Power and Influence Tactics (ch 6)

Interdependence among different sources of power.

- Position power is an important source of influence, but can also enhance personal power - Control over information complements expert power based on technical skill by giving the leader an advantage in solving important problems and by enabling a leader to cover up mistakes and exaggerate accomplishments - Reward power facilitates deeper exchange relationships with subordinates, and when used skillfully in a way that is generous and fair, it can enhance a leader's referent power. - Some coercive power is necessary to support legitimate and expert power when a leader needs to influence compliance with rules and procedures that are unpopular but necessary to do the work and avoid serious accidents - Coercive power is needed by a leader to restrain or banish rebels and criminals who would otherwise disrupt operations, steal resources, harm other members, and cause the leader to appear weak and incompetent

Why is it best to avoid using coercive power? Can it result in commitment, or simply compliance?

It is best to avoid using coercion except when absolutely necessary, because it is difficult to use and likely to result in undesirable side effects. Coercion often arouses anger or resentment, and it may result in retaliation. In work organizations, the most appropriate use of coercion is to deter behavior detrimental to the organization, such as illegal activities, theft, violation of safety rules, reckless acts that endanger others, and direct disobedience of legitimate requests. Coercion is not likely to result in commitment, but when used skillfully in an appropriate situation, there is a reasonably good chance that it will result in compliance.

Referant power, Level of influence/Influence processes (Kelman 1961)

1) Docility Acceptance of the leader's attempts at influence Want rewards or want to avoid punishment > motivational base Result focus 2) Identification - When one person allows himself to be led by another - Want to establish or maintain a personally satisfying relationship - Attraction to the source of power 3) Internalization Accepts attempts at influence Believe that result is correct and appropriate

Guidelines for using and maintaining expert power (Yukl & Taber, 1983)

1. Explain the reasons for a request or proposal and why it is important (avoid making contradictory statements) 2. Provide evidence that a proposal will be successful 3. Don't make rash, careless, or inconsistent statements (superior expertise can also cause resentment if used in a way that implies the target person is ignorant or helpless) 4. Don't lie, exaggerate, or misrepresent the facts 5. Listen seriously to the person's concerns and suggestions 6. Act confident and decisive in a crisis

Guidelines for using legitimate authority (Yukl & Taber, 1983)

1. Make polite, clear requests (in a firm, confident manner. If the request is complex, it is advisable to communicate it in writing) 2. Explain the reasons for a request 3. Don't exceed your scope of authority 4. Verify authority if necessary (should therefore not rely on someone else to relay it to the target person) 5. Follow proper channels 6. Follow up to verify compliance 7. Insist on compliance if appropriate

Guidelines for using reward power (Yukl & Taber, 1983)

1. Offer the type of rewards that people desire (makes compliance more likely) 2. Offer rewards that are fair and ethical (if seen as a bribe, rewards are ineffective. The power to give or withhold rewards may cause resentment among people who dislike being dependent on the whims of a powerful authority figure.) 3. Don't promise more than you can deliver 4. Explain the criteria for giving rewards and keep it simple 5. Provide rewards as promised if requirements are met 6. Use rewards symbolically (not in a manipulative way). When rewards are used frequently as a source of influence, people may come to perceive their relationship to the leader in purely economic terms. They will expect a reward every time they are asked to do something new or unusual. It is more satisfying for both parties to view their relationship in terms of mutual loyalty and friendship. Rather than using rewards as incentives in an impersonal, mechanical way, they should be used in a more symbolic manner to recognize accomplishments and express personal appreciation for special contributions or exceptional effort. Used in this way, reward power can be a source of increased referent power.

Guidelines for gaining and using reference power (Yukl & Taber, 1983)

1. Show acceptance and positive regard 2. Be supportive and helpful 3. Use sincere forms of ingratiation 4. Keep promises and commitments 5. Make self-sacrifices to benefit others 6. Lead by example (use role modeling, When there is strong personal identification, imitation of agent behavior is likely to occur even without any conscious intention by the agent. Be aware of examples you set). 7. Explain the personal importance of a request

Effects of Individual Tactics: coalition

A coalition can be effective for influencing a peer or superior to support a change or innovation, especially if the coalition partners use direct tactics such as rational persuasion and inspirational appeals. However, use of a coalition is less likely to be effective if it involves the use of pressure tactics by coalition partners and is viewed as an attempt to "gang up" on the target person. An upward appeal to an authority person should only be used as a last resort for resolving a conflict with a peer who can cause the failure of an important project.

Social exchange theory

According to social exchange theory, individuals in organizations engage in a continuous process of social exchange, in which they seek to maximize their rewards and minimize their costs. Power is gained when individuals are able to offer social resources that are highly valued by others in the organization, and they are able to use those resources to influence others' behavior and decisions. • Social exchange theory is a social psychology theory that explains how individuals evaluate social relationships and make decisions about them. It proposes that people engage in social interactions with others to maximize their rewards and minimize their costs (cost-benefit analysis) • According to this theory, people are motivated by self-interest and seek to engage in interactions that provide them with the most benefit. According to social exchange theory, self-interested actors transact with other self-interested actors to reach individual goals that they can not attain on their own • Social exchange theorists view relationship formation as behavior that may result in economic and social outcomes. For example, social exchange theory views a friendship between two people as arising from their realization that the benefits of that friendship outweigh its costs • Social exchange theory emphasizes expert power and authority, and other forms of power do not receive much attention

Combining Tactics

An influence attempt is more likely to be successful if two or more different tactics are combined. However, the outcome will depend on the potency of the component tactics and the extent to which they are compatible with each other. Compatible tactics are easy to use together and they enhance each other's effectiveness. The research on tactic combinations is very limited, but it suggests that some tactics are more easily combined than others. Rational persuasion is a very flexible tactic, and it is usually compatible with any of the other tactics. For example, rational persuasion can be used to clarify why a proposed change is important, and consultation can be used to involve the target person in finding an acceptable way to implement the change. When consultation reveals target person concerns about a proposed change, collaboration can be used to help alleviate them. An inspirational appeal that involves values and ideals can also involve reasons why the request or proposal is important to the organization or mission. The explanation of why a request is beneficial for the organization can also include reasons why it is beneficial to the person. For example, a proposed change to increase profits may also help the target person get a promotion. Some tactics are clearly incompatible. For example, a hard form of pressure is incompatible with personal appeals or ingratiation because it undermines the feelings of friendship and loyalty that are the basis for these soft tactics.

Proactive influence tactic

Behavior used intentionally to gain acceptance of a request or support for a proposal is called a proactive influence tactic. Two research programs used inductive and deductive approaches to identify different types of proactive tactics. The first program developed a preliminary taxonomy by analyzing successful and unsuccessful influence attempts, resulting in the creation of the Profiles of Organizational Influence Strategies (POIS) questionnaire. The second program identified 11 proactive influence tactics using various research methods and developed the Influence Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ) to measure target ratings of agent influence behavior. Five tactics were similar to those in the POIS, and seven other tactics were identified or suggested by theories about leadership and power

Three distinct influence outcomes

Commitment. Compliance Resistance

Effects of Individual Tactics: exchange tactics and personal appeals

Exchange tactics are moderately effective for influencing subordinates and peers, but these tactics are difficult to use for proactive influence attempts with superior Personal appeals can be useful for influencing a target person with whom the agent has a friendly relationship, but this tactic is only relevant for certain types of requests (e.g., getting assistance, getting a personal favor, changing a scheduled meeting), and it is likely to result in target compliance rather than commitment.

Guidelines for using coercive power (Yukl & Taber, 1983)

Guidelines for using coercion primarily to maintain discipline with subordinates 1. Explain rules and requirements, and ensure that people understand the serious consequences of violations 2. Respond to infractions promptly and consistently without showing any favoritism to particular individuals 3. Investigate to get the facts before using reprimands or punishment, and avoid jumping to conclusions or making hasty accusations 4. Except for the most serious infractions, provide sufficient oral and written warnings before resorting to punishment 5. Administer warnings and reprimands in private, and avoid making rash threats 6. Stay calm and avoid the appearance of hostility or personal rejection 7. Express a sincere desire to help the person comply with role expectations and thereby avoid punishment 8. Invite the person to suggest ways to correct the problem, and seek agreement on a concrete plan 9. If noncompliance continues after warnings have been made, use punishments that are legitimate, fair, and commensurate with the seriousness of the infraction

General Types of Influence Tactics

Impression Management Tactics. Political Tactics. Proactive Tactics.

Sequencing Tactics

Influence attempts are often carried out over a period of time and involve a series of separate influence episodes. The selection of influence tactics can vary depending on the stage of the influence process and the level of resistance from the target. In general, managers will initially choose tactics that require the least effort and cost, such as a simple request or weak rational persuasion. Ingratiation is likely to be used early on, while harder tactics like pressure and exchange may be saved for follow-up attempts. Legitimating may be used early or late, depending on how the target perceives the legitimacy of the request. Understanding the sequencing of influence tactics can help managers be more effective in their influence attempts.

Influence and power

Influence is the essence of leadership. To be effective as a leader, it is necessary to influence people to carry out requests, support proposals, and implement decisions. In large organizations, the effectiveness of managers depends on influence over superiors and peers as well as influence over subordinates The concept of power is useful for understanding how people are able to influence each other (However, the term has been used in different ways by different writers, and the differences can create confusion)

Influence Outcomes for Proactive Tactics

One useful basis for evaluating the success of an influence attempt involving proactive tactics is to examine the outcome. The agent may achieve the intended effects on the target, or the outcome may be less than was intended. For an influence attempt that involves a single target person, it is useful to differentiate among three distinct outcomes that involve the target person's willingness to carry out the agent's request or proposal. The target person's reaction to the agent's request is not the only basis for evaluating success. The proactive tactics can also affect interpersonal relationships and the way other people perceive the agent (e.g., ethical, supportive, likable, competent, trustworthy, strong). A few of the proactive tactics (i.e., ingratiation, collaboration, consultation, apprising) may improve the agent-target relationship, and the use of hard-pressure tactics can weaken the relationship.

Why is personal power less susceptible to misuse compared to position power?

Personal power is less susceptible to misuse, because it erodes quickly when a leader acts contrary to the interests of followers. Nevertheless, the potential for corruption remains. A leader with extensive expert power or charismatic appeal will be tempted to act in ways that will eventually lead to failure (McClelland, 1975).

What is meant by 'Power'?

Power implies that a person has dominion over something that others have an interest in because it is crucial, a scarce resource, or because it cannot be replaced Power means the ability to influence, if necessary with sanctions, for example, being able to deny someone a good or inflict discomfort if they do not behave according to the desire of the powerful

Theories describing how Power Is Gained or Lost

Power is not a static condition; it changes over time due to changing conditions and the actions of individuals and coalitions. How power is gained or lost in organizations is described in social exchange theory, strategic contingencies theory, and theories about institutionalization of power.

Effects of Individual Tactics: Pressure and legitimating tactics

Pressure and legitimating tactics are not likely to result in target commitment, but these tactics can be useful for eliciting compliance. As noted earlier, compliance is sometimes all that is needed to accomplish the objective of an influence attempt.

Influence Tactics: Rational persuasion

Rational persuasion involves the use of explanations, logical arguments, and factual evidence to explain why a request or proposal will benefit the organization or help to achieve an important task objective. This tactic may also involve presentation of factual evidence that a project or change is likely to be successful. - useful when the target person shares the agent's objectives but does not initially recognize that the agent's request or proposal is the best way to attain their shared objectives. - The use of a rational appeal that involves evidence and predicted outcomes is more effective if the agent is perceived to have high expertise and credibility. - Rational persuasion is unlikely to be effective if the agent and target have incompatible objectives, or the agent lacks expertise and credibility.

How do you increase referent power?

Referent power is increased by showing concern for the needs and feelings of others, demonstrating trust and respect, and treating people fairly. However, to achieve and maintain strong referent power usually requires more than just flattery, favors, and charm. Referent power ultimately depends on the agent's character and integrity. Over time, actions speak louder than words, and someone who tries to appear friendly but manipulates and exploits people will lose referent power. Integrity is demonstrated by being truthful, expressing a consistent set of values, acting in a way that is consistent with one's espoused values, and carrying out promises and agreements

What leadership situations require more power, and what kind of power is needed in these situations?

Some leadership situations require more power than others for the leader to be effective. More influence is necessary in an organization where major changes are required, but there is strong initial opposition to the leader's proposals for change. In such situations, a leader will need sufficient: - expert and referent power to persuade people that change is necessary and desirable, or - sufficient position and political power to overcome the opposition and buy time to show that the proposed changes are necessary - A combination of personal and position power increases the likelihood of success, but forcing change is always risky.

Reciprocal influence between effective leaders and subordinates

Studies of the amount of influence exercised by people at different levels in the authority hierarchy of an organization reveal that effective leaders create relationships in which they have strong influence over subordinates but are also receptive to influence from them. Leaders can facilitate reciprocal influence by encouraging subordinates to participate in making important decisions, and by fostering and rewarding innovation. Instead of using their power to dictate how things will be done, effective executives empower members of the organization to discover and implement new and better ways of doing things.

How is power related to leadership effectiveness.

Studies on the consequences of leader power are inconclusive, but findings indicate that Effective Leaders: • Have more expert and referent power • Rely on personal power more than position power • However, beneficial to also have a moderate amount of position power.

Using the Tactics to Resist Influence Attempts

Tactics used for proactive influence attempts can also be used to resist or modify a request made by someone else. For instance, rational persuasion can involve explaining why a request is unlikely to be successful when used as a resistance tactic. Additionally, the text explains how pressure can be used in upward influence by making a threat to resign or pursue legal action against an unethical request or unacceptable demand.

Influence Tactics: Personal Appeals

The agent asks the target to carry out a request or support a proposal out of friendship, or asks for a personal favor before saying what it is It is awkward to request a personal favor from a subordinate or boss and should not be necessary except in very unusual circumstances. (mostly used outside of work).

Influence Tactics: Consultation

The agent encourages the target to suggest improvements in a proposal or to help plan an activity or change for which the target person's support and assistance are desired. As with rational persuasion, consultation is more likely to be effective if the agent and target have shared objectives. Consultation is useful for discovering if the target person has concerns about the feasibility of a proposal or likely adverse consequences. The agent can explore ways to avoid or resolve any issues that are revealed (which involves the tactic called collaboration). Can be used in any direction, but it is likely to be used more often with subordinates and peers than with bosses. Especially appropriate when the agent has the authority to plan a task or make a change, and such authority is greatest in a downward direction. In a lateral direction, consultation is very useful to elicit concerns and suggestions from peers who may not be committed to support an activity or change unless their needs and opinions are taken into account.

Influence Tactics: Apprising

The agent explains how carrying out a request or supporting a proposal will benefit the target personally or help advance the target person's career.

Influence Tactics: Inspirational Appeals

The agent makes an appeal to values and ideals or seeks to arouse the target person's emotions to gain commitment for a request or proposal (emotional or value-based appeal by contrast to logics). Some bases for appealing to most people include their desire to be important, to feel useful, to support their values, to accomplish something worthwhile, to perform an exceptional feat, to be a member of the best team, or to participate in an exciting effort to make things better. This tactic can be used in any direction, but it is especially appropriate for gaining commitment to work on a new project, and this type of request is most likely to be made with subordinates or peers. An inspirational appeal is also an appropriate tactic to gain support for a proposed change that involves values and ideals.

Influence Tactics: Exchange

The agent offers an incentive, suggests an exchange of favors, or indicates willingness to reciprocate at a later time if the target will do what the agent requests. Exchange tactics are more likely to be used in influence attempts with subordinates and peers than with bosses. Control over rewards is greatest in a downward direction and least in an upward direction. One type of reward that can be offered only to subordinates is a pay increase, bonus, promotion, better assignments, or a better work schedule

Impression Management Tactics

These tactics are intended to influence people to like the agent (e.g., provide praise, act friendly, offer assistance) or to have a favorable evaluation of the agent (e.g., describe past achievements). Impression management tactics can be used by leaders to influence followers, or by followers to influence a leader

Influence Tactics: Collaboration

The agent offers to provide relevant resources and assistance if the target will carry out a request or approve a proposed change. Collaboration involves reducing the difficulty or costs of carrying out a request, and it is especially appropriate when compliance would be difficult for the target person. Exchange usually involves an impersonal trade of unrelated benefits, whereas collaboration usually involves a joint effort to accomplish the same task. Mostly used in downward direction. A boss usually has more control over discretionary resources than subordinates and can usually require subordinate assistance on an essential activity.

Influence Tactics: Coalition Tactics

The agent seeks the aid of others to persuade the target to do something, or uses the support of others as a reason for the target to agree. Coalition partners may actively participate in influence attempts with the target person, or the agent may only use their endorsement of a request or proposal. When a coalition partner actively participates in the effort to influence the target person, the influence attempt usually involves other influence tactics as well. For example, the coalition partner may use rational persuasion, exchange, or pressure to help influence the target person. When the other party who is helping the agent is the immediate superior of the target person, the process is sometimes called an upward appeal, but it is still an example of a coalition tactic rather than an entirely different type of proactive tactic. Coalition tactics are more likely to be used to influence peers or bosses than subordinates, and it is especially appropriate to gain their support for a proposed change or new initiative. It is seldom necessary to use coalition tactics to influence subordinates. Managers have many ways to influence subordinates, and in Western countries they are expected to do so without getting help from other people.

Influence Tactics: Legitimating Tactics

The agent seeks to establish the legitimacy of a request or to verify authority to make it by referring to rules, policies, contracts, or precedent Legitimacy is unlikely to be questioned for a routine request that has been made and complied with many times before - more likely when the request is unusual or the agent's authority is unclear. Legitimating tactics are most often relevant for influence attempts with peers or outsiders, where role relationships are often ambiguous and agent authority less well defined. - For downward influence attempts with subordinates, legitimating may be used when implementing major changes or for dealing with an unusual crisis. - For upward influence attempts, legitimating may be used for requests involving personnel matters, especially if the superior is new and unfamiliar with relevant policies, contract agreements, and standard practices.

Influence Tactics: Pressure

The agent uses demands, threats, frequent checking, or persistent reminders to influence the target to carry out a request Can be successful in eliciting compliance with a request, particularly if the target person is just lazy or apathetic rather than strongly opposed to it., pressure is not likely to result in commitment and may have serious side effects. The harder forms (e.g., threats, warnings, demands) are likely to cause resentment and undermine working relationships. The softer forms (e.g., persistent requests, reminders that the person promised to do something) are more likely to gain compliance without undermining the agent's relationship with the target person. Pressure tactics are most likely to be used with subordinates and least likely to be used with bosses. The authority and power needed to make threats or warnings credible is much greater in a downward direction than in a lateral or upward direction, and pressure is often considered more appropriate for influence attempts with subordinates than with peers or bosses.

Influence Tactics: Ingratiation

The agent uses praise and flattery before or during an influence attempt, or expresses confidence in the target's ability to carry out a difficult request. Forms of ingratiation include giving compliments, doing unsolicited favors, acting deferential and respectful, and acting especially friendly and helpful before making a request. When ingratiation is perceived to be sincere, it tends to strengthen positive regard and make a target person more willing to consider a request. This tactic is more likely to be used in influence attempts with subordinates or peers than with bosses. Praise and compliments can be used with anyone, but they are more credible and meaningful when the agent has higher status and expertise than the target person (less sincere when used in an influence attempt with a boss) May be viewed as manipulative if used just before asking for something; so in general, it is more useful as part of a long-term strategy for building cooperative relations than as a proactive influence tactic.

How can the corrupting influence of high power be reduced?

The corrupting influence of high power can be reduced by holding leaders accountable for the way they use their power . Rules and policies can be enacted to regulate the exercise of position power, especially reward and coercive power. Grievance and appeals procedures can be enacted, and independent review boards established to protect subordinates against misuse of power by leaders. Bylaws, charter provisions, and official policies can be drafted to require leaders to consult with subordinates and obtain their approval on specified types of decisions. Regular attitude surveys can be conducted to measure subordinate satisfaction with their leaders. When appropriate, periodic elections or votes of confidence can be held to determine whether the leader should continue in office. Recall procedures can be established to remove incompetent leaders in an orderly manner.

Effects of Individual Tactics: the five most effective

The five tactics that are generally most effective include rational persuasion, consultation, collaboration, inspirational appeals, and apprising. These "core tactics" are often successful for influencing target commitment to carry out a request or support a proposal. However, even these tactics have limitations and their effects depend greatly on how appropriate they are for the situation. For example, apprising can be effective when the target person would benefit greatly by carrying out a request or supporting a proposal, but it is not useful if the person already recognizes the potential benefits or does not believe the agent's claims.

Position and personal power

The most general way to classify power sources is the distinction between position power and personal power (Bass, 1960) 1. Position power includes potential influence derived from legitimate authority to make important decisions, control over the use of resources and access to information, and control over the use of rewards and punishments - - Inherent in an agent's position in the organization 2. Personal power includes potential influence derived from agent expertise and friendship with the target person - Involve attributes of the agent and the agent-target relationship

Institutionalization of Power

The process for using political tactics to increase influence or protect existing power sources is called "institutionalization." Having power makes it easier to use political tactics for influencing important decisions in the organization. A powerful subunit can get its members appointed to key leadership positions where they will promote the subunit's objectives. When it is not possible to control key decisions directly, it may be possible to influence them indirectly by determining the procedures and criteria that will be used in making the decisions.

Guidelines for Using Power: research

The research on power is still too limited to provide clear guidelines on the best ways to exercise it. Nevertheless, by drawing on the findings from research in many different social science disciplines, it is possible to develop some tentative guidelines for leaders (Yukl & Taber, 1983)

Influence outcome: Resistance

The target person is opposed to the proposal or request, rather than merely indifferent about it. Resistance can take several different forms: (1) refuse to carry out the request, (2) explain why it is impossible to carry out the request, (3) try to persuade the agent to withdraw or change the request, (4) ask higher authorities to overrule the agent's request, (5) delay acting in the hope that the agent will forget about the request, and (6) make a pretense of complying but try to sabotage the task. Resistance is usually regarded as an unsuccessful outcome, but it can be beneficial if it helps the agent avoid a serious mistake. For example, you develop a detailed plan for a new project, but people find some serious flaws that need to be fixed before they will implement the plan.

Influence outcome: Compliance

The target person is willing to carry out a request but is not enthusiastic about it and will make only a minimal effort. With compliance, the target person is not convinced that the decision or action is the best thing to do or even that it will be effective for accomplishing its purpose. However, for a simple, routine request, compliance may be all that is necessary to accomplish the agent's task objectives.

Influence outcome: Commitment.

The target person makes a great effort to carry out the request or implement the decision effectively. This outcome is usually the most successful one for a complex, difficult task that requires enthusiasm, initiative, and persistence by the target person in overcoming obstacles.

Influence Tactics

The type of behavior used intentionally to influence the attitudes and behavior of another person is usually called an influence tactic. Three general types of influence tactics can be differentiated according to their primary purpose. Some specific influence tactics can be used for more than one purpose but may not be equally effective for the different purposes.

Legitimate Power (e.g., Støre, Putin)

The willingness of others to accept that a certain person is leading them/submit to the authority of the person; Two sources: a) Natural authority b) Title or position •Legitimate power is based on formal authority, and it involves the rights, prerogatives, obligations, and duties associated with a particular position in an organization •A leader's authority usually includes the right to make decisions and requests consistent with this authority (A manager usually has the legitimate right to establish work rules and give work assignments to subordinates) •Authority also involves the right to exercise control over things, such as money, resources, equipment, and materials, and this control is another source of power •Members of an organization usually agree to comply with rules and directions from leaders in return for the benefits of membership (Implicit mutual understanding rather than an explicit formal contract) •Compliance with legitimate rules and requests is more likely for members who identify with the organization and are loyal to it •A manager's scope of authority is usually delineated by documents such as an organization charter, a written job description, or an employment contract, but considerable ambiguity about it often remains (Davis, 1968) •People evaluate not only whether a request or order falls within a leader's scope of authority, but also whether it is consistent with the basic values, principles, and traditions of the organization or social system. (Soldiers may disobey an order to shoot everyone in a village that has aided insurgents, because the soldiers perceive this use of excessive force to be contrary to basic human rights).

Political Tactics

These tactics are used to influence organizational decisions or otherwise gain benefits for an individual or group. One type of political tactic involves an attempt to influence how important decisions are made and who makes them. Examples include influencing the agenda for meetings to include your issues, influencing decision makers to use criteria that will bias decisions in your favor, and selecting decision makers who will promote and defend your interests. Political tactics are also used to defend against opponents and silence critics. Some political tactics involve deception, manipulation, and abuse of power.

Proactive Tactics

These tactics have an immediate task objective, such as getting the target person to carry out a new task, change the procedures used for a current task, provide assistance on a project, or support a proposed change. The proactive influence tactics are useful when a simple request or command is unlikely to have the desired outcome. Eleven types of proactive tactics are described later in this chapter. Some of the eleven tactics can also be used to resist or modify a request from someone who is attempting to influence you.

Why should a leader only have a moderate amount of position power (The negative effects of too high position power)

Too much position power may be as detrimental as too little if the leader is tempted to rely on it instead of developing personal power or using other approaches (e.g., consultation, persuasion) for influencing people to comply with a request or support a change. The negative effects of high position power on a leader have been found in laboratory and field experiments as well as survey studies. Leaders with strong position power perceived subordinates as objects of manipulation, used rewards more often to influence subordinates, maintained more social distance from subordinates, and were less likely to involve subordinates in making decisions. When the power of such leaders is threatened, even more disruptive forms of behavior may be used by leaders

Are the effects of expert power always automatic?

When an agent clearly has much more relevant expertise than target persons, the effects of the expert power will be automatic (e.g., doctor and patient). However, in many cases an agent will not have such an obvious advantage in expertise, and it will be necessary to use the expertise to provide information, explanations, and evidence that support a request or proposal. If there is any question about the agent's expertise, it is helpful to verify it by providing appropriate documents and evidence, or by describing prior success in dealing with similar problems.

Expert power (e.g Sergej Brin)

• Are able to lead others because they are perceived as knowledgeable and talented in a particular area • Most people follow the advice of experts (such as a family doctor or coach) • Limited to a fairly narrow and special field of study • Subordinates may mistakenly assume that the leader has expert power • Task-relevant knowledge and skill are major sources of personal power in organizations. Unique knowledge about the best way to perform a task or solve an important problem provides potential influence over subordinates, peers, and superiors • Expertise is a source of power only if others are dependent on the agent for advice. The more important a problem is to the target person, the greater the power derived by the agent from possessing the necessary expertise to solve it. • Dependency is increased when the target person cannot easily find another source of advice besides the agent • It is not enough for the agent to possess expertise; the target person must recognize this expertise and perceive the leader to be a reliable source of information and advice • In the short run, perceived expertise is more important than real expertise, and an agent may be able to fake it for a time by acting confident and pretending to be an expert • However, over time, as the agent's knowledge is put to the test, target perceptions of the agent's expertise are likely to become more accurate. Thus, it is essential for leaders to develop and maintain a reputation for strong expertise and credibility • Actual expertise is gained through a continual process of education and practical experience. • The most convincing way to demonstrate expertise is by solving important problems, making good decisions, providing sound advice, and successfully completing challenging but highly visible projects (cf. Red Adair). • If a problem is permanently solved or others learn how to solve it by themselves, the agent's expertise is reduced (cf. Backer Johnsen). • Thus, people sometimes try to protect their expert power by keeping procedures and techniques shrouded in secrecy, by using technical jargon to make the task seem more complex and mysterious, and by destroying alternate sources of information about task procedures such as written manuals, diagrams, blueprints, and computer programs • Successful influence depends on the leader's credibility and persuasive communication skills in addition to technical knowledge and analytical ability

Personal Appeal: guidelines

• Ask the person to do a favor for you as a friend.Ask for his/her help as a personal favor. • Say that you are in a difficult situation and would really appreciate the person's help. • Say you need to ask for a favor before telling the person what it is.

Information Power (e.g., Murdock

• Control over information is an important source of power. • Access to vital information and control over its distribution is necessary for this type of power. • Managerial positions and boundary role positions provide opportunities to obtain important information. • However, regardless of the type of position, useful information does not appear as if by magic. Cultivating a network of sources is necessary to obtain useful information. • A leader who controls the flow of vital information can influence subordinates' perception and attitudes. • Some managers distort information to persuade people that a particular course of action is desirable. • Control over information can increase a leader's expert power and subordinate dependence. • Control of information makes it easier for a leader to cover up failures and mistakes. • Political dictators limit follower access to sources of information to maintain power. • Subordinates can use exclusive access to information needed by superiors to influence their decisions. • Control over operating information enables subordinates to magnify accomplishments, cover up mistakes, and exaggerate expertise and resources needed for their work.

Apprising: guidelines

• Explain how the person could benefit from carrying out a requested task. • Explain how the task you want the person to do would help his/her career. • Explain why a proposed activity or change would be good for the person. • Explain how a proposed change would solve some of the person's problems.

Legitimating: guidelines

• Explain that your request or proposal is consistent with official rules and policies. • Point out that your request or proposal is consistent with a prior agreement or contract.Use a document to verify that a request is legitimate (e.g., a policy manual, contract, charter). • Explain that a request or proposal is consistent with prior precedent and established practice.

The main principles of strategic contingencies theory include:

• External environment: Groups and organizations are shaped by the external environment in which they operate. The external environment can include factors such as competition, resource availability, and legal regulations • Resource dependency: Groups are dependent on external resources to achieve their goals. They must strategically manage their relationships with external stakeholders to ensure that they have access to the resources they need • Task interdependence: Groups develop roles and structures to manage task interdependence. Members are assigned roles based on their skills and the needs of the group, and communication and coordination are important for achieving group goals • Contingency planning: Groups must engage in contingency planning to manage uncertainty and respond to unexpected events. This involves developing backup plans and preparing for possible disruptions in the external environment • Strategic behavior: Groups engage in strategic behavior to achieve their goals. This may involve negotiating with external stakeholders, forming alliances with other groups, or engaging in other tactics to gain access to resources Overall, strategic contingencies theory emphasizes the importance of external factors in shaping group behavior and highlights the need for strategic planning and behavior to achieve group goals. By understanding the external environment and managing resource dependencies, groups can develop effective structures and behaviors to achieve success

Pressure: guidelines

• Keep asking the person in a persistent way to say yes to a request. • Insist in an assertive way that the person must do what you ask. • Repeatedly check to see if the person has carried out a request. • Warn the person about the penalties for not complying with a request.

Coalition: guidelines

• Mention the names of others who endorse a proposal when asking the person to support it. • Get others to explain to the person why they support a proposed activity or change. • Bring someone along for support when meeting with the person to make a request or proposal. • Ask someone with higher authority to help influence the target person.

Exchange: guidelines

• Offer something the person wants in exchange for providing help on a task or project. • Offer to do a specific task or favor in return for compliance with a request. • Promise to do something for the person in the future in return for his/her help now. • Offer to provide an appropriate reward if the person carries out a difficult request

Referent power

• People with attractive personalities or other special qualities yield power • Difficult to define what gives these people radiance (e.g. Adolf Hitler) • Energy and success often important • Referent power is derived from a target person's strong feelings of affection, admiration, and loyalty toward the agent • People are usually willing to do special favors for a friend, and they are more likely to carry out requests made by someone who is greatly admired • The strongest form of referent power involves the influence process called personal identification (Kelman, 1958) • Strong referent power will tend to increase the agent's influence over the target person even without any explicit effort by the agent to invoke this power • Referent power is an important source of influence over subordinates, peers, and superiors, but it has limitations • When requests are extreme or made too frequently, the target person may feel exploited

Sources of Power

• Position and Personal power • Legitimate power • Reward power • Coercive power • Referent power • Expert power • Information power • Ecological power

The variability of power

• Power involves the capacity of one party (the "agent") to influence another party (the "target"). The term may refer to the agent's influence over a single target person, or over multiple target persons • Sometimes the term refers to potential influence over things or events as well as attitudes and behavior • Sometimes power is defined in relative rather than absolute terms, in which case it means the extent to which the agent has more influence over the target than the target has over the agent • An agent will have more power over some people than over others and more influence for some types of objectives than for others • Power is a dynamic variable that changes as conditions change

Proactive Influence Tactics and 11 types

• Rational persuasion • Apprising • Inspirational appeals • Consultation • Exchange • Collaboration • Ingratiation • Personal appeals • Legitimating tactics • Pressure • Coalition tactics

The basic principles of social exchange theory

• Rewards and costs: People evaluate relationships based on the rewards and costs associated with them. Rewards can be positive outcomes such as affection, companionship, and support, while costs can be negative outcomes such as effort, time, and emotional stress • Comparison level: People have a comparison level, which is a standard against which they evaluate the rewards and costs of a relationship. If the benefits of a relationship exceed their comparison level, they will view the relationship as favorable, and if the costs exceed their comparison level, they will view the relationship as unfavorable • Comparison level for alternatives: People also have a comparison level for alternatives, which is the standard against which they evaluate the rewards and costs of a potential alternative relationship. If the benefits of a potential alternative relationship exceed their comparison level for alternatives, they may leave their current relationship and pursue the new one • Equity: People also evaluate relationships based on their sense of equity, which is the balance between their own rewards and costs and those of their partner. If they perceive that their partner is receiving more benefits than they are, they may feel distressed and seek to restore equity • Reciprocity: People are more likely to engage in social interactions with others who provide them with rewards and less likely to interact with those who provide them with costs • Overall, social exchange theory helps to explain how individuals evaluate and make decisions about social relationships. By considering the rewards and costs of a relationship, people can decide whether to continue, end, or seek out new relationships

Ingratiation: guidelines

• Say that the person has the special skills or knowledge needed to carry out a request. • Praise the person's past achievements when asking him/her to do another task. • Show respect and appreciation when asking the person to do something for you. • Say that there is nobody more qualified to do a task.

Strategic contingencies theory

• Strategic contingencies theory is a social psychology theory that proposes that organizations and groups are shaped by the external environment in which they operate. It suggests that groups develop structures, roles, and behaviors in response to external challenges and opportunities. The theory emphasizes the importance of strategic behavior and the use of resources to achieve group goals. • Strategic contingencies theory explains how some organizational subunits gain or lose power to influence important decisions such as determination of the organization's competitive strategy and the allocation of resources to subunits and activities. The theory postulates that the power of a subunit depends on three factors: (1) expertise in coping with important problems (2) centrality of the subunit within the workflow (3) the extent to which the subunit's expertise is unique rather than substitutable • All organizations must cope with critical contingencies, especially problems in the technological processes used to carry out operations and problems in adapting to unpredictable events in the environment. Success in solving important problems is a source of expert power for subunits, just as it is for individuals. The opportunity to demonstrate expertise and gain power from it is much greater for a subunit that has responsibility for dealing with critical problems. A problem is critical if it is clearly essential for the survival and prosperity of the organization Critical problems are a source of expert power for subunits, and the more unique and irreplaceable the expertise required to solve critical problems, the more power is gained from possessing this expertise. Increased expert power can result in increased legitimate power, leading to more representation on boards or committees that make important decisions for the organization. However, the theory fails to consider the possibility that powerful subunits can use their power to protect their dominant position in the organization.

Reward Power

•Ability and ability to decide who should receive different types of rewards •As long as rewards are valued, a person who is able to give or withhold rewards can have great power over the behavior of others •Promotion, salary increase, offer of desired work tasks •Reward power gives a manager clear benefits (desired results from the employees) •Difficult to manage employee behavior, when the manager cannot manage external and internal rewards •The perception by the target person that an agent can provide important resources and rewards desired by the target person •Stems in part from formal authority to allocate resources and rewards, and it varies greatly across organizations and from one type of management position to another within the same organization •The target person's perception of agent reward power is more important than the agent's actual control over rewards •People are likely to act more deferential and helpful toward someone with high reward power in the hopes of getting rewards in the future •The authority relationship is an important determinant of reward power •One form of reward power over subordinates is the authority to give pay increases, bonuses, or other economic incentives to deserving subordinates •Reward power is derived also from control over tangible benefits such as a promotion, a better job, a better work schedule, a larger operating budget, a larger expense account, and status symbols such as a larger office or a reserved parking space •Possible constraints on a manager's reward power include any formal policies or agreements that specify how rewards must be allocated.

Coersive power (e.g., Stalin, Musk, Weinstein)

•Based on the ability to create fear in others •Threat of punishment is a strong way of inducing docility •Demotion, salary reduction, suspension, removal of privileges, termination •It can be subtle (criticism, lack of emotional support, and terminating of friendship) •Necessary "gear" in given situations •Requires good social judgment •Dictators abuse this type • A leader's coercive power over subordinates is based on authority over punishments, which varies greatly across different types of organizations • The coercive power of military and political leaders is usually greater than that of corporate managers • Over the last two centuries, there has been a general decline in use of coercive power by most types of leaders • For example, most managers once had the right to dismiss employees for any reason they thought was justified. The captain of a ship could flog sailors who were disobedient or who failed to perform their duties diligently. Military officers could execute a soldier for desertion or failure to obey an order during combat. Nowadays, these forms of coercive power are prohibited or sharply restricted in many nations • Lateral relations provide few opportunities for using coercion in a way that is considered legitimate • Subordinates can damage the reputation of the boss if they restrict production, sabotage operations, initiate grievances, hold demonstrations, or make complaints to higher management • In many organizations subordinates have sufficient counterpower to remove a leader or prevent the leader from being reelected - For an unpopular political leader, the ultimate form of coercive power for opponents of the leader is a violent revolution that results in the leader's imprisonment, death, or exile