POLS 242 - Final Exam

How is Kenya an example of an unstable competitive authoritarian regime?

- Kenya gained independence in 1963 from Britain - From 1963 to 1992, it was governed by a single party until it had its first multiparty election - The Kenya African National Union (KANU) was the founding party of Kenya and continued to dominate - this is a sase of competitive authoritarianism because, while KANU was always the dominant party, it has frequently come under challenge from opposition who has only grew in strength since multiparty elections began - this is an unstable form of competitive authoritarianism as members of KANU have been responsible for harassment and intimidation of voters and officials, of voter rigging, and causing violence against voters (as well as inciting ethnic conflict) - In 2002, KNAU lost for the first time byt to a previous member of KANU (in this way, it is hard to say that there has really been a changeover) - one of the strategies is to form coalitions from these new parties of difference talliance from old parties in order to stay in power - violence in Kenya is quite horrific during times of elections

How is Nigeria an example of federalism and its back-and-forth between stabilizing and compromising stability?

- Northern Nigeria is predominantly Muslim while the South is predominantly Christian - Federalism was essential to address the ethnic and religious divisions - Gained independence in 1960s and had 3 regions (each associated with a dominant ethnic group) - These regions increased in number as states were continuously split into even smaller regions - The approach has been largely about attempting to multiply the number of divisions in Nigeria in eliminate the divisions between the largest ethnic groups - wanted to dilute the importance of the major ethnic groups and not allow them to be the main identity marker for the citizens - the smaller ethnic groups welcomes this to eliminate any majority in their states and receive more revenues, while ethnic majorities did not favour this as much as it weakened their claims to power - Nigeria uses a top-down federal system which is better to the smaller groups than the bigger ones - While we can argue that Nigeria is still in tact and has not yet faced secession, we can also see that the creation of new states has not ended ethnic or sectarian tension

Why is the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) an example of a bureaucratic-authoritarian regime? + most important institution

- The CCp's most important institution is the Politburo (decision-making body made up of a small portion of elites within the CCP - effectively responsible for all decision-making - the legislature (National People's Congress) is indirectly elected by lower-level assemblies that stretch down to localities - have remained resilient through their development of input institutions that allow the public to feel as though they have some influence on policy decisions - while most authoritarian systems are fragile, the CCP regime has brought inflation under control, reastarted economic growth, expanded foreign trade, and increased its absorption of foreign direct investment - Chinese authoritarianism enables citizens to pursue grievances without creating the potential to threaten the regime as a whole Village level --> towns --> counties --> prefectures --> provinces --> NPC - ensure that only its party members are elected for higher levels of legislature

What is a Within-Case Comparison?

- a comparative analysis of variation over time or in distinct parts of a single case - digs into a case to better understand evidence

What are totalitarian regimes?

- a form of authoritarian regime that aims to control everything about the lives of its subject population - done through propagation of an official government ideology to which all people are expected to obey - go to great lengths to control and prevent freedom of conscious thought - usually governed by a dominant figure (e.g. Hitler and Stalin) - need to operate in strong state capacity e.g. Soviet Union, Nazi Germany

What are personalistic dictatorships?

- a form of authoritarianism in which the personality of the dictator is emphasized - domination of a political system by a single individual (concentrate power and governs for themsleves) - e.g. Idi Amin of Uganda (1971-1979)

What is a regime?

- a regime is a form of governmental system, with an emphasis on institutions and rules - the biggest distinction between regimes are those that are democratic vs. authoritarian

What is a Most Similar Systems (MSS) design?

- a research design in which we compare cases that are similar with respect to a number of factors, but with distinct outcomes

What is a Most Different Systems (MDS) design?

- a research design in which we compare cases that differ with respect to multiple factors but have the same outcomes

What is a federal sytem?

- a system that has semi-autonomous governemnt levels below the national level - states and provinces have some autonomy (and each has equal representation regardless of population) - e.g. the US, Germany, India, Brazil - federalism provides constitutional guarantees for subnational governments, as well as independent subnational legislators or executives - federalism, today, is seen a strategy to ensure more stability and protection while possibly promoting democratic inclusion

What are bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes?

- a type of authoritarian regime in which the state is controlled more by a group of elites (often military) rather than by a single leader - focused less on single individual and rely on a bureaucracy and often the military to run the country - no less brutal than personalistic regimes - often justify their rule by promising economic growth or political stability - emphasize the need to establish order or economic progress - e.g. Brazil and Argentina in the 1970s, the Chinese Communist Party

What is a constutution?

- a very specific legal document that creates a design for the country's political institutions such as literature, judicial branches, etc. - also addresses divisions of power within the government and provinces/states - a type of institution; establish a basis of a political system

What are legislatures?

- an assembly or body of representatives with the authority to make laws - may be called the congress, parliament, house, chamber, or assembly - leaders in major debates in face-to-face setting or in the media - legislators have control over governemnt budget and disburse funds to the executive branch/administrative agencies or cut off funds to certain initiatives that deemed to be mismanaged - oversee the executive - legislature also "socialize" politicians into ways of the system (can later become presidents or prime ministers) - in principle, elected legislators are expected to be opinion leaders and propose solutions to public problems

What are theocratic regimes (theocracies)?

- an authoritarian state controlled by religious leaders, or a state with very strict religious restrictions that uses religion as its main mode of legitimation - in the pre-modern world, most states were theocratic - e.g. contemporary Iran

What are political/conflict theories? +main proponent (scholar)

- argue that states rise as a consequence of conflict - for states to emerge, several factors are needed including centralized authority, the ability to tax population to raise revenues, and the ability to mobilize population for collective projects - theory states that wars served all these purposes - Charles Tilly was the main proponent of this theory, stating that "wars made the state"

How do authoritarian constututions differ from democratic constitutions?

- authoritarian constitutions will not typically declare dictatorial rule and may seem progressive with extensive rights on paper, but they are often not upheld in practice - in some instances, authoritarian regimes may outline some rights a democratic constitution may not have - e.g. the Soviet Union guaranteed rights to education, access to healthcare, housing, etc.

What is hegemonic electoral authoritarianism?

- authoritarianism that has elections and other "democratic" institutions but are largely facades - yet, they may provide some space for political opposition independent media, and social organizations that do not seriously criticize or challenge the regime - e.g. Egypt, Kazakhstan

What is the downside to federalism regarding the economy and its performance?

- can create inequality in economic development and hurt economic stability - if states have political power, they may overspend - the state may pass on costs to the central governemnt and expect "bailouts" - national economy may be compromised - can also create inefficient re-allocations of funds - e.g. Brazil (senate allocated resources disproportionately to less populous and rural states)

What is the modern state?

- characterized by central control of the use of force, bureaucratic organization, and the provision of public goods (in its ideal form) - related to Max Weber's definition in which he says that the state exerts a "monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory"

What is the difference between full and closed authoritarian/hegemonic regimes and competitive authoritarianism?

- closed authoritarianism has no viable channels to allow opposition to contest legally for power - in hegemonic regimes, opposition can run but elections are skewed so that incumbents will always win - in competitive authoritarianism, constitutional channels exist through which opposition groups compete for executive power; elections are held regularly and opposition parties are legally allowed to contest incumbents

Case example --> Why did Zimbabwe become and remain authoritarian?

- closest to a personalistic regime; characterized by oppression, a lack of political rights, seemingly arbitrary rule, etc. - even after its recent transition, authoritarianism persists - various theories can offer explanations of the country's authoritarian persistence: 1. Historical institutionalist - the regime's economic policy alienated key economic actors, including industry and commercial farmers 2. Poverty and inequality - the regime is relatively unpopular among many peasants and poor urban dwellers 3. State weakness - Zimbabwe's state and Mugabe's party and military have exhibited considerable capacity in the past 4. Political culture - Zimbabwe's deep cultural values have little to do with tribalism, but instead have deep emphasis on human rights 5. Collective action - Zimbabwe's people have been relatively open to expressing dissatisfaction with the regime

what is democratic consolidation?

- consolidation refers to the achievements of substantial support for and compliance with the new democratic institutions and the rules of the game which they establish - requires more time than the transition process

What are rigid constitutions? + e.g.

- constitutions that are difficult to change - e.g. US Constitution - may require supermajorities of legislators, assent of many states in the federal system (approval)

What are flexible constitutions? + e.g.

- constitutions that can be easily changed - e.g. may require only a simple legislative vote to change e.g. the UK; parliament is sovereign

What are substantive definitions of democracy?

- depth of equality - based on achieving end goals - e.g. more equity, more participation, etc.

What are economic theories? + 2 perspectives on this

- economic modernization is the fundamental cause of state emergence - states are a reflection of underlying economic interests - there are 2 perspectives on this: 1. Karl Marx explained that capitalists classes may favor rise of states because a stable state maximizes profit potential 2. Elite coalitions may craft ew institutions like modern states to ensure their own rights (Douglass, North, and collaborators)

What is a direct democracy?

- emphasis on direct citizen involvement in politics - often involves citizen assemblies - involves initiatives (citizens gather signatures to qualify ballot time) and refrenda (government place issue on he ballot) - this is an expensive process and includes evidence to show that referndas could promote anti-democratic outcomes - easier to do at the local level than the national level

What is the plus side to federalism regarding democratic rights?

- federal institutions may make governemnt more stable and shape democratic rights favourably - allows for different regions of a country to have different laws - can empower ethnic groups and promote political participation

How does federalism compromise stability?

- federalism could lead to exacerbating differences and undermine stability by drawing significant lines between different groups (and encourage independent identities) - may empower separatist or secessionist groups (e.g. Quebec Referendum of 1995) - independence movements may result in conflict, whether groups are "right or wrong" - in some cases, may lead to explosive civil war due to divisions

How does federalism support stability?

- federalism may support stability in that it gives different groups (ethnic of regional) some power and stake in the system - may serve as a sort of safety valve that releases pressure - may go federal to hold together to prevent secession or division (groups and regions feel as though they have more autonomy and power)

What is the plus side to federalism regarding the economy and its performance?

- federalism promotes "healthy competition" between states and provinces - leads greater efficiency; better services, lower taxes, or both

What are cultural theories? + 2 sub-theories

- ideas and cultural forces in people's lives led to favouring the state as an organization - theses theories state that there was a fundamental change in the beliefs in the population allowing them to participate in the modern state - there are two sub-theories: 1. Religious changes with protestantism reshaped attitudes toward role of institutions in daily life (Phillip Gorski) 2. Emergence of nationalism (idea of 'national identity') led people to accept the nation-state as a "natural" and legitimate form of organization (Liah Greenfeld)

What is the plus side to federalism regarding the division of judicial power?

- judges at time defend basic rights that are not secured by legislation - upkeep checks and balances of the legislature

What is the downside to federalism regarding the division of judicial power?

- judges may infer rights that should be determined through democratic electoral process - also the issue of gteh ideological position of the judge that can affect their rulings (more specific to the US, however)

What is judicial activism?

- judges may take advantage of the power of judicial review to essentially legislate from the bench - associating this work with representatives - removes major issues form public debate

What are unicameral legislatures?

- legislature with a single chamber - found more often in countries with smaller populations (e.g. Scandinavia) - most appropriate in unitary states - also common in authoritarian regimes where a single political party dominates - Congress and parliament refer to the entirety of the legislative branch

What are bicameral legislatures?

- legislatures with two chambers - chambers may have equal or unequal powers - upper chambers often represents larger geographic constituents (states, provinces, etc.) - common in democracies and relatively large countries - lower chambers have more authority than the upper chamber in many countries (e.g. Germany) - houses and chambers often refer to one of the components of the legislators

What is democartic legitimacy?

- legitimacy is the belief that the existing political institutions are better than any others that might be established, and then they therefore can demand obedience - based on the belief that for that particular country at that particular historical juncture, no other types of regime could assure a more successful pursuit of collective action

What is the difference between a liberal and electoral democracy?

- liberal democracies are those with guaranteed political and civil rights to all citizens (e.g. Canada, Germany, Netherlands, Finland, etc.) - conversely, electoral democracies are those that do not extend civil rights to all citizenry - e.g. Israel, Latvia, Estonia, India

What are authoritarian regimes?

- political regimes characterized by a form of government that is non-democratic - favourable to hierarchy and close concentrated processes of decision making

What are procedural definitions of democracy?

- procedures to be followed in existence of political rights - basic rules, procedures or standards required for a state to be a democracy (basic civil rights) - also called "minimal" definition of democracy

What are diffusion theories? + 3 sub-theories?

- process through which a practice or idea spreads nationally or globally (and why it spread to rapidly) - these theories are concerned with how the state as a form or organization specifically spread - 3 sub-theories: 1. States have military advantage over non-states and thus came to dominate (compare the world to a model of 'survival of the fittest') 2. States reflected needs of economic interest that pushed for state creation everywhere (capitalism; economic elites use state to dominate world) 3. State organization became an important idea or cultural reality that took root everywhere (state as a cultural norm)

What are closed regimes?

- regimes that have no constantation that is allowed in practice or legally - e.g. China, Cuba, saudi Arabia

What is competitive authoritarianism?

- regimes where democratic institutions function despite serious and frequent abuses and irregularities carried by the incumbent - there are areas of contestations that challenge, weaken, and could defeat the incumbent - e.g. Kenya, Ethiopia, Nigeria -primarily viewed as a primary use of gaining power - the playing field is highly skewed in favour of the incumbent

What is the downside to federalism regarding democratic rights?

- should basic rights be subject to different interpretation in one country? - rights should hold to all person in a country - if states have different policies, there cannot be equal protection under law across the country - e.g. abortion rights in the US - should some have less rights/access based on one's regions of inhabitants?

What is a unitary system?

- systems that have more centralized power; subnational governments have their own autonomy in their own jurisdiction - local governments and administration is a direct extension of the national state - most countries are unitary states - central government may create more local levels of governemnt but are often accountable to the central (have little power) - usually adopted to create a population that is ethnically, linguistically, etc. heterogenous - many former French colonies have adopted unitary systems (colonial history has an impact) - e.g. France, Iran, Turkey

What is the definition of polyarchy + the four components of polyarchy defined by Robert Dahl?

- the acquisition of democratic institutions within a political system that leads to the participation of a plurality of actors; "rule by many" 1. Free, fair, and competitive elections 2. Full adult suffrage 3. Broad protection of civil liberties 4. The absence of non-elected "tutelary" authorities (mikitries, monarchies, or religious bodies); overlook civilian governments

What is democratic transition?

- the change from authoritarian to a democratic regime

What is the state?

- the most important kind of political organization in modern politics - the central characters within the study of international politics

What are domestic institutional theories of democratization? + 2 examples

- theories of which find that the success of democracy depends on the forms of political institutions in a democracy - the idea that institutions shape whether democracies will survive or fail - e.g. federalism to mitigate conflict or civil war in ethnically divided countries - e.g. electoral systems

What are political culture theories of authoritarianism? + theory

- theories that aim to explain authoritarianism by looking at cultural traditions Theory --> some states have cultural traditions suited for authoritarianism - e.g. 'Asian values' argument (emphasis on authority and obedience over individual)

What are agency-based theories of democratization? + theory

- theories that argue that individual actors or small group actors are the drivers of change in regime types - the idea that democratization is often a story with prominent leaders and 'triggers' ((e.g. Ghandia, Mandela, etc.) - these can be individuals or certain groups (or leaders) - Theory --> coalitions of specific groups (e.g. moderates) lead to some transitions

What are the barriers to collective action theories on authoritarianism? + theory

- theories that attempt to explain authoritarian persistence Theory --> rational calculations and personal incentives can explain persistence of repressive regimes - individuals have few incentives to risk repression (let masses take risk while leader reaps rewards of regime change) - will act in collective action unless it becomes irrational for them to do so

What are cultural theories of democratization? + theory

- theories that attribute democratization and democratic consolidation to cultural values that may predispose some countries to democracy and hinder it in others - nrms and attitudes support democracy in some places while rejecting it in others - Theory --> different regions or countries have distinct cultures regarding power, authority, and rights (e.g. 'Asian' values vs. 'Western' values)

What are state weakness and failure theories of authoritarianism? + theory

- theories that focus on state structures, arguing that weak or failing states are more likely to attract authoritarianism Theory --> states with weak institutions are likelier to have authoritarian regimes - less capable of being totalitarian, but maybe likely to have other forms of authoritarianism

What are modernization theories of democratization? + 2 sub-theories

- theories that often trace democracy to broad social changes (especially economic development and the changes that accompany it) - the idea that democracy is more common and stable in 'modern' police - economic wealth correlates with democracy (rich countries are often democratic) - modernization theories have two subtypes: 1. Emergent middle-class plays a role in democratization (urbanization, education, industrialization, etc.) 2. Modernization may prevent democratic breakdown (economic development can support democracy even if it amy not cause democratization)

What are systemic/structural theories of democratization? + theory

- theories that situate countries in an international environment and attribute democratization to broader external (or global) changes - the idea that global politics can affect regime types -Theory --> major powers in the world can effect changes for democracy in smaller countries - e.g. era of "democratic peace" (1989-2001)

What are poverty and inequality theories of authoritarianism? + theory

- theories that state that, if we accept modernization (that economic development causes societies to become more democratic), we would accept the opposite to be true - Theory --> high levels of poverty or inequality leads to more authoritarianism - poverty leads populace to greater concern with economic issues than political liberties (survival is more important)

What are historical and institutional theories on authoritarianism? + theory

- theories that try to explain how institutions get set in a particular pattern - also explain subsequent development as a consequences of the institutional path that has been established - Theory --> coalitions among groups of classes shape fates of regime, and institutions give these coalitions enduring effects - if elite actors have reason to fear democratization, they may try and form and maintain non-democratic institutions and assemble a coalition in support of such institutions

What are ambiguous regimes?

- those that fall on the blurry boundary between electoral democracy and competitive authoritarianism with independent observers disagreeing over how to classify them

What is democratic deconsolidation?

- when a democratic regime that has been consolidated experiences an outburst of political violence, less competitive elections, weakened commitment to civil liberties, etc. - could occur due to economic stagflation, an outcome of corruption, political deinstitutionalization, etc. - can occur at a point of democratic breakdown

What is the state-society relationship?

- when a functioning state has autonomy from social institutions, yet are responsive to civil society - modern state is partially autonomous and is situated in relationship with other actors - not subject to control of other organizations

What is judicial review?

- when courts have the power to decide some constitutional issues and rule on whether a law passed by a legislation is consistent with the basic laws of society (a check the judiciary has on the legislature) - this occurs in many (but not all) countries - e.g. the US federal courts and Supreme Court, Germany, France, etc.

What is parliamentary sovereignty?

- when parliaments are not subject to judicial review and can alter and pass laws independently - e.g. the UK on most issues

What is representative democracy? + 2 sub-types

- when politicians and institutions represent the electorate - electorate contrans politicians' behaviour through elections (held periodically) and other participation (protests, petitions, etc.) - there are two types of representative democracy: 1. Constitutional republic (polity without a monarch in which the basic rules of democracy are laid out in a constitution) 2. Constitutional monarchy (political systems in which a monarch plays a role as head of state but are limited by a constitution) -for both types, the basic criteria is that they must have constitutionality

What is impersonality?

- when states identify with institutions rather than the personalities of their leaders - not associated with the personality of a state's leader

What is comparative checking?

- when we "check" findings by expanding the number of cases we compare when trying to make a hypothesis - process of testing the conclusions from a set of comparisons against additional cases or evidence

What are the three areas in which an uneven playing field is important?

1. Access to resources --> uneven when incumbents use the state to maintain resource disparity that seriously hinder the oppositions' ability to compete 2. Access to media --> when opposition parties lack an access to media, (which reaches most of the population) there is no possibility of fair competition 3. Access to law --> incumbents are often linked to the government (usually through proxy ownership); thus, legal and other state agencies meant to act as referees become systematically in favor of the incumbent

What are the 3 characteristics of the modern state (in its ideal form)?

1. Bureaucracy 2. Impersonality 3. Sovereignty

What are 4 ways in which democratic breakdown can occur?

1. Coup d'etat - most common; military will come and overthrow the elected government 2. Self-coup - democratic elected leaders violate or suspend the constitution or replace it undemocratically 3. Royal-coup - a monarch that directly runs the country and decides to assume all power 4. Mass party - anti-democratic mass party "wins" an election and is handed power

What are the four ways in which a transition to democracy can occur?

1. Dictated by those in power --> top-down process in which the state moves to establish democracy on their own 2. Negotiated --> formal negotiations between the state and the leaders of the pro-democratic opposition 3. Abdicated --> autocratic regime collapses, in which case the leaders advocate power and walk away (military defeat; e.g. cyprus) 4. Imposed by outside powers --> after military defeat and foreign occupation, the occupying powers may choose to impose democracy on the state (e.g. germany after WW2)

What are the 5 broad factors as to why breakdown occurs?

1. External shocks (large events that have an impact on the rise of extreme parties) 2. High "load" on the system (many difficult problems come to the surface at once that the governemnt can't deal with) 3. Political polarization (strengths of a radical group or excessive nationalism arise) 4. Negative external pressures (lack of positive external pressures and support for democracy) 5. Economic mismanagement and corruption (internal mismanagement of the country and its resources)

What are the three main components that distinguish competitive authoritarianism from democarcies?

1. Free elections 2. Broad protection of civil liberties 3. A reasonable level playing field

What are the 5 major theories on the emergence of authoritarian regimes?

1. Historical and institutional theories 2. Poverty and inequality theories 3. State weakness and failure theories 4. Political culture theories 5. Barriers to collective action theories

What are the three components to ensure democratic consolidation?

1. Law-abidingness (when political elites and population obey laws and constitution) 2. Partisan behaviour (political elites respect each other's rights to compete, hand over power willingly 3. Political attitudes or beliefs (leaders of all significant political parties, elites, and an overwhelming majority of the population believe that democracy is the best form of governemnt)

What are two main reasons as to why some regimes democratize while others remain competitive authoritarian?

1. Linkage to the West or the density of ties (cross-border economic, political, social, organizational ties) - more likely for governemnt to democratize (more incentives) 2. Incumbent's organizational power, or the scope and cohesion of state and governing-party structures (only matters after first factor) - where linkage was low, external democratization power was weaker and was thus driven by domestic powers

How has the United States (as a case study example) deepened its democracy through the 5 theories of democratization?

1. Modernization --> growing demand for labour 2. Culture --> declining tolerance for prejudice on basis of sex/race 3. International structures --> American democratic championing required full domestic inclusion for global leadership 4. Domestic institutions --> evolution of congressional majority in populous regions of country in favour of change (how urban areas become powerful and hold much more power in determining election outcomes) 5. Agency/actor --> women's suffrage and civil rights movements were central to creating demand for change

What are the 5 theories as to why democratization occurs?

1. Modernization theories 2. Cultural theories 3. Systemic or structural theories 4. Domestic institutional theories 5. Agency-based theories

What 3 factors does democratic re-equilibrium require?

1. Political leadership 2. Political leadership acceptable by all 3. Willingness to transfer power

What are the 4 theories as to why states emerged?

1. Political/conflict theories 2. Economic theories 3. Cultural theories 4. Diffusion theories

What are the two types of definitions of democracy?

1. Procedural definitions of democracy 2. Substantive definitions of democracy

What are the 2 types of democracy?

1. Representative democracy 2. Direct democracy

What are the 3 main features of constitutions that form the basis of the political system?

1. Separation of powers 2. Responsibilities between levels of government 3. Responsibilities between branches of government

What 3 main factors create an uneven playing field in competitive authoritarian regimes?

1. State institutions are abused for partisan ends 2. Incumbents are systematically favoured at the expense of opposition 3. The opposition's ability to organize and compete in elections is seriously handicapped

What are the 3 most important functions of the modern state?

1. Taxation - states need money 2. Defense - coordination of military action to protect citizenry 3. Policing - established organizations to internally police societies

What 3 major factors explain the emergence of competitive authoritarian regimes?

1. The loss of external funding (pot Cold War) - autocratic rulers lost their source of funding and faced economic crises (resources disappeared as a result of state bankruptcy) 2. Replication of the Western democratic model shift in Western foreign policy - The collapse of the Soviet Union left a shift in the global balance of power - this shift was also accompanied by a shift in Western foreign policy (encouraged and defended democrocay) 3. Proliferation of human rights and democracy organizations - the post cold war also saw the emergence of transnational organizations that were committed to human rights and democracy - autocracies were targeted in this emergence and had to start following democratic practices in order to receive economic aid-raised incentives to adopt Western-style democracy

What are the 4 different types of authoritarian regimes?

1. Totalitarian regimes 2. Theocratic regimes (theocracies) 3. Personalistic dictatorships 4. Bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes

What are the two types of legislatures?

1. Unicameral legislatures 2. Bicameral legislatures

What are the two agreed on principles of liberal democracy?

1. Western Europe and North America tend to be more democratic with more countries in South Africa and Asia being less democratic 2. Democracy is a form of regime associated with "rule by the people" with rights and liberties for citizens; agree on two types of rights: a) political rights (elections are free and fair) b) civil liberties (freedom of speech, expression, access to info, etc.)

What is the 5th element of polyarchy that Levitsky & Way added?

5. the existence of a reasonably levelled playing field between incumbents and opposition - there are two reasons to treat this 5th component as a separate component from free and fair elections: a) often, an even playing field has major impacts between elections and are often missed (must also make sure there is no manipulation to vote) b) Some governemnt actions that skew the playing field may not be viewed as a civil liberty violation

What are the stages of democratic transition and consolidation (A-G)?

Period A --> stable autocracy Period B --> point of change (pressure for regime change) Period C --> democratic transition, including the removal of any military control Period D --> free and fair elections are established Period E --> electoral democracy exists but has not yet been consolidated Period F --> process of consolidation (may lead to negotiated change by pro-democracy leaders or autocracy may collapse) Period G --> consolidated electoral democracy

What is Bureaucracy?

a form of organization that has individuals operating and working under established, specified, and complex rule

What is democratic re-equilibrium?

a political process that, after a crisis that has seriously threatened the continuity and stability of the basic democratic political mechanisms, results in their continued existence at the same or higher levels of democratic legitimacy, efficacy, and effectiveness - this is different from democratic breakdown (while it still kind of is) in that these actors are actually committed to democratization and salvaging it

What is democratic consolidation?

a process by which a new democratic order becomes institutionalized (strengthens democracy)

What is a concept in comparative politics?

an idea comparativists use to think about the processes we study

What is an "effect" in comparative politics?

consequences or outcomes

What constitutes a failed (or fragile) state?

one that cannot or does not perform its expected functions (also have a fundamental lack of state capacity)

What is state capacity?

the ability of a state to achieve its objective goals such as control violence, tax the population, an maintain institutions and rule of law

What is democratization?

the kind of regime change where a regime is becoming more democratic

What is soverignty?

when states are the ultimate authority within their specifically demarcated territories