Post-Midterm Arab Civilizations

Iraq Between the Wars (Cont).

**Unlike Egypt, Iraq didn't have an extensive history of developing national institutions (education, industry, army). The task of the new government, a British-backed monarchy like that in Egypt, was to create these institutions and cultivate among the population a shared sense of national belonging *A new factor in influencing British policies in Iraq was the existence of an important new factor in international relations: the contest for control of oil resources *Europe's scramble for colonies in the late nineteenth century became a scramble for oil concessions in the 1920's *At the same time Britain was encouraging the appearance of Iraqi independence, it was also trying to wrest a favorable oil concession from King Faysal's government *In 1925, a 75-year concession was signed that provided for Iraq to receive modest royalties but excluded it from having any ownership in the newly formed Iraq Petroleum Company *The question of British ownership of Iraqi oil was a constant source of conflict between the British and the Iraqi government, and a rallying cry for a developing nationalist, anti-colonial consciousness among Iraq's people

Reform of Urban Islam (cont).

*2 elements central to al-afghanis writings were unity and action *Unity: the unity of the umma had brought such success to Islamic civilizations in the past. Pan-Islamic sentiment was a powerful force that had to be re-established and used to resist European exploitation *Action: this revival could only be achieved through action. Al-afghani heavily criticized Muslim rulers who allowed European armies to invade their territories and permit the capitulations. He called for overthrow of Muslim rulers and for a return to uncorrupt leadership based on Islamic model. *Al-Afghani's student and disciple, Muhammad Abduh had a similarly major impact on intellectual and political thought in Egypt *Born in an Egyptian village, was a student and teacher at Al-Azhar in Cairo *Abduh was active in the Urabi rebellion against the British and was forcibly exciled in 1882, returned 6 years later to British occupied Egypt, served as a judge and was appointed Mufti (Chief Islamic official) of Egypt in 1899 *As chief Islamic official in the country, he initiated reforms in the shariah court system and tried to change the organization and curriculum at Al-Azhar *Abduh's proposals represented his response to the challenge posed by Europe's success

Islamic Revival in Arab Lands

*3 major rural movements sought to re-assert Islamic identity by re-establishing what they perceived the true Islam to be and to purify the faith *These movements were a response to both European expansionism and the "infiltration of decadent popular practices" into Islamic traditions. Decadent popular practices=sufi traditions *Wahhabi (arabia), Sanusi (libya), and Mahidiyya (sudan) *Wahhabi movement: theological foundations set by Muhammad Ibn And al Wahab, sets forth in his writings an uncompromising view of Tawhid (the oneness of God) *Suffism with its veneration of shrines and satins is regarded by Abd al Wahhab as a form of polytheism and idolatry and brands its practitioners as apostates deserving of death *He insists that the Qur'an and Hadith are the only reliable sources through which the divine will could be comprehended and only one school of Islamic law is deemed valid (hanbali)

Capitulations

*A treaty whereby one state permits another to exercise extraterritorial jurisdiction over its own nationals within its boundaries *As the Ottoman Empire weakened and fractured, European states twisted the capitulations into something they weren't intended to be. *In the 16th century, only small numbers of merchants obtained these legal and tax immunities. By the 18th century, large numbers of foreigners within the empire did business advantageously thanks to these privileges, which were often re0negotiated to give European powers additional privileges. *Among those privileges was the right to grant certificates of protections to non-Muslim Ottoman subjects. These certificates, called barats were freely granted to Ottoman minority subjects, and plowed their holders to receive the same protections Europeans had, giving them a distinct advantage over Muslim merchants and allowing them to take over important sectors of Ottoman external trade

Reform of Urban Islam

*Abduh argued that Islam was compatible with the modern world (modernity) and that an educated Muslim did not have to choose between being modern and being Muslim *Specifically, Abduh attempted to reconcile the unquestioning obedience demanded by divine revelation wight he freedom of independent human reasoning *Abduh argued that local superstitions and administrative practices dating from earlier centuries had become accepted as integral parts of Islamic doctrine and were robbing the ummah of it's intellectual dynamism

Ottoman Ruling Institutions

*Adoption of flexible administrative practices; recognition of diversity of territories

Wahabbism

*Al-Wahhab considered his movement an effort to purify Islam by returning Muslims to what he believed were the original principle of Islam, as typified by the earliest converts to Islam *Abd al-wahhab, in addition to condemning sufis as heretics, rejects what he considers innovations such as celebrating the birth of the prophet Muhammad *Argues that no intercession with God is possible *Wahhabis refer to themselves as Muwahiduun (monotheists)

Ottoman Reform: Nationality Law of 1869

*All individuals living within Ottoman domains shared a common citizenship regardless of their religion. *In order to preserve the Ottoman Empire, the concept of secular organization of society was introduced

Napoleon in Egypt Cont.

*Along with Napoleon's army, he also assembled an army of scientists, sociologists, philologists, engineers to aid in the colonization effort by studying Egypt, producing knowledge about Egypt as the french saw the country and its people. *Napoleon defeats vaulted Mamluk army outside Cairo in the Battle of the Pyramids and sends shockwaves throughout the Islamic world *Napoleon attempts to fully colonize Egypt, needed support of local population. Issues proclamation stating that French had entered Egypt not to destroy Islam but to liberate its inhabitants from Mamluk tyranny and any resistance would be crushed

The Arab World and WWI

*Amir of Mecca was most prestigious Arab/Islamic position within the Ottoman Empire, its holder was guardian of holy cities of Mecca and Medina. *Amir was selected from among the families who claimed direct descent from the prophet and therefore bore he honorific title "sharif" meaning noble *Husayn Bin Ali was appointed Amir of Mecca by Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid in 1908 *During his tenure, he attempts to establish himself and his family as autonomous, hereditary guardians of the holy cities. *This leads him to hesitate in supporting the Sultan's call for jihad against the European powers in WWI. He was trying to decide whether his personal ambitions could be served by supporting Ottomanism or the other alternatives

Islam and Christianity in Conflict: The Crusades

*An Islamic Empire spreads to parts of Europe, it threatens the political power and theological basis of Christianity. *Islam claimed to supersede Christian revelation and rejected the doctrine of Christ's divinity, the finality of Chrisitian revelation, and the authority of the church *The European Christian response to the expansion of Islam was generally hostile *By the 11th century, Christendom's response to Islam took 2 forms: the struggle to reconquer Spain (the Reconquista) and a series of Christian holy wars, the Crusades, to recapture Jerusalem

France in Algeria

*An example of settler colonialism *During the 19th century, Algeria is transformed from a nominal Ottoman territory into a french ruled colony *While occupying Egypt, the French bought Algerian grain to feed their trio[s, and French debt to Algeria was the cause of friction between Algerian leaders and France for decades *During negotiations about debt, the Algerian ruler hits french consul with a flyswatter. French government uses infamous "flyswatter" incident to launch a naval campaign against Algeria *Campaign begins with a naval blockade and culminates in french troops occupying the Algerian capital: Algeirs in 1830 *In 1848 France integrates Algeria into france as three french provinces. In the eyes of the french government Algeria is now as much a part f france as paris is.

Egypt's Liberal Experiment

*As a result of the revolution, the British were forced to negotiate with Zaghul and the Waf'd, the Waf'd demanded complete independence, but the british insisted on imposing conditions that would resreict Egyptian sovereignty *The British declared unilaterally that they would give uo their claim to Egypt as a protectorate, but the declaration had conditions attached, conditions that would restrict Egyptian sovereignty: the british gave their local Egyptoan ruler the title "king", they claimed responsibility for the defense of Egypt, the protection of foreign interests and foreign minorities and in direct control of the Sudan *The British military presence in Egypt was thus ensured, the Capitulations continued to be enforced, and Egypt was still unable to control its own foreign policy

San Remo Conference

*At conclusion of the war, European powers gather at San Remo Conference *Decisions reached at San Remo Conference detached Arab provinces from Ottoman Empire and officially apportioned them between France and Britain *The provinces were divided into entities called "mandates" resulting in the modern state system of the middle east. *The mandate system: Britain received the mandates for Iraq, Palestine, Jrodan, and the Gulf. France received mandate for Syria including Lebannon *Faysal's attempt to set up an independent Arab state in Syria crushed by the french who easily defeated his army and occupied Damascus

Interwar Years: Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon

*Becaus of the circumstances surrounding the establishment of Transjordan, it is difficult to disagree with the statement that Transjordan was an artificial state created to accommodate the interests of a foreign power and an inter ant prince in search of a throne. *As was the case in Egypt and Iraq, British rule was indirect, but British interests were protected *Even as Britain exercised control over mandates, protectorates, and quasi-independent states, the foundations for British expulsion were being laid. Iraqis and Egyptians chafed at the restrictions that made their countries independence less than complete *French policy differed from Britsh policy of indirect rule. French control of Syria and Lebanon was supported by the presence of a large military contingent...France's policy of direct rule placed decision-making authority in the hands of the high commissioner and provided little scope for local politicians to practice self-government

European Gains Cont.

*Benefits of Expanded commercial activity in the Ottoman world were mainly realized by European merchants or their agents. *Legal reason why Europeans came to exert such influence on the economies of the <Middle East: In the 1560's, Sultan Selim II granted the first capitulations to france in an act of friendship and generosity to the French, whig allowed the french king's subjects to rtravel in Ottoman lands under french jurisdiction, this act intended to benefit the Ottoman state, was made permanent in 1740 *These capitulations meant that all subjects to a foreign monarch and citizens of republics such as Venice remained under the laws of their own king or republic. Persons with capitulatory status enjoyed full exemption from Ottoman taxes and customs duties these laws were harmless and in fact beneficial, when the Ottoman Empire was at its strongest. This system would severely undermine Ottoman sovereignty once Europe became more and more economically powerful

Muhammad Ali's Wars of Expansion Cont.

*Britain sends fleet to Beirut in 1840 in a joint action with Ottoman troops. Combined with local uprisings, Ibrahim is forced to retreat to Egypt. *Forced settlement on Muhammad Ali: Ordered to withdraw his troops from all the territiroeis he occupied except for Sudan and to limit his army to 18,000 men. *Egyptioan invasion of Syria triggered a Europenan response that reveals linkage between actions of local middle eastern rulers and Europes determination to defend its political and economic interests in the region *Treaty of Balta Liman: signed between Great Britain and Ottoman Empire, it granted foreign goods entry at favorable 3% tariff, along with capitulations and decline in Egyptian military power, brings an end to Egypt's industrial development and economic independence. *Despite failure to establish complete Eygptian independence, Muhammad ali's attempt to create an autonomous state led him to build an infrastructure of government that outlasted his rule

Husayn-McMahon Correspondence

*Britain sought to protect its own interests in the region as well as its WWI ally France. Husayn was told that the area lying west of Damascus could not be included in the proposed Arab state because its people were not purely Arab. *Throughout the exchange of letters, Husayn rejected this exclusion and McMahon insisted on it. In the end, the matter was postponed for further discussion until after the war *McMahon also attempted to secure Husayn's agreement to a special British position in Iraq. Husayn consented to a temporary British occupation of Iraq until a stable administration could be established there *McMahon accepted the territorial demands of Husayn, subject to future negotiations over Syria and the British presence in parts of Iraq and he pledged that Great Britain is prepared to recognize and uphold the independence of the Arabs in all the regions lying within the frontiers proposed by Sharif of Mecca.

Sykes-Picot Agreement

*But during the course of the war, European powers had signed a number of agreements among themselves regarding the future of the Ottoman Empire *These agreements did not pay attendition to the promises made to the Arab allies *They were designed solely to serve the interests of the Europesn members of the alliance *Most significant agreement concluded was between France and Britain: the Sykes-Picot Agreement *This agreement divided up most of the Middle East between Britain and France, contradicting pledges made by McMahon to Husayn

Fall of the Abbasid Empire

*By the 13th century, the Abbasid empire was a sprawling, fragmented series of semi-autonomous states and small kingdoms governed by military commanders *Baghdad remained the historic heart of the empire, population one million, defended by 60,000 soldiers *Mongol army led by Hugalu Khan, organize with intent to conquer Baghdad *Baghdad attacked on January 29 and surrendered on February 10. Mongols invaded the city on February 13 and pillaged the city for one week *Mongols looted and destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, hospitals, grand library of Baghdad was destroyed, and Caliph killed. *Thousands of people killed and Bagdad was depopulated for centuries and never fully recovers. *

Capitulations Continued

*Christian and Jewish minorities became de facto citizens of other states, protected by their laws and regulations yet living and working within the Ottoman Empire *Russia became formal protector of Eastern Orthodox Christians, France became protector of Roman Catholics, and British became protector of Jews and other groups. Russia and England competed for the Armenians *Initioal policy of Ottomans to give each millet as much autonomy as they did ended up hurting the economic interests of the empire and encouraged each millet to function independently of Ottoman authority *During 19th century, prosperity of Christian and Jewish communities in the Ottoman empire increased dramatically, increasingly sectarian tension in places like Mount Lebanon

Decline of Central Authority and it's Effects

*Decline of central authority greatly affected Ottoman Empire's ability to deal with military and economic pressures associated with a rising Europe *Manifested in terrirorital losses (in 1690's, the Ottomans engaged in simultaneous wars with Austria and Russia and are defeated on both fronts, in 1699, Ottomans lost Hungary to the Hapsburg Empire and market the Ottoman's first major surrender of European territory. In 1700, Ottomans acknowledge Russian victory in and conquest of the northern shores of the black sea. *In 1768 Russian forces drove Ottomans from Romania and Crimea-settlement humiliates Ottomans. In addition to losing territory , the Sultan granted Russia the right to represent the Greek Orthodox Church in the Ottoman empire. which laid the foundation for Russia to be the protector of the entire Greek Orthodox millet within the Ottoman empire. Russia would use this as a pretext for frequent interventions in Ottoman internal affairs.

Crusades Continued:

*Defeat of Byzantine army in 1071 leads Byzantine emperor, Alexius 1, to call on all christian rulers and the pope to come to he aid of Constantinople to free Jeruselum *Christian rulers, knights, and merchants were driven by political and military ambitions and the promise of the economic and commercial rewards that would accompany the establishment of a Latin kingdom in the Middle East *In 1099, Christian crusaders established Christian sovereignty over much of Palestine, including Jerusalem. The left no Muslim survivors *In 1187, salah-al din, led an army that successfully recaptured Jerusalem and placed it under Islamic rule again. Civilians were spared and the churches were left untouched *

Disintigration of the Ottoman Empire: The Armenian Genocide

*During the course of WWI, the Young Turks, an officers' movement that had seized power in 1908, launched a series of measures against Armenians and Assyrian Christians as the Ottoman Empire was crumbling through military defeats. *Ottoman propaganda at the time presented Armenians as saboteurs and a pro-Russian "fifth column" *Armenians who served the Ottoman army were disarmed and killed. Armenisan property was confiscated. Armenians were massacred and deported en masse from eastern Anatolia to the Syrian desert. *1.5 million Armenians, out of a total of 2.5 million in the Ottoman Empire, were killed or died of starvation. *The turkish government refuses to recognize the mass killings of Armenians and other Christians as genocide. The International Association of Genocide Scholars does recognize it as genocide, and has called on Turkey to end its genocide denial.

The Search for Identity: Regionalism, Socialism, Arabism, Islam

*During the interwar period, four broad political orientations dominated political and intellectual discourse-regionalism, pan-arab unity, socialism/communism, and islamic solidarity *Regionalists: sought to construct a local nationalist mythology by showing the links a specific region had to its ancient preIslamic past (pharaonism in Egypt, Greater Syria, Mesopotamia) *Opponents of regionalism saw it as perpetuating the fragmentation of Arab lands *Arab unity: foremost proponent of Arab unity was Sati al-husri who wrote books like 'Arabism first'. *Argued that Arabs, because of their shared language and common history constituted a nation that out to be united into a single state. *Al-Husri's definition of Arab nationalism was secular. Refusing to employ Islamic symbols in his call for unity, he argued that the Arabic language had existed before Islam and that all who spoke Arabic, whether they were Muslim or Chrstian, should have only one loyalty: to the Arab nation

Culture in the Liberal Period

*During this period, there were vigorous debates regarding which direction Egypt should take both culturally and politically *Major Egyptian intellectuals continued the tradition of suggesting Egypt must continue to reform, secularize, and adopt the institutional, political, cultural values of Europe *Important intellectual figures like Taha Husayn down played the country's Arab and Islamic heritage in favor of Egypt's Greek and Pharaonic past and it's links to Europe *In his work, Husayn stressed Egypt's Mediterranean heritage and asserted that Egypt had share in, and contributed to, the same Greek civilization to which Western Europe owed much of its political and intellectual strength *Such intellectuals and their work were often met with hostility by conservatives, who perceived their work as an attack upon indigenous, Islamic identity

Palestine pre-1948

*Each community (Jewish, and Palestinian Arab) developed its own political apparatus and engaged in its own separate spheres of economic activity *Palestinian community led by local urban notables whose collective leadership was weakened by factionalism and a tendency to overlook the impotence of forming a cohesive political organization that co;uld attract popular support *Palestinian organizations sought ways to influence the Brisitsh in order to prevent Jewish immigration and the establishment of a Jewish state on what they regarded as their homeland *Jewish organizations settling in Palestine set out vigorously to create their own, independent institutions: public works projects, shipping companies, self sufficient agriculture, road and housing construction, banking institutions and educational facilities *The Jewish community was better organized, better financed, and better connected than the Arabs *Since the objective was to establish a Jewish state, the Jewish labor organization Histradut instituted a boycott of Arab workers and Arab products *Jews in Palestine also developed their own underground defense force which would later become the Isreal Defense Froce. The British disapproved, but did nothing to disarm or disband it

European Gains

*European gains not confined to territorial acquisitions *After 1815, European commerce penetrated the Middle East to an unprecedented extent. The products of the industrial revolution (cheap textiles, metal goods) flooded the middle east. *Because of the influence of European commerce and capital, the formerly self-sufficient economies of the Middle East became integrated into the world economic system. *To power the industrial revolution, Eurppeans needed cheap raw materials: certain regions of the middle east were transformed into exporters of agricultural products (cotton in Egypt)

Discourse of the Veil CONT.

*Even as the victorian male establishment devised theories to contest the claims of feminism, and derided and rejected the ideas of feminism and the notion of men's oppressing women with respect to itself, it captured the language of feminism and redirected it in the service of colonialism toward other men and the cultures of other men *The idea that the OTHER men, men in colonialized societies beyond the borders of the civilized west, oppressed women was to be used in the rhetoric of colonialism to render morally justifiable its project of undermining or eradicating the cultures of colonialized people. *Colonial feminism was shaped into a variety of different constructs, each tailored to fit the particular culture that was the immediate target of domination--india, the islamic world, africa, ect.

Meanwhile in Europe:

*Events in Europe between the 17th and 19th centuries would fundamentally change the balance of power in the world

Emergence of Political Zionism CONT

*First Zionist Congress held in Basel, Switzerland in 1897. At this conference, delegates agreed that the objective of Zionism was to seure a legally recognized national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. *Herzl recognized that the movement wouldn't be successful unless it secured the support of a great power (The UK, US) But such support wasn't forthcoming, until WWI, when the British government took notice of Zionist aspirations and issued the Balfour Declaration *Why'd the British government take notice of Zionist aspirations in Palestine? 1)The belief held by government officials that Jewish groups in the US and Russia had the capacity to influence their respective governments attitudes toward the war 2)British support for Zionism had the potential to serve British imperial interests. British sponsorship if Jewish settelemtn in Palestine would require a Brisih presence in the region and would thus keep France out of an area that was contiguous to the vital Suez Canal zone 3) The existence of sympathy toward the religious and humanitarian aspects of zionism

Middle East Post WWI (The Interwar Period)

*For most of the interwar period, Arab political activity was primarily devoted to achieving independence from foreign control *Local political leaders in a situation of foreign imperial control were dependent for their positions on the goodwill of the occupying power. Thus, even as the Arab political leaders demanded independence, they tried to remain in the good graces of the European authorities. *As the rulers of each emergent state endeavored to create specific symbols of national identity (a process known as nation-building), advocates of pan-Arab unity or Islamic solidarity condemned the imposed fragmentation of the Arab world and called upon the rulers to renounce their local power in favor of a larger confederation *

A New Order

*For the Arab people who had lived within the sultan's domains, the dismemberment of the ottoman empire marked more than just the end of a partiular state, it also market the end of a political, social, and religious order that had shaped their patterns of public behavior for 400 years *The ottoman empire not only embodied the achievements of the Islamic past, it also offered hope, through its continued existence and independence that a distinctly Islamic state could survive in a world of expansionist European powers. A Muslim Arab subksect of the sultan could be comfortable in such a state. But by 1920, neither that state nor its Islamic institutions held sway in the middle east, and its former Arab and Turkish subjects were still adrift. *The Arab elites were compelled, almost by default, to focus their attention on developments in their own new states. Whereas previously the Arabs had been inhabitants of Ottoman provinces, they now had to forge new identities as Iraqis, Syrians, and Palestinians.

Change in Balance of Power

*For the Ottoman Empire, the 18th century began its economic and political disintegration caused by a declining central authority and intense external pressures related to trade with Europe *Decentralization: Ottoman central authority became unable to control its territories. Officials within the Ottoman system acquired power and wealth and carved out their own spheres of influence. *Absolute power of the Sultan was being challenged by formerly loyal institutions: 1) Janissaries, once dependable military foundation of Ottoman power, become threat to the state 2) Once efficient bureaucracy becomes corrupt 3) Ulema begin to exercise far more independent authority than was previously allowed by the Sultan *Decline in central authority allowed local leaders to acquire a greater measure of regional power gaining autonomy from Istanbul

The Muslim Brotherhood

*Founded in Ismailiyya, Egypt by Hassan al-banna, the brotherhood grew dramatically in the 1930's, by the end of the decade, it had 500 branches throughout Egypt and a membership in the tens of thousands *The program of the organization was both traditional and innovative *Al-banna believed that the political and social regeneration of Egypt was intimately tied to the restoration of Islam as a guiding force in national life *Al-banna called for the re-implementation of Shari'a law, but like Muhammad Abdu, argued that the Shari'a must be a product of human reason and historical circumstances, subject to interpretation that would make it compatible with the needs of a modern society *He advocated economic reforms like land-redistribution, the introduction of social welfare programs, and the replacement of foreign capital by local investment

Political Revolution

*French Revolution: A period of radical social and political change in European history *Old political structures (feudalism, aristocracy, religious privileges) swept way by revolution in the streets *New principles of government introduced: citizenship and individual rights *The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen adopted in 1789. Indiviidualism, social contract, separation of powers, rejection o religious authority *Universality of individual and collective rights. Natrual rights to liberty, property, and to life. Role of government is to recognize and secure these rights goveernents should be carried out by elected representatives.

Interwar Years: Syria and Lebanon

*French claim to Syria was based on a combination of religious, economic, and strategic interests. As the self-proclaimed protects of the Christian communities in the Levant-and especially the Catholic Maronites of Mount Lebanon-France professed a moral duty to continue its long standing religious and educational activities in the region *Such a religious justification for imperial interventions only served to intensify the alienation the Muslim majority felt toward France *The French adopted a policy of divide and rule that emphcised and encouraged the existing religious, ethnic, and regional differences within Syria. Thus, rather than promoting national unity, France promoted regional and ethnic fragmentation *The first political division France imposed was the creation of Greater Lebanon in 1920...the main beneficiaries of this territorial reallocation were France's clients, the Maronite Christians, who remained the largest religious community within the new lebanon

France in Algeria Cont.

*French imperialism takes form of settler-colonilaism, French citizens settle in Algeria and establish a plantation economy *Large swaths of Algerian land seized for agricultural production, including cotton *French fvories and businesses established, exploring cheap algerian labor, economic incentive for france to remain in algeria created. *By WWI There were approximately 700,000 European settlers in Algeria. They, rather than the 5 million muslim arab inhabitants, controlled the political and economic institutions. *Despite annexing Algeria in 1848, Arabs in Algeria could attain French citizenship only if they renounced their muslim identity. *French rule over Algeria would last until 1962. French Algerian War, the Algerian War for independence would result in 1,000,000 Algerian deaths.

Culture in the Liberal Period Cont.

*From the perspective of the traditionalists, these movements and the reforms and changed they advocated were associated with the influence of British power and interests *Many organizations arose in the 1930s as a reaction against the foreign inspired parliamentary regime, some organizations adopted a leftist, anti-imperialist, pro-communist orientation and others had a specifically Islamic orientation *The most significant organization was the Muslim Brotherhood

Egypt Under Isma'il

*Grandson of Muhammad Ali, he is a controversial figure in Egyptian history. *His objective was the complete Europeanization of Egypt in as short a time as possible. *Encouraged the development of a European educated Egyptian elite, increased budget of education more than 10 times and expanded primary and secondary education. Introduction of mixed courts to protect Egyptians from capitualtions abuse and to bring uniformity to a practice in which different consuls of different countries rendered judgments based on their own laws. These mixed courts governed by the French legal code. *Establishment of National Courts which had jurisdiction over Egyptians in matters of civil, commercial, and penal law, also drawn from French law. Sharia courts continued, but confined to personal status issues (marriage, divorce, ect.) resulting in the marginalization of the 'Ulema

Husayn-McMahon Correspondence

*In 1915, Husayn sends letter to the British high commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon, setting forth conditions that would enable him to enter into an alliance with Britain and launch a revolt against his own Ottoman government *Marks the beginning of famous Husayn-McMahon correspondence, an exchange of 10 letters that lie a heart of controversy over whether Britain reneged on promise of independence to Arabs *Thorniest issues of correspondence revolved around question of borders *Husayn, claiming to represent all Arab peoples, requested British recognition of an independent Arab state covering the Arabian peninsula, Greater Syria (including Lebanon, Palestine, Iraq). This would be in exchange for his assistance in leading an armed revolt against the Ottomans

The Formation of the Waf'd and the Egyptian Revolution of 1919

*In 1918, seven prominent Egyptians formed a delegation called the Waf'd, that had its goal the complete independence of Egypt from Britain *The delegation approached the british high commissioner with a request that it be allowed to represent Egypt at world conferences, the request was denied *The Wafd's leaders took their demands to the Egyptian people, traveling throughout the country with the message of independence; they sought to rally popular support for their claim that they, not the British backed ruler, represented the will of the population. Thus was founded one of the most popular political parties in Egyptian history *The Waf'd party was led by Sa'ad Zaghlul, a skilled orator who had a special ability to communicate with rural Egyptians which made him the focus of popular support and respect

Revolution, Anti-Colonialsm, Third Worldsim

*In 1946, the last French troops are forced from Syria, marking the first time Syrians rule without french influence. Syrian political politics from independence through the late 1960s marked by upheaval and instability *The free officers and the egyptian coup of 1952 brings gamal abd al-nasser to power, overthrowing the British backed monarchy. Abd al-nasser attempts to unite the arab world through pan-arabism, an ideology advocating the unification of the countries of the Arab world based upon a common ethnic/linguistic identity of the world's Arabic speakers *In 1958, a group of army officers in iraq led by Abd al-Karim Qassim overthrows the British backed monarchy. *Between 1954 and 1962, Algerians wage an anti-colonial struggle against the french for their independence. Up to one million algerians were killed

Reforem of Urban Islam

*In contrast with the tribal, rural movements, reformers within the urban traditions of Islam take a different approach (Islamic modernism) *Like the tribal response, their emphasis is on the need for muslims to acquire a proper understanding of the original principles of Islam in order to recover the spirit of solidarity and piety that had brought success to the immediate followers of the prophet *But this group of thinkers, who are termed Islamic modernists, recognized the importance of accommodating European achievements in science and technology within the framework of Islam, in other words, re-asserting the universal applicability of faith while incorporating ideas that originated outside the islamic tradition.

Middle East Post WWI

*In immediate aftermath of WWI, Britain's attempt to retain control of Egypt and establish a mandate in Iraq was met with widespread resistance. *Britain crushed revolts at high cost: Britain formulated a system of alliance building, establishing systems of patronage it termed "empire by treaty or control by influence" *In this system, Egypt and Iraq were granted a limited form of independence that provided them with a limited amount of freedom to conduct domestic political affairs, but Britain required them to allow the presence of British military bases on their soil and to adopt policies acceptable to Britain *Britian thus secured its essential strategic needs without incurring the expenses of dirtily governing the terrorists *The restrictions this system imposed on the full exercise of national sovereignty created a source of conflict between the local political leaders and Great Britain and produced continuous tension and revolts throughout the period between WWI and WWII

Millet System Continued:

*In particular, the Jewish community prospered under Ottoman rule.

The First Modern Arab Cultural Renaissance or 'Nahda'

*Intensification of cultural and intellectual activities in the last decades of the 19th century and the early decades of the 20th century *

Iraq Between the Wars

*Iraq's 1920 uprising became enshrined in Iraqi national mythology as the first anti-colonial uprising by Iraqis against the British *Britain succeeded in defeating the rebellion, but at enormous cost: 10,000 Iraqis killed, 450 British soldiers killed *The British adopted a governing strategy in Iraq similar to that in Egypt: place as much responsibility in the hands of the Iraqi government as an imperial power could bear to do *The British set out to identify a ruler with whom they could work with and who would be acceptable to a broad-enough cross-section of the Iraqi population *The selected Amir Faysal, the field commander of the Arab Revolt *The form of Government created was defined as a hereditary constitutional monarchy with an elected legislature

Discourse of the Veil Cont.

*Issues of culture and attitudes toward western ways were intertwined with issues of class and access to economic resources, position, and status. The lower middle and lower classes, who were generally adversely affected by or experience no benefits from the economic and political presence of the west had a different perspective on the colonizers culture and ways than did the upper classes and the new middle class intellectuals trained in western ways, whose interests were advanced by affiliation with western culture and who benefited economically from the british presence. Just as the latter group was disposed by economic interest as well as training to be receptive to Western culute, the less prosperous classes were disposed, also on economic grounds, to reject and feel hostile toward it *The colonial presence and the colonizers economic and political agenda plus the role that cultural training and affiliation played in widening the gap between classes, provided ample ground for the emergence at this moment of the issue of culture as fraught and controversial

The emergence of political zionism

*Jewish is an ethno-relgiious identity, Isreaeli is a national identity, zionism is a political ideology *Zionism: a nationalist or national liberation Jewish political movement beginning in the late 19th century in Europe that sought to establish a Jewish homeland in palestine. Modern zionism is committed to supporting and matintating that state established in 1948 (Isreal) *Zionism is a form of modern nationalism, in large part a result of rampant anti-semitism in Europe *We should try to keep in mind from the outset the unique premise on which the mandate for Palestine was founded: a small territory that had been inhabited by an arab majority for some 1200 years was promised to a third party (the UK) as a national home to another people (the Jews) the majority of which lived in Eastern Europe

Regionalism, Socialism, Arabism, Islam?

*Leftist socialist movements develop throughout the Arab world, often combining pan-arab emphasis with socialist ideals (ex: Arab socialist party, founded in 1946 motto was unity, liberty, socialism) Differnet branched of the Ba'ath party would rule syria and iraq from the 1960s to the present (in Iraq, this party ended in 2003 after US occupation) *Other movements look to communism for inspiration (iraqi communist party) *Finally, Islamic solidarity remained an undercurrent. The muslim Brotherhood in egypt successfully developed an infrastructure despite being persecuted. No islamist movements led any Arab state besides Saudi Arabia until the recent Tunisian and Egyptian elections *In the end, neither pan-arab unity nor islamic solidarity could overcome the regional nationalisms favored by the new political elite seeking to build their own bases of power

Early colonialism vs. modern colonialism pre-capitalist vs. capitalist

*Modern colonialism did more than extract tribute, good and wealth from the conquered countries. It restructured their economies *Although European colonialisms involved a variety of techniques and patters of domination, penetrating deep into some societies and involving a comparatively superficial contact with others, all of them produced the economic imbalance necessary for the growth of European capitalism and industry

The emergence of Political Zionism CONT.

*Modern political Zionism originated in Russia, where anti-semitism was most virulent. In 1883, at the height of the programs, Leo Pinsker writes Autoemancipation, arguing that Anti-semitism was so deeply embedded in European society that no matter what the laws said about emancipation, Jews would never be treated as equals. *Theodor Herzl was instrumental in turning Zionism into a coherent, international movement. *In 1896, Herzl published "The Jewish State," providing the ideological basis for political Zionism *His thesis: Jews constituted a nation but lacked a political state within which they could express their national culture. This state of affairs, a nation without a state, contributed to the oppression of Jews world wide. *Herzl argued that the only solution to this problem and to the problem of anti-semitism was for Jews to acquire political sovereignty and self determination in a state of there own

The Era of Muhammad Ali in Eygpt

*Muhammad Ali arrived in Egypt in 1801 as part of an expedition sent by the Ottomans to evacuate the French. *Emerged as leader and recognized by Ottomans as their governor in Egypt in 1805 *Launches Egypt on a 40 year program of imperial expansion and internal development *Muhammad Ali's accomplishments: Refashions the military, centralizes administrative bureaucracy, and created an empire that includes northern sudan, the western coast of Arabia and all of greater syria, and ll parts of southwestern Anatolia. *Fiscal, administrative, and organizational reforms were part of a process of state building in which Muhammad Ali transformed the governing structures of Egypt from those of a subordinate province to those of a burgeoning state along the lines of European states. *His main political objective was to secure independence from the Ottoman Empire and to establish Egypt as a hereditary dynasty for his family *Main purpose of his reforms was to strengthen his armed forces. *Modeled his military along European lines, established ties with France and sent soldiers to train *Muhammad Ali founded educational instiuditions within Egypy intended to produce experts in services that would support and benefit the military (Schools of Medicine, Vet Medicine, Enginieering and Chemistry) *Intensive program of higher education oriented toward Western subject after was established, a new printing press, production of new textbooks, and the spread of Western ideas to the educated elite of Egyptian society

The Millet System

*Non-Muslim subjects organized into religious communes called "millets" or "nations" *Granted a considerable degree of autonomy, millet system derived from Ahl al Dhimma *Each community (Armenian Christian, Jewish, Greek Orthodox) was placed under the direct authority of their leading religious official (Armenian patriarch, Jewidh grand rabbi, Greek Orthodox patriarch) who were selected with the approval of the sultan *Christians and Jews had religious freedom and had the right to retain their own reliious educational system and religious legal structures. They were directly administer by their own communal officials, who were in charge of tax collection, education, administering justice, and other religious affairs

Napoleon in Egypt

*On May 19 1798 a massive French fleet sets sail from France to conquer Egypt. The fleet numbered 400 ships and transported 36,000 men. *According to an eyewitness, upon seeing the fleet, the people of Alexandria were seized by an unimaginable terror *Why did the French decide to invade Egypt? Napoleon tries to strike at British interests in Asia by invading Egypt. *French occupation of Egypt lasted only 3 years, but had a monumental impact on the middle east: it inaugurated a new kind of imperial adventure, one which combines the new power of Europe with its ability to produce knowledge about other places.

Napoleon in Egypt Cont.

*One year after Napoleon invades Egypt, he returns to France where within three months he seizes power there and re-focuses his attention on Europe. *Thousands of troops remain in Egypt, though are increasingly in disarray, and on July 31, 1801, France Evacuates its forces from Egypt *Modern Scholarship regards the French invasion and occupation of Egypt as opening the modern era in the Arab world *French forces exposed the military weaknesses of the region and its declining power and awakened the educated Arab elite to the learning of the west. *Subsequent political, economic, and cultural trends in Egypt would model themselves after the french *About 500 leading scientists, academics, engineers accompany Napoleon, 150 of them are members of the commission des Sciences et Arts. These scholars, many of them famous for their scientific discoveries compiled academic volumes dedicated to the study of Egypt *Description de l'Egypt was published and contained 23 volumes of detailed info about egypt, including atlases and maps. The first 5 volumes are devoted to Egyptian Antiquities and launch the field of Egyptology. *Relationshop between power and knowledge: who is able to represent the other and how?

Rise of Ottoman Empire

*Originates in Turkish speaking principalities of Anatolia *These small Turkish enclaves were in constant war with Christian Byzantium, for religious and material gain *Beginnings of empire traced to leader named Osman ruler of one of the small enclaves who achieves series of victories against Byzantines *By middle of 14th century, Ottomans had expanded to the sea of Marmara, across which laid the shores of Christian Europe. Over the next two centuries, all of southeastern Europe does under direct Ottoman control

Ottoman Reforms (Tanzimat)

*Period from 1839-1876 marks most intensive period of Ottoman reformist activity. *Two royal decrees issued: Hatt-i Sharif=statement of royal intent promising administrative reforms, such as the abolition of tax farming, the standardization of military conscription and the elimination of corruption. It would extend these reforms to all Ottoman subjects, regardless of religion and Hatt-i Humayan=principles of 1839 repeated and guarantees of equality of all subjects made more explicit. Muslim and non-Muslim were to have equal obligations in terms of military service and equal opportunities for state employment and admission to state schools *The intent of the two decrees was to secure the loyalty of Christian subjects of the empire; to break down religious and cultural autonomy of the millets; and to create the notion of a common Ottoman citizenship (Ottomanism), which would replace the religious ordering of society in which Muslims had been dominant

The question of "post colonialism"

*Post colonialism studies: wide ranging intellectual/theoretical discourse aimed at understanding and analyzing the cultural, political, and economic legacies of colonialism *Problematic "post" of post-colonialism

Discourse of the Veil in Women and Gender in Islam

*Qassim Amin's Tahirir al-Mara (The liberation of Women) traditionally regarded as marking the beginning of feminism in Arab culture. It's publication and the ensuing debate constitute an important moment in the history of Arab women: The first battle of the veil to agitate the Arab press. The battle inaugurated a new discourse in which the veil came to comprehend significations far broader than merely the position of women *Its connotations now encompassed issues of class and culture--the widening cultural gulf between the different classes in society and the interconnected conflict between the culture of the colonizers and the colonized

Egypt under Isma'il

*Sections of Cairo refashioned on the model of Paris. Cairo nicknamed Paris along the Nile. *Completion of Suez Canal in 1869 *How did Isma'il fund his projects? Cotton! But large revenues associated with cotton could not fund Isma'il's extravagance, he borrows huge amounts from European financial institutions *Egypt sinks into debt. By the 1870's, new loans were being taken out to set the interest payments on previous loans. In 1876, Egypt announces it intends to suspend interest payments for 3 months, declaration of bankruptcy. *OVer next 6 years, Egypt's economic problems lead to loss of political independence. *European banks become involved, pressure their governments to take action that would prevent Egypt from defaulting on its loan payments

Intellectual Revolution

*The Age of Enlightenment: Wide ranging intellectual, artistic, philosophical, scientific movement that sought to understand the natural world and man's role in it solely on the basis of reason and without turning to religion. Called age of reason as well *Anti-monarchic, centered on the rights of the individual to act freely in accordance with his nature, free human reason would produce sound moral judgments *Ratiaonal philosophy undermined absolutism, social contract substituted for divine right, political freedom and justice. *Respect for rational philosophy derived from the successes and popularity of science (astronomy)

The Arab Revolt

*The Arab Revolt began in 1916 when Husayn's forces attacked Ottoman forces at Mecca *By September, most of the towns of Western Arabia were under Husayn's control *Husayn's call to revolt failed to generate an organized response from other Arabic speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Many accused Husayn of being a traitor and dividing the Ottoman-Islamic Empire when unity was most needed *The Arab Revolt, therefore, did not constitute a popular revolt. Rather, it was a narrowly based revolt relying on tribal support from Arabia and dominated by the Hashemite family *Revolt ends in 1918 with the capture of Damascus by Faysal, Husayn's son, who immediately begins to set up an administration there, believing he is acting in accordance with the pledge Great Britain had given his father

The Muslim Brotherhood Cont.

*The Brotherhood established free medical clinics in the neglected countryside and soup kitchens to feed the urban poor *Ethic of social justice and an emphasis on addressing economic inequality, rooted in the principles of Islam, allowing the Brotherhood to appeal to large segments of the Egyptian population (the urban poor and those in the countryside) whose needs were not being addressed by those in government *To the urban poor and especially to the large number of them who were recent migrants from the countryside, the organization offered material assistance, communal associations, and spiritual comfort *Despite the outward trappings of secularism that were so much in evidence during the years of the liberal experiment, Egyptian society as a whole remained firmly committed to its Islamic roots

Iraq Between the Wars

*The british officials who determined the boundaries of the post-Ottoman Arab world were at their most arbitrary in the case of the new state of Iraq *The three former Ottoman provinces that were made into Iraq were among the most ethnically and religiously diverse Arab regions of the Ottoman Empire, and their forced amalgamation into a single country posted exceptionally difficult obstacles to nation building *The British officials who delineated Iraq's borders disadvantaged the new state by restricting its access to the Persian Gulf (by creating Kuwait) *Like in Egypt the British attempt to assert authority was immediately met with revolt in the Iraqi countryside in 1920 *Lasting several months, the uprising was a localized rebellion against Britain and the British attempt to replace the decentralized Ottoman system with centralized governmental structures

WWI and the creation of the modern middle east

*The conclusion of WWI bought about the current state system in the middle east. By the end of the war, Turkey was an independent republic, the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire had been divided into separate states ruled by European powers, and much of the Arabian peninsula had been united under control of the dynasty of Ibn Saud *Introduction of territorially based nationalism and mandate state system into the region by European powers. Drawing of state borders by outside powers *Sykes Picot Agreement: Secret agreement between governments of Britain and France defining their spheres of influence after the fall of the Ottoman Empire

Bashkin, "Renaissance and Revolution

*The early 1950's were years of literary and cultural renaissance in Iraq *The encounter between the state and the intellectuals of the opposition was often violent, as politicians sought to break the oppositions power by any means necessary *At the same time, the oppositions intellectuals articulated the views of a younger generation in their print media organizations...the duty of the intellectual to change society acquired important meaning. A new vocabulary articulated in literary and cultural magazines described novels, poems, plays, and more broadly, the actions of the intellectual and the writer as humanistic, progressive, existential, and above all, committed. A new generation talked and wrote about freedom, anxiety, protest, social progress, individual salvation, rebellion, and heroism

England on the Nile: The British Occupation of Egypt

*The occupation shaped Egyptian economic development for several decades and had an impact on the formation of the country's political leadership, it became the focus of an anti imperial nationalist movement that affected Egyptian and British politics for the first half of the 20th century *Lord Cromer presided over British occupation of Egypt with absolute authority *Cromer's attitude toward non-western, non Christian people: Convinced of the innate superiority of Western civilization, Cromer believe that orientals couldn't improve their lot until they had mastered the ways of the west and for this they requited a long apprenticeship under the enlightened tutelage of advanced countries like Great Britain.

Interwar Years: The rise of the Saudi State

*The origins of the new Arabian political order are to be found in the revival of the Wahhabi movement under the vigorous leadership of Abd al-aziz ibn saud *By persuading the tribes to adopt the practices and outlook of Wahhabism, Ibn Sa'ud provided them with a sense of mission, a desire to extend the Wahhabi doctrine and way of life to other areas of the peninsula *In 1924, Ibn Sa'ud and his warriors seized Mecca and Madina driving Sharif Husayn out *Sustained oil exploration began in 1933 when the Saudi government signed a concession agreement with Standard Oil of California, the future of ARAMCO (Arabian American Oil Company)

Discourse of Veil (cont).

*The peculiar practices of Islam with respect to women had always formed part of the Western narrative of the quintessential otherness and inferiority of Islam *However, even though Islam's peculiar practices with respect to women and its oppression of women formed some element of the European narrative of ISlam from early on the issue of women only emerged as the centerpiece of the western narrative of islam in the 19th century, as eurpeans established themselves as colonial powers in muslim countries *In the colonial era, the colonial powers, especially UK, developed their theories of races and culutes and of a social evolutionary sequence accorign to which middle class vicotian england, and its belief and practices stood at the culminating point of the evultionalry process and represented the model of ultimate civilization.

Hierarchial Society/Distinct Social Classes

*The ruled were expected to produce, through wealth and taxes, the wealth that supported the ruling elite and the institutions of the state *State's obligations toward its subjects was ensuring stability and order and providing basic services. *Ottoman ruling elite were called "askeris" *Within ruling elite was a special class of educated individuals who called themselves true Ottomans *At top of hierarchy was the Sultan-Caliph, an absolute monarch whose right to rule was hereditary

Discourse of the Veil

*The thesis of the new colonial discourse of Islam centered on women was that Islam was innately and immutable oppressive to women and that the veil and segregation epitomized that oppression and that these customs were the fundamental reasons for the general and comprehensive backwardness of Islamic societies *Veiling-to western eyes, the most visible marker of the differentness and inferiority of islamic societies-became the symbol now of both the oppression of women nd the backwardness of Islam and it became the open target of colonial attack and the spearhead of the assault on muslim societies

Egypt's "Liberal" Experiment

*The waf'd set about to create political institutions that would force Britain to recognize Egypt's independence and sovereignty *In 1923, a modern Egyptian constitution was proclaimed and elections for the first parliament were held in 1924, Waf'd party won 90% of the seats and Sa'ad Zaghul became Egypt's first elected prime minister *Problems with the attempt to establish parliamentary democracy in Egypt were largely the result of British interference *The constitution, approved by the British, awarded extensive powers to the king, including the right to appoint the prime minister and dissolve parliament, which he did whenever it suited his purpose (Same system institued in Jordan and Iraq). The British regularly interfered, making a mockery of elections *Sa'ad Zaghul also behaved in an authoritarian manner, failing to respect the opposition *These conflicts resulted in constant struggle for power between the King, the British, and the Waf'd

Egypt attempt at Liberalism cont.

*These factors combined to create short-lived governments interspersed with periods of royal rule *Politics was reduced to a power struggle among competing factions of the elite *The politicians with their preference for secular political institutions and their self-serving devotion to their own needs became increasingly isolated from the urban and rural masses *The political leaders were further distanced from the population by their whole-hearted acceptance of European values and their attempts to impose them on Egyptian society

Culture in the "Liberal" Period

*This period also marked the feminist movements in the Arab world led by Arab women *Originiating among women from Cairo's upper classes, Egyptian feminism coalesced around the leadership of Huda Sha'arawi and the Egyptian Feminist Union she founded in 1923, focusing on issues such as women's suffrage, equal access to education, and reform of marriage laws *Primarily composed of Western educated, secular, upper class women and promoted European social values and had a secular orientation *Symbolic apex of the movement came when Sha'arawi and another union member removed their veils in a symbolic public gesture at Cairo's main railway station in 1923 *In 1925, Egypt's government made primary education compulsory for girls, and later in the decade, women were admitted to national universities for the first time *Reform of family law, however was unsuccessful

Era of Muhammad Ali Cont.

*To fill his new army, Muhamad Ali needed large numbers of conscripts, he conscripted native Egyptian peasants and built an arm that numbered 130,000 troops. This inaugurates a new form of government control over the Egyptian population *In order to pay for his military, Muhammad Ali needed to exploit Egypt's resources to their limits, increased state's control over land and revenue, reducing the wealth of the Mamluks and the Ulema *Muhammad Ali's regime experimented with new crops, cotton became a lucrative cash crop. *But Muhammad ali never intended for Egypt to simply be a producer of raw materials for Europe. He undertook an ambitious drive to establish local industry in Egypt itself, a program of industrialization

Interwar Years: Syria and Lebanon

*When General Gourard proclaimed the creation of Greater Lebanon 1920, his objective was to safeguard the Maronite community by making sure it wouldn't be absorbed into a Syrian Muslim state. *Ensured the existence of a volatile political mix in which competition for power would be based on sectarian affiliations. The maronites viewed Lebanon as their own special Christian homeland and assumed that political and economic preeminence was theirs by right. However, Sunni Muslims...had different expectations, demanding unity with Syria and looked to the wider Arab world (Rather than France), for their source of cultural identity *The crucial political issue facing Lebanon during the 1930's was the need to reconcile the conflicting aspirations of the Christian and Muslim communities and persuade them to work together in the construction of a distinctly Lebanese polity *Franco-Lebanese treaty guaranteed the fair representation of all the country's 18 sects (Maronite christian, muslim, druze, ext). in the government and high administration. President would be a maronite critsian and prime minister a sunni muslim, speaker of parliament is a shite. Based on a 1932 national census. No census has been taken since then

Muhammad Ali's Wars of Expansion

*Why was Muhammad Ali looking to expand? In order to obtain raw materials lacking in Egypt and a captive market for Egypt's new industrial output *Muhammad Ali turns agains the Ottoman Sultan and invades greater syria in 1831 *His son Ibrahim leads Egyptian army through Lebanon and Syria and into Anatoloa where he defeats Ottoman forces and pushes to within 150 miles of Istanbul *During years as governor of Syria, Muhammad Ali introduces many of the domestic programs already adopted in Egpt and makes syria a captive market of Egyptian textiles, this damages local Syrian crafts industry and stirs revolt among local populations, Ottomans see an opportunity to re-assert their control *Ottomans defeated again in 1839 by forces of Ibrahim but Europeans (British) decide to intervene. Muhammad Ali was becoming too powerful

Interwar Years: Syria and Lebanon

*Within the area of the Syrian mandate proper, France carved out a series of separate political units, the existence of which was designed to hinder the development of Syrian national identity *Thus, in 1920, Damascus and Aleppo were divided into two separate states, each with its own government and its own set of French advisors. In a further effort at political fragmentation, France stressed the distinctiveness of Syria's two regionally compact minority groups, the Alawites and the Druze, by providing each of them with a separate state in 1922 *Evernyally, the French combined Damascuss and Aleppo into one state, but marginalized the Druze and Alawite communities from national politics *The destructive political instability that came to characterize Syria after independence in1946 must be traced to the institutionalized fragmentation practiced by the French mandate authorities. *After nearly twenty years of the mandate, Syria remained without independence, without institutions of self-government, and without territorial unity

The Revolution of 1919

*Zaghlul was arrested by the British and exiled to Malta in 1919 *The forced exile of Zaghlul led to major riots and demonstrations in Egypt's major cities, and when the British tried to put them down forcefully, they only increased, resulting in a nationwide revolt called the revolution of 1919 *The British met the revolt with more armed force. By the end of 1919, more than 800 Egyptians had been killed *This was the second nationalist, anti-colonial revolt in Egypt and signaled the beginning, throughout the new Arab states, of anti-colonial political activity and resistance to British and French rule that would lead to periodic revolts and eventually, independence

What events in Europe would change the future balance of power?

1) A commerical revolution 2) An intellectural revolution 3) A political revolution

3 Successful Ottoman Military Campaigns

1) Conquest of Constanstinople Renamed Istanbul, becomes seat of Ottoman government and an expansing, cosmopolitan city. 2) Conquest of Europe by Suleyman "The Magnificent": In 1520s, Ottoman armies capture Belgrade, Budapest, and lay siege to Vienna. By Suleyman's death in 1566, Ottoman Empire ruled from the Danube to Yemen, from Albania to the Black Sea, from Algiers to Baghdad 3) Conquest of Arab lands: Syria and Palestine captured easily; in 1517, Cairo is captured as well as symbolic title of Caliphate. Capture of Mecca and Madina lends legitimacy to Ottomans as protectors of holy cities

Common Myths of the Crusades:

1) Motivated solely by a religious desire to liberate Jeruselum 2) Christianity Triumphed

What principles guided Ottoman ruling elite's attitudes toward state and society?

1) Tradition of Military Conquest 2) Legacy of urban Islamic civilizations 3) Respect for local customs 4) Maintenance of a hierarchal society with distinct social classes

Three Major Groupings of the Ruling Elite: The Religious Estblishment (Ulema)

An important pillar of the empire. Were closely managed and contoled. Qadis appointed to serve in various locations of the empire. Position of Shaykh al-Islam emerged as chief reliious dignitary of the empire: he oversaw appointment of the wadis and madrasah teachers and his legal opinion was sought by Sultans

The Balfour Declatration

British government issues a declaration in 1917 expressing sympathy for Jewish Zionist aspirations in Palestine *The Balforu Declatiosn:His majesty's Government view with favor the establishment in Paestine of a national home for the jewish people, and will use their best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country

The Palestine Mandate

During the Ottoman peropd, the area that became the British administered mandate of Palestine and Transjordan was considered part of souther Syria *After WWI, the Balfour Declaration was incorporated into the British mandate and Hebrew was recognized as an official language in Palestine *Balfour declaration was confusing

Industrial Revolution

From 18th to 19th century, mechanization of textile industries, machine-based manufacturing, expansion of trade, railways and improved roads, profound changes in socioeconomic and cultural conditions

The Urabi Revolt

In 1882, Ahmed Urabi appointed minister of war and begins making provisions for the formation of a national assembly that would direct Egypt's affairs *Britain and France fear that a government led by Urabi wouldn't honor its debt obligations to Europe, feared restricted access to Suez Canal *British government authorizes bombing of Alexandria in 1882. On September in 1882 British forces defeat Urabis army and two days later, Urabi is captured and his movement ended. British formally occupy Egypt, and that was an occupation that would last until 1952 *The Urabi Revolt is often regarded by historians as the first modern nationalist rebellion in Egypt.

Reform of Urban Islam

Jamal al Din al Afghani: major thinker, born in Iran, called for direct anti-colonial action in the name of Islamic solidarity *Settles in Egypt in 1871, exciled in 1879 to India *In 1884, settles in Paris, where he begins publishing a newspaper that emphasizes the anti-imperialist dimensions of religiously based solidarity. *Purpose of his writings is to arouse in Muslims a determination to overcome their weaknesses. He argues that the Christian West was dominant not because it was superior, but because the Islamic world had fallen into a state of decadence and stagnation. *For al-Afghani, Islam was in accord with the science and the demands of human reason, but Muslims had become ignorant of the true principles of their faith.

Egypt Under Isma'il

Public Debt Commission established, and it composed of 4 main representatives from European creditor nations. Meant to ensure the payment of Egypt's debt *In addition, 2 controllers, one British and one French, were appointed to the Egyptian government to supervise the expenditure of Egyptian revenue, amounting to direct control of Egypt's financial affairs. *Isma'il tries to preserve Egyptian independence by dismissing controllers, European powers decide his rule must end and depose him with help of Ottoomans, his son Tawfiq, a weak ruler installed *Egyptian debt is more than 60% of Egypt's annual revenue. Isma'il had mortgaged his country to European banks and financiers *Leads to Urabi revolt. Ahmed Urabi of peasant origins, not European educated, rises in the ranks of the army. Secures support from military. Urabi begins national campaign against European domination of Egypt's affairs

Commerical Revolution

Technological break throughs: use of compass and adjustable sails, new institutions for organizing trade and banking, the establishment of overseas colonies (newly discovered Americas), introduction of new crops (tomatoes, potatoes, tobacco, sugar) from the new world, introduction of massive quantities of new world gold and silver into Europ. These changes set off a chain of events that would culminate in the establishment of the modern world economy

Three Major Groupings of the Ruling Elite: The Civil Service

The Ottoman empire was characterized by an emmense and elaborate bureaucracy, directors and managers were drawn from the Ottoman slave elite, while civil servants were muslims trained as apprentices to perform their bureaucratic functions

The Arab World and WWI

The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, in Sarajevo sparked WWI by activating the European alliance system (Britain, France, Russia vs. Austria-Hungary, Germany *Ottoman Empire drawn into the war against Russia *Ottoman Empire eventually defeated and dismembered by peace treaties; Ottoman Empire's Arab provinces occupied by france and britain *Britain pledges to support an independent Arab state if Arabs would revolt against the Ottomans *Ottoman entry into the war raised concerns in Britain about pan-Islmic solidarity. Such solidarity could effect British interests in India and its larger war effort *British officials actively sought out a Muslim dignitary or religious figure who could be persuaded to ally with them and serve as a counterweight to the prestige of the Ottoman Sultan *They found him in the person of Sharif Husayn Bin Ali, the Amir of Mecca

The Emergence of Political Zionism

The centrality of Palestine to Jewish religious thought, keeping alive over centuries the idea of a return to the holy land. The Jewish desire to return to Palestine had always been framed in religious terms, and it received little organizational expression until the late 19th century *Organized political Zionism arose due to conditions in 19th century Europe, particularly Eastern Europe *Persecution against Jews was widespread and included discriminatory laws and periodic violence. Many Eastern European Jews immigrated to the US, others embraced the idea that Jews would never be welcome in Europe and had to find their home elsewhere

Colonialism

The control or governing influence of a nation over a dependent country, territory, or people. The system or policy by which a nation maintains or advocates such control or influence

Imperialism

The policy of extending the rule or authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies, the process which leads to the domination and control of colonies

Revolution, Anti-Colonialism, Third Worldism

Third Worldism: solidarity among colonized peoples (third world) against western colonialism. Bandung Conference in 1955 formed the non-aligned movement, representingg a significant shift in global politics. Leaders of the non-alighned movement: Egypt's Nasser, India's Nehru, Ghana's Nkrumah, Indonesia's Sukarno *Arab revolts and coups against French and British are part of world-wide anti-colonialism struggle against european colonialism *For Egypt, Iraq, Syria, revolts bring military officers to power who strengthen state apparatus and embark on nationalist socialist development programs *Both Nasser in Egypt and Qassim in Iraq embark on major social reforms (land redistribution, mandatory education, development of industry) *Nasser becomes leading voice of secular, socialist pan-arabism. Brief union with syria (united arab republic

Three Major Groupings of the Ruling Elite: The Military

a) The Janissary Infantry: The Elite Slave army drawn from the devshirme, protected the caliph and maintained order. Housed in barracks, received regular salaries b) Sipahi Cavalry: Free-born Muslims awarded rights to taxes from particular agricultural lands in exchange for military service and maintaing order, resulted in wide and large distributions of army