savings).

How parties solve problems in democracy

•Mobilizing voters and providing them with information (the party label). •Limiting the number of candidates, ensuring meaningful competition (nominations). •Organizing the legislature and facilitating choice in government (legislative parties). •"The political parties created democracy and modern democracy is unthinkable save in terms of the parties." -E.E. Schattschneider

NY Times v. US (1971)

•NYT Company v. United States (1971): heavy presumption against "prior restraint." -Even a national security argument wasn't enough for Nixon to justify preventing the publication of the Pentagon Papers. -Only exception would be if publication caused an "inevitable, direct, immediate event" (e.g., publishing troop locations)

Agenda setting

•Newspaper column-space is limited, TV time even more so. And the attention of the public is finite. •The media cannot prominently cover every major public issue. It must pick and choose. •The public will tend to think of issues as more important if they get more coverage. •Thus, the media plays a role in "setting the agenda" for the public.

The "three faces" of political parties

•Parties as organizations •Parties in government •Parties in the electorate

Partisanship as a "lens"

•Partisanship as a "lens" that shapes perceptions. •"Affective polarization" - intense dislike of the other party -Distinct from ideological polarization, which may not actually be occurring in the public. •Our "information environment" is very crowded - lots of political and media elites have things to tell us. •We will tend to filter out information from sources we do not trust, and party is the basis many of us use for this. -Democrats in the public don't trust Republican elites, and vice versa. •This shapes how we view issues, events, and people. -Case in point: the Mueller investigation.

Plessy v. Ferguson: "Separate but equal" rule

•Plessy was arrested for sitting in a "white" railroad car in Louisiana. •Sued over violation of his "equal protection" rights under the 14th Amendment. •SCOTUS ruling establishes the "separate but equal" doctrine. •State & local government could segregate as long as facilities were equal. -Enforcement of the "equal" part was very weak.

Ideological polarization vs. sorting

•Political scientists are engaged in a debate over whether the public is really "polarized" on ideology or policy. •Some argue that (unlike partisans in government), people are simply sorting into the parties. -E.g., conservatives now more likely to identify as Republican than they were several decades ago •Affective polarization is consistent with either story -sorting can also lead to affective polarization.

Priming

•Priming is related to agenda-setting.•When human beings form opinions, some factors are more important in our minds than others. -If our brain is a jumbled pile of facts and considerations, we are more likely to grab on to things that are at the top of the pile. -What issue is at "the top of our minds?" •Media influences this by "priming" us to think about some issues more readily than others. -If media relentlessly covers crime, we are more likely to evaluate candidates based on their stances on crime.

Regulation of print, online, broadcast media

•Print and online media are essentially unregulated -First Amendment; NYT v. US (1971) Pentagon Papers case •But broadcast media (broadcast TV and radio) are subject to regulation -Public airwaves -Federal Communications Commission (FCC) est. 1934 -Mostly does not apply to cable television

Goals of economic policy

•Prosperity -Growth -Employment -Standard of living •Stability & security -Price stability (low inflation) -Protection of private property -Protection against fraud, racketeering, unsafe products or workplaces, etc.

Framing

•Public issues are complex and can be seen in different ways. •Framing is the act of socially constructing an issue in a certain way, shaping the way people think about it. •Example: immigration. At different times immigration is framed as a... -National security issue (terrorism) -Economic issue (effects on the labor market & economic growth) -Cultural & diversity issue (language) -Continuation of American traditions ("nation of immigrants")

Federal Communications Commission

•Radio & TV stations have licenses they must renew. •Rules about obscenity, sexual content, etc., especially during daytime hours. •"Equal time" rules for political campaigns - must offer campaigns equal opportunity to appear, advertise. •Requirements for children's educational television. •Formerly, rules about ownership, aimed at preventing concentration of ownership. -But 1996 Telecommunications Act rolled this back, leading to a wave of mergers and acquisitions.

Reasons for durability of social programs

•Repealing Obamacare has been a top Republican priority since it passed. •So why have Republicans failed to do so despite controlling the White House and Congress since 2016? •It's generally much easier to protect existing social programs than it is to establish new ones. •Patashnik & Oberlander: conservatives have historically "thrown in the towel" and accepted established social policies.

How the profit motive affects the media

•Since government has a relatively light hand, the most important force in American media is the profit motive. •To survive, media organizations need readers, viewers, clicks, etc. -Advertising -Subscriptions •That means covering stories and producing content that is likely to attract a lot of public attention. •"Soft news" - celebrities, sports, entertainment •Dramatic, conflictual political figures, events and issues; scandals, sensational stories •Punditry (opinion, commentary) rather than actual journalism •"Horse race journalism" - politics covered as a sport -Who's winning and losing rather than coverage of the issues.

Contributory programs

•Social Security and Medicare, which are funded by taxes and are reconsidered annually for cost-of-living adjustments.

Social insurance

•Social insurance is a form of contributory social policy - benefits are for those that "pay in" to the program. -"Payroll taxes" or employer contributions (passed through to employees) -Social Security Old Age and Disability Insurance, Medicare, Unemployment Insurance •Social Security eligibility: must accumulate 40 quarters of work in covered employment. •People on social insurance have "earned" their benefits. •Some believe (mistakenly!) that they are paying into some sort of personal account - this is not how it works!

Redistribution

•Social policies differ in how much they transfer money from the rich to the poor (redistribution). •Redistribution is politically controversial. Programs for the "deserving" are generally less redistributive. •Examples: -Higher-earning workers receive larger Social Security checks. -Public schools are largely funded via state/local property taxes that keep money in the community

The "top two" primary system

•Some states (WA, NE, CA) have transformed the way primaries work by doing away with separate elections. •In a "top two" system, all candidates (Democrats, Republicans, others) are on one ballot. •The top two vote-getters advance to the general election. •"Top two" can lead to a general election between 2 members of the same party -Kamala Harris vs. Loretta Sanchez in 2016 CA Senate election •In a state like CA (where the Republican Party is no longer competitive), this is especially relevant. •This could help more moderates win, but it's unclear whether it actually works that way.

Tariff

•Tariffs are taxes on imported goods. They raise the price of those goods relative to those grown or made domestically.

Distortion

•Tax policy can affect the economy by making some investments or choices cheaper or more expensive. -E.g., policies like the home mortgage interest deduction subsidize buying a house rather than renting one. •Economists don't like this because it messes with the logic of free and well-functioning markets. -If I make a decision based on tax considerations, I'm not necessarily making the economically optimal choice. •At the extremes, tax policy can encourage very inefficient investments (e.g., "see-through office buildings" in the 1980s).

Federal Reserve System

•The Federal Reserve System was founded in 1913 -Prior to that, banks were regulated (if at all) by state legislators •The Fed is comprised of 12 regional banks •National board - 7 members, 14 year terms - president appointed, Senate confirmed -Chair of the board holds a lot of power •"Dual mandate" - promote employment and keep inflationlow. •A "bank for banks" -As long as there is demand for loans, banks can provide them by borrowing from the Fed -Thus, the Fed indirectly controls how easy it is for us to access credit. •Sets the federal funds rate - interest rate on loans between banks.

Civil rights legislation

•The civil rights movement was ultimately successful. •Partnered with liberal and moderate Democrats and Republicans -Opponents were conservative Republicans and Southern Democrats ("Dixiecrats")- "Conservative Coalition" •Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned segregation in public accommodations, schools, employment. •Voting Rights Act of 1965 banned literacy tests, made it a crime to interfere with efforts to vote. •Twenty-Fourth Amendment banned poll taxes.

Two-party system

•The key policy issues of contention between the two major parties. -Current: the size and role of government in the economy; traditional vs. progressive cultural values •The coalitions that define each party. -Current GOP: whites, men, Evangelical Christians, rural areas, business owners -Current Dems: nonwhites, women, other religious groups, urban areas, labor •The level of competitiveness.-Current: extremely competitive and closely divided

Black Lives Matter & contrasts with 1960s civil rights movement

•The modern successor to the civil rights movement focuses on police violence against blacks. •Like the civil rights movement of the 1960s, BLM's chief strategy is public protest. -Often disruptive (as in the 1960s) -Intended to be peaceful but sometimes turn violent (as in the 1960s) Contrasts: 1960s Civil Rights Movement: •Hierarchical •Inclusive messaging appealing to American identity" •Respectability politics •"Focused on racial discrimination Black Lives Matter: •Decentralized; "bottom-up" •Confrontational messaging •Challenging mainstream values •Incorporates gender & LGBTQ concerns

Brown v. Board of Education

•The most important landmark case in educational segregation, dealing with public schools in Kansas. •Brown v. Board decision held that "separate" is inherently unequal, overturning Plessy. •States could no longer use race as a factor in education. •Did not directly deal with other policy areas (e.g., housing), but other decisions would follow.

Collective action problems and free riding

•The problem with public goods is that no one individual has an incentive to contribute to them. -Better to let someone else pay for it and free ride off of them! •This is why governments use compulsorytaxation to pay for public goods. Small groups solve Free-Rider Problem: •The free rider problem is easier to solve when the potential group is small or narrow. •Example: say the U.S. government contemplates regulation of social media platforms (small number of big companies. - If Twitter launched an advocacy effort to fight regulations and Facebook didn't join, that could mean the effort will fail. -When the potential group is small, it's harder to free ride without affecting the outcome. Large groups solve Free-Rider problem: •Generally, groups have to offer something to members besides public goods - something "excludable" -A benefit you don't get if you don't join or contribute. •Categories of benefits groups can offer: -Material -Informational -Solidary -Purposive

Immigration policy & children

•Under the 14th Amendment, anyone born on U.S. soil is a U.S. citizen (birthright citizenship), regardless of the citizenship of their parents. •"DREAMers" issue focuses on how to treat the children of people who were already born when their parents came to the US illegally. -Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors •While undocumented immigrants in general are controversial, DREAMers are a broadly sympathetic group. •DREAM was never passed, but Obama issued an executive order protecting DREAMers from deportation (Deferred Action on Childhood Arrivals). •Trump administration has sought to terminate DACA; currently tied up in the courts.

Unemployment/ GDP/ inflation

•Unemployment - people who are unable to find jobs •Gross domestic product - value of all goods & services produced by economy, minus foreign investment -GDP growth is what we mean by "economic growth" •Inflation - decline in the purchasing power of a dollar

Natural Rights

•Whether or not you believe in a "Creator." •The Declaration argues that it is legitimate to take up arms against a government that violates these rights. •Nevertheless, these rights are limitedeven in a state of nature. -"Natural law;" the liberties of others •Remember the influence of John Locke and other Enlightenment thinkers on the Founders/Framers. •Declaration of Independence preamble: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed, by their Creator, with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."

Selective incorporation (equal protection clause)

•individuals can sue states for these violations as well as the federal government. -Incorporation of the Bill of Rights into states via SCOTUS decisions. -This is not automatic - not all BoR liberties have been incorporated.