POLS EXAM 4
How has the funding of public universities changed over the last few decades, and especially since the U.S. financial crisis and economic downturn? What are some consequences of this change?
• 2003 - TX Legislature ceded control of tuition costs to colleges • Deregulation & 'market forces' à Cost of tuition up ~140% since then • 85th TX Legislature Bills • TX Senate approved 2-year freeze, 1% cap (April 4th) • TX House more skeptical • State also facing a budget shortfall • (Still arguing over budget & use of 'rainy day' fund)
What are some of the roles states play in higher education?
Local gov'ts • May fund public junior colleges (community colleges) w/ local taxes • May offer scholarships for local residents States • Strong state identities of public colleges & universities (no kidding) • Allowed to charge different tuition for non-residents Regional & Federal • Regional accreditation of universities & programs • Accrediting bodies recognized by U.S. Dept. of Ed.
What are some of the sources of revenues for Texas public universities?
- Appropriation in state budget - Interest from Permanent University Fund - Student tuition & fees - Grants (including federal), endowments, donations, etc.
What is the Morrill Act, and what did it do?
- Federal land given to states to est. colleges & universities - "for the Benefit of Agriculture & the Mechanic Arts
How does home rule reverse the assumption of Dillon's rule? (See, also, p. 303)
- Once a city is given a home rule they are allowed to do what they want unless the legislature the state forbids it, which contradictory to Dillon's rule which says local governments are allowed to do only what state says.
Why is it so difficult to generalize about local governments?
They are a diverse in economics and population
What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of home rule?
• ADVANTAGES o Reduced legislative interference in city affairs o State legislature can focus on state affairs o Citizen participation and choice Choose form of govt and its administration More control over local govt policies • DISADVANTAGES o Frequent amendment of charter instability o Policy fragmentation Do problems stop at the city limits Examples of city or state conflicts o Local interest groups may have greater influence o Long ballots may discourage participation'
What are some ways in which the costs of growth may be borne unevenly by individuals and groups within the community?
• COLLECTIVE BENEFITS o FOR ENTIRE COMMUNITY • Particular cost o Airports, pipelines, waste disposal site, must go somewhere else o LULU Locally unwanted land use People don't want them because it downgrades the value of there property • Distribution of cost can be quite unequal o Environmental justice concerns o More LULUs near minority neighborhoods o Dakota access pipeline
What are some of the responsibilities of Texas counties?
• COUNTY GOVT o Traditional county commission structure o Structure and powers defined by TX constitution Commissioner court with 4 elected commissioners And county judge o No home rule counties • Implement state policies into local level • Texas Associations Video o Enforces laws and policies o Responsive to local needs o Runs the court system o Maintains jails o Holds elections o Keeps important records o Provided healthcare o Collects taxes for school districts
What are some of the traditional functions of county governments? What kinds of changes have characterized the shift from the traditional county commission structure to other forms?
• COUNTY Govt o Responsible for law enforcement courts, roads, elections, and public records o Differences exist between urban and rural counties • More centralized o County mayor (instead of board of commissioners) • More professionalized o (county administrator who answers to elected commissioners) o Kind of like a city manager who handles day to day things (TX does not have this) o More autonomy form state and unique prganization Home rule counties with unique charters (NOT IN TX)
What is a charter?
• Charter o Small constitution, says what the kind of government it is, city rules and institutional features o State grants power to self govt to incorporated community o Determines STRUCTURE and POWER of the city
What are some of the forms city government can take? How do these forms of government differ in terms of responsibility for the operation and supervision of city departments?
• Commission o Elected commissioners from small governing board (without nominal mayor) o Combined executive and legislative o May suffer problems of govt by committee • Council Manager o Elected council makes policy and ses budget o Appoints city manager to carry out city business Separating politics and administration o Common in many mid-sized cities College station • TOWN MEETING o All voters decide policy elected officials carry it out o Model of direct democracy But actual participation may be low • REPRESENTAITIVE TOWN MEETING o Voters choose representatives for meetings o Board of selectmen implements policy • MAYOR COUNCIL o Varies greatly based on formal powers of mayor Both strong and weak forms Also hybrid forms with separate city manager o What FORMAL POWERS does the office have? Chief executive of the city May also have informal powers o Common in large cities
Which elites traditionally held sway in U.S. communities? What policy consensus did these elites share? In what ways do newer elites differ?
• Community elites: o Local mortgage lending banks o Developers builders o Landowners • Goals of elites o Maximize land value o Increase rents mortgage interest and revenues • Economic elites o Have lost control of community o Part time politicians o Used local govt to promote interest Growth and personal o Motivated by financial gain • Political elites o Professional politicians o Motivate by personal ambition Power and celebrity o Lack pro growth
How did the Supreme Court ruling in Kelo v. City of New London (2005) broaden the legal understanding of 'public use'? What was the reaction to the ruling?
• Decade ago public use definition changed • Transferring homes to public company • CITY GOVT TOOK RESIDENTS PROPERTIERS o To transfer to private developers o (for Pfizer R&D complex) o To help the city's economy • Legal issue: 5th amendment
What claims do elite models make concerning political power and community governance? By contrast, what do pluralist models claim?
• Elite model: power concentrate in the hands of a few o Local business and financial leaders o Elected leader as gofers • Pluralist model: power fragmented and dispersed o Many competing centers of power o Organized groups of citizens with shared interests influence policy
What is meant by 'free-riding'? Why do some claim that suburbanites, especially those living in unincorporated metropolitan areas, are free-riders?
• Free ride o Benefiting from cultural and social status from the subur community o May not actually be paying taxes for the roads they are driving on o Using a public good such as city goods o They are not contributing something they use
Explain the difference between general-purpose and special-purpose governments. Which types of governments fall into each category?
• GENERAL Purpose o Provide wide range of services o Police water, fire, court system • SPECIAL Purpose o Fulfill Specific purpose o Most single purpose School board o SCHOOL DISTRICTS Public elementary and secondary education o SPECIAL DISTRICTS Usually serve specific single purpose • Mosquito control
What is gentrification? Why might it be controversial?
• Gentrification o Revitalization of neighborhoods via influx of higher income residents • PROS o Restoration of older historical buildings o Safer neighborhoods lower crime • CONS o Rising prices drive older residents and businesses out o Cause degeneration of unique neighborhood culture
Which taxes do local governments primarily rely on to fund public schools? How can this create issues of equity in the funding of public schools?
• Heavy reliance on local PROPERTY TAX • But vast difference in property values o Problem of EQUITY in public school funding • RICH district o Higher tax base o Better funded schools even with lower taxes • POOR districts o Lower tax base
What legal status do cities hold? Based on this, what does it mean to say that an area is 'incorporated'?
• Legal status is a "Municipal Corporations" • Incorporated: means it is inside the city limits • Unincorporated: means outside of the city limits
What is meant by 'flight' (e.g. 'white flight') and how did it lead to a decline in the urban center of the city?
• Less racial diversity in suburbs • White flight o History of discrimination housing policies in suburbs o Deed restriction and lending policies • Partisanship o Central city usually democratic o Suburbs lean republic • The Problem with flight o Wealthier residents leave declining neighborhoods Areas lose consumer spending and tax revenues
2. How do local communities in the United States get their authority to govern themselves? How does this differ from the legal status of the states?
• Local governments are arms of their individual states, what they exercise they got from the state government. • Often written in state constitution which gives them guidelines on how they are organized • Basic relationship between local government is through Dillon's rules
How does Dillon's rule restrict the powers of local governments?
• Local governments only have powers that states give them • If states do not give them the authority they do not have it • Narrow interpretation of local authority • Local govts have ONLY those powers granted to them by the state, By state constitution and laws
What is a Metropolitan Statistical Area or MSA?
• Metropolitan statistical area o Core urban area of 50k people with adjacent counties o Adjacent areas: predominantly urban population with close ties to central city
What do many cite as the primary reason for choosing to move to the suburbs?
• Middle class expansion • Job sprawl • Transportation revolutions • Racial and ethnic demographics • Less expensive to live in
In Texas, what degree of municipal annexation power do cities have? How might annexation put large cities at odds with the residents of unincorporated areas?
• Municipal Annexation in TX o TX constitutional amendment (1912) Home rule cities • Get broad power to annex adjoining territory in their extraterritorial jurisdiction (EJT) • UNILATERAL annexation (without resident's consent) o post war growth and explosion of suburbs -> concern for annexation o municipal annexation act reasonable imitation imposes orderly growth o Houston 1996 annexation of kingwood, TX o Power curbed by SB 89 (1999) Now more difficult and expensive for cities to annex large existing residential subdivisions o Annexation today Unilateral annexation but more checks Still contentious and highly litigated
How do controversial policies like like No Child Left Behind and the Common Core reflect larger debates over the role of the federal government and which policies should be left to the states?
• NO Child Left Behind o Coercive federalism era o FEATURES Focus: ESL, Special Ed, poor and minority students Testing to assess school performance Non complying state risked federa; funding o NOTE Every student act (ESSA) 2015 • COMMON CORE o A FEDERAL push for certain kinds of standards which are supposed to boost school progress o Trying to harness the power of big data to various degrees of success and scarience o Debate Shared national standards VS state flexibility, traditionally policy domains and states rights
In what ways does the national government also have a vested interest in education?
• National interest o Narrowly: international competitiveness, soft power o Broadly: link between education and a free society
What are some ways in which federal involvement in public education has mirrored the shifting legal and political relationships between the federal government and the states?
• Northwest Ordinance (1787) o Land to new states for public states • Us OFFICE OF EDUCATION (EST 1867) o DEPARTMENT OF Education (1979) • Other early federal grants in aid: o Smith hughes act of 1917: vocational education for agriculture • KEY POINT: o Involvement closely follows trends and shifts in US federalism • Cooperative federalism o National school lunch and milk programs (1946) o Federal impacted areas aid program (1950) o National Defense Education ACT (1958) Cold war push for science and foreign languages • Centralized federalism • Elementary and secondary education act (ESEA) (1965) categorical
What traits characterize metropolitan life?
• Number and density(concentration) • Heterogeneity of population • Social and economic interdependence (dependence between service industries) o An engine of growth • Authority fragmented between many governments Features of the metropolis • Urban core/ central city o The traditional downtown • Suburbs o Started as middle class bedroom communities for the middle class • Exburbs o Residential communities beyond the first ring suburbs often quite wealthy • Edge cities o Business shopping outside of the traditional downtown
What is eminent domain? In what ways does the U.S. Constitution restrict its use?
• POWER of Eminent Domain o Power of government to take away property for public uses o Starkest instance of problem of INDIVIDUAL COSTS for COMMUNITY BENEFIT o Unfavorable zoning LULUs can hurt property value Cities NOT required to compensate o Taking of property for public use • US constitution 5th amendment o "nor shall private property be taken for public use without compensation" o What actually qualifies as public use?
What is the difference between taxes that are: (i) progressive, (ii) regressive, and (iii) proportional? Give examples of each.
• PROGRESSIVE o Higher income groups pay a larger share Income tax • REGRESSIVE o Lower income groups pay a larger share Sales and excise taxes • PROPORTIONAL o All income groups pay same percentage The tithe We do not have a tithe Tithe is a donation, but before was a proportional tax set aside for there established religion Pay 10% number
What solutions do regionalism and localism advance for providing services and addressing the common problems of metropolitan areas?
• Regionalism o Centralizing and consolidating government and services • Localism o Govt stay separate and provide services for there own community o Particular people are better suited • Functional Consolidation o Consolidation services but no governments o TX council of government ( counties, school districts, cities, special districts have axing authority)
What are some of the common arguments in favor of regional or local solutions to metropolitan problems?
• Regionalism Arguments o Reducing costs and economies of scales More efficient o Subordinates shouldn't get to free ride Or frustrate larger plans o Clear lines of responsibility Managing public policy Voter accountability • LOCALISM: Keeping things fragmented o Community identity o Decentralization of power More points of access to govt More opportunities for effective participation Groups can organize and influence o Schools The draw of the suburban ISD
Which types of charters give state legislatures the most control over cities and their functions? Which type of charter gives local residents a greater degree of control over the composition and functions of their government?
• Restrictive o SPECIAL ACT charter o GENERAL ACT charter • Flexible o OPTIONAL charter o HOME RULE charter
What are some of the traditional roles of states and localities in providing for the education of those in their communities? What is the result?
• Roles of states o Establish schools and colleges o Develop curricula o Determine enrollment and graduation requirements o Share responsibility of funding • The result is different ideological visions of role of individual in society • RESULT: VARIATION at state and local levels o In policy INPUTS Revenues resources and spending per student • Teacher salaries • Facilities and materials Material taught o In educational OUTPUTS
What is meant by the 'political function' and 'service function' of local governments? Give an example of a local government serving its community in each function.
• SERVICE - Providing services not offered by private sector - Market failure, natural monopolies - Electricity - Do you want three companies in one area? No it's a hastle • POLITICAL - Managing conflict over public policy - Who gets what? EX: park, roads Functions frequently overlap
What are the various types of municipal charters?
• SPECIAL ACT charter o Charter granted directly by state Once the common method o Special enactment by state legislature Entrenched control Approval required for changes Powers written in state law itself, in order to change it you have to amend in order to change a certain rule. This gave control to the state • GENERAL ACT charter o Legislature defines size of cities municipal laws uniformly applied o State statues often specify form of government • OPTIONAL charter o Legislature gives some choice in form of government • HOME RULE charter o Common in large cities o Community adopts own form of govt Voter approval required for adoption of charter Charter amended by referenda, and have to power of initiative o Have inherent powers Not granted by state constitution or laws
What are some of the differences between strong mayor-council and weak mayor-council forms of government in terms of the relative powers and responsibilities of the mayor and the council? Under which circumstances are 'strong' mayoral forms of government more common?
• STRONG MAYOR COUNCIL o SEPARATION OF POWERS o Council=legislative o Mayor=chief executive with veto o Mayor Appointment and removal of powers Manages depts. And daily operations Agenda setting power Fiscal power over budget • WEAK MAYOR COUNCIL o Council has legislative and executive authority Little mayoral power outside o Mayor elected or peer selected No veto Limited executive power over city govt Limited agenda setting power o Mayor=ceremonial role o Power is in the council
What are some examples of growth restrictions and how they manage community growth? What are some of the consequences of these policies?
• Smart growth o Livable communities with less sprawl o Zoning: certain types of land has certain uses • Influential in rapidly growing cities • POICIIES associated with it o Zoning laws Land use regulation that designates permitted use of land THEORY • Separate supposedly incompatible land use • Strip mall near school As practiced • To preserve character of community • To stop new dev from hurting status quo • Favors existing residents and businesses o Subdivision control Minimum lot size o Utility and environmental regs o Building reqs Unintended consequences of growth restrictions • Benefits those whose already got theirs o Inflates existing hoe prices Homeowners may join no growth forces o Zoning ordinances don't affect pre adoption land use • Costs for those who haven't got theirs o Falls on more poor working class, minorities, and renters o May cause shortage of affordable housing • City emphasis o Elimination of blights o Property values o Tax revenues o More housing for residents o A true downtown
What are some of the socioeconomic and political differences one might expect to see between the residents of suburbs and those who live in the urban core of a city?
• Social Class o Traditionally suburbs=middle class o Gentrification changing this • Income o Poverty often concentrated in inner cities o And old suburbs o Better off resident leave and move away • Demography of the city v the suburbs o Less racial diversity in suburbs o White flight History of discrimination housing policies in suburbs Deed restriction and lending policies o Partisanship Central city usually democratic Suburbs lean republic • Taxes o Low taxes draw in early suburbs o Less true now Influx of people -> demand for services • Lifestyle o Even now suburbs are associated with children centered families Fewer nontraditional families o Why do people more to the burbs
What are some of the methods metropolitan areas have used to manage their continued growth, providing services, and addressing problems for the region?
• Special districts o Create new single purpose government to tackle problem o Jurisdiction crosses boundaries of other governments o Have power to levy taxes o Most common government in tx • Annexation o Extensions of city boundaries over unincorporated areas o May requires resident's approval Concern of cherry picking • Inter jurisdictional agreements o Contracts made between governments
What is property tax, and how is it calculated? Why might this tax also be considered regressive?
• TAX BASE • REGRESSIVE o Far less regressive than sales tax o BUT Wealthier persons don't own expensive enough property for their tax burden to increase proportionally o Used primarily for local use will vary based on very specific locations since local governments can levy taxes
Explain why income tax is considered to be progressive.
• TAX BASE o Personal or corporate income subjected to taxation o May be MUCH lower than total income o Lowered by deduction, exmeptions • TAX RATE o Progressive • TAX BURDEN o Widely accepted as progressive based on adjusted gross income (AGI) o Much less progressive when calculated with total income o Tax rate based on income o NOTE: 16th amendment (1913)
What is an excise tax, and why are some of these called 'sin' taxes? What are some items that are commonly subject to excise tax?
• TAX BASE: o Sales of particular items o Often a sin tax • SIN TAX o Government recognizes a social cost a harm to it and reduce the use of something o These itemas tend to be inelasted o Cigarrete tax, alcohol, sugar, carbon emmisions o Revenues are EARMARKED • TAX RATE: o Fixed • TAX BURDEN o Regressive
What is meant by the tax burden? How does this differ from the tax rate?
• TAX RATE o Base rate at which something is taxed o Effective tax rate=after deductions exemptions • TAX BURDEN o % of income (or total revenue if tax on business) paid in taxes o Distribution of the costs of taxation throughout society o In individual the tax burden falls on the income o In business's the tax burden falls on there revenue
How metropolitan is Texas in terms of how many MSAs it has and where most of its residents live?
• Texas is becoming more interconnected o 3 of the 10 largest U.S. cities o 24 MSA's o 4 of the30 largest MSA's Texas Triangle contains 70% of the population of the state
Which issues have most shaped Texas' policies regarding public primary and secondary schools?
• Three key issues shaping STATE policy o Desegregation Written into TX constitution • Fewer school days and 1/3 less funding for black schools Brown v. Board of education (1954) • 1957 TX legislature resolution in opposition to SCOTUS ruling Persistence of de facto segregation even after Brown o Equity in public school funding o Search for educational excellence How to measure and demonstrate High takes testing
What does the Tiebout Model claim about an individual's choice of local community? What are some of the shortcomings of this model?
• Tiebout Model o Local government exist in a marketplace o Governments offer various services for various prices o Persons and businesses relocate to preferred community Vote with their feet o People move to the place depending on the community's services • Problems with model o Assumption of mobility choice and perfect information o Ignored interdependence of metropolis
What are some of the anti-growth forces that can exert influence in community politics?
• Upper middle class o Dislike noise, pollution, ugly buildings • Low-income groups and minorities o Redevelopment may drive residents out with higher rents o May also get the LULUs • Directly affected homeowners and voters o NIMBY Not In My Back Yard People affected directly by LULU
What is sales tax, and why is it considered to be regressive? How might governments reduce the regressivity of these taxes?
• Used in 45 states • TAX BASE o Sales subject to taxation o Food, rugs exmept in TX • TAX RATE: fixed o Local example State share=6.25% College station sales tax = 1.5% Brazos county sales tax = 0.5% • TAX BURDEN: regressive o As income increases difference in purchases DON'T increase proportionally o Wealthier persons pay out smaller % of income than lower income persons o Policies reduce regressivity Exemptions on food medicine Tax holidays and tax free weekends