Principles and Theories of Behavior Analysis

What are the 12 guidelines for using reinforcement effectively?

1. Choose reinforcers relevant to current or creatable establishing operations 2. Maintain establishing operations 3. Use high quality reinforcers for sufficient magnitude 4. Set an easily achieved initial criterion for reinforcement (criterion should be less than or equal to the best in baseline) 5. Explain the contingency and provide prompts to respond 6. Deliver the reinforcer immediately following behavior 7. Reinforce each occurrence of the behavior initially 8. Use direct rather than indirect reinforcement contingencies 9. Gradually increase response-to- reinforcement delay 10. Use varied reinforcers 11. Use contingent praise and attention 12. Shift from contrived to natural reinforcers

Escape contingency (4 terms)

1. EO (antecedent event in presence of which escape is reinforcing) and an aversive stimulus 2. Discriminative stimulus (Sd) 3. A response 4. The reinforcer (termination of an EO)

Desirable Aspects of Time-out

1. Ease of application (especially nonexclusion time-out) 2. Acceptability (especially nonexclusion) 3. Rapid suppression of problem behavior 4. Easily combined with other procedures, such as differential reinforcement

The 3 term contingency of punishment

1. In a particular stimulus situation (s) 2. Some kind of behavior (r) 3. Followed immediately by certain stimulus changes (Sp) show a decrease future frequency of occurrence in the same or in similar conditions

Time out ribbon

A colored band is placed on the child's wrist and is discriminative for receiving reinforcement. Child earns reinforcers when it is on. The colored band is removed for a specified period of time, all social interaction is terminate and other reinforcers are also withheld

Aversive control

Aversive events both positive and negative used to describe interventions involving punishment

Response cost considerations

1. Increased aggression may occur (ignore emotional outbursts when possible) - either don't use response cost if this is expected or be prepared to ride out the storm 2. Avoidance of the person who administers response cost or the setting may occur (these become "conditioned aversive stimuli") - make sure positive reinforcement is available for appropriate behavior to reduce the likelihood of this outcome 3. Collateral reductions of desirable behaviors may occur (response cost may unintentionally suppress other, desirable behaviors, as well as the target problem behaviors) 4. Response cost calls attention to inappropriate behaviors 5. Be prepared for unpredictability

Disadvantages of time out room

1. Must escort students to time-out 2. May result in resistance, emotional outbursts 3. Access to ongoing instruction is prohibited 4. Individuals may engage in behaviors (e.g., self-injury) that should be stopped but go undetected 5. Negative public perception

Advantages of time out room

1. Opportunity to acquire reinforcement is eliminated or reduced substantially 2. After a few exposures, students learn to discriminate it from other rooms (making the time-in setting more desirable) 3. Decreases risk of student hurting other students

What are the two problems with delaying the reinforcement?

1. Other behaviors occur during the delay 2. The behavior temporarily closest to the presentation of the reinforcer will be strengthened

Desirable aspects of response cost

1. Produces rapid decreases in the target behavior 2. Convenient and easy to implement (can be incorporated into existing token or allowance programs) 3. Is easily combined with other approaches (such as differential reinforcement)

Effective Uses of Time Out

1. Reinforce and enrich the time-in environment (use DRF) 2.Clearly define the behaviors leading to time-out 3.Define procedures for the duration of time-outDefine exit criteria 4. Exclusion vs. non-exclusion time-out (consider institutional policies that may prevent exclusion time-out) (Physical factors (i.e., lack of appropriate space) may prevent exclusion time-out) 5. Explain time-out rules to the individual (target behaviors, duration, exit criteria) 6. Obtain permission (Administrative approvals/Parental approvals) 7. Apply consistently 8. Evaluate effectiveness (Target behavior should decrease, track frequency and duration of time outs, also track collateral behaviors for side effects) 9. Consider other options 10. Consider legal and ethical issues

Ethical considerations when using punishment

1. Right to Safe and Humane Treatment 2.Least Restrictive Alternative 3. Right to Effective Treatment 4. Developing and Using a Punishment Policy can Procedural Safeguards

Guidelines for using punishment effectively

1. Select Effective and Appropriate Punishers 2. Use the Least Intensity of Punishment That is Effective 3. Experience the Punishment Personally 4. Deliver the Punishment Immediately 5. Deliver the Punishment at the Beginning of the Response Chain 6. Deliver the Punishment Unemotionally 7. Punish Each Instance of the Behavior 8. Provide Response Prompts and Reinforcement for Alternative Behavior 9.Watch for Side Effects of Punishment 10 .Record, Graph and Evaluate Data Daily

Effective uses of response cost

1. Specifically define the target behaviors that will result in response cost, as well as the fines 2. Establish rules for refusals to comply with the response-cost procedure, and explain these 3. Greater fines should be associated with more severe forms of problem behavior (be cautious of making fines so great that the individual becomes "bankrupt") 4. Fines should be posed immediately 5. Response cost vs. bonus response cost (use least aversive initially (bonus response cost) - Increases acceptability and decreases emotional outbursts 6. Ensure reinforcement reserve (decrease likelihood of "bankruptcy" 7. Be prepared for unplanned or unexpected outcomes 8.Response cost can reinforce rather than punish undesirable behavior(Individuals can refuse to give up positive reinforcers) 9. Avoid overuse 10. Keep records to evaluate effectiveness

The 6 possible side effects/problems with punishment

1.Elicitation of undesirable emotional response and aggression 2. Escape and Avoidance 3. Increased rate of the problem behavior under non punishment 4. Modeling undesirable behavior 5. Not teaching the learner what to do 6. Overusing punishment because of the negative reinforcement it provides the punishing agent.

Time out room

A confined space outside the individual's normal educational or treatment environment. It is devoid of any positive reinforcers; also minimally furnished. It is safe (adequate heat and light), secure (but not locked) temporary and near time-in setting

Positive reinforcement

A new stimulus added to the environment which increases the future probability of the response to occur in the same or similar condition.

Conditioned punisher

A stimulus change that functions as punishment as a result of a person's conditioning history

Generalized conditioned punishers

A stimulus change that has been paired with numerous forms of unconditioned and conditioned punishers (free from specific motivating conditions and will be a punisher in most conditions)

Discriminative stimulus for punishment (SDP)

A stimulus condition in the presence of which a response has a lower probability of occurrence than it does in its absence as a result of response-contingent punishment delivery in the presence of the stimulus.

Generalized conditioned reinforcers

A type of conditioned reinforcer that has been paired with many conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers

Unconditioned reinforcers

AKA primary or unlearned reinforcers (food, water, oxygen, sexual stimulation)

Conditioned reinforcers

AKA secondary or learned reinforcers. Neutral stimulus that begin to function as reinforcers as a result of being paired with other reinforcers. (EX: tokens)

How are Positive reinforcement and Negative reinforcement similar?

Both produce an increase in responding via a stimulus change and conditioned and unconditioned

Punishers like reinforcers are NOT defined by their physical properties but

By their FUNCTION

Increased rate of the problem behavior under nonpunishment/Behavioral contrast (side effect of punishment 3/6)

Change in one component of a multiple schedule that increases or decreases the rate of responding on that component is accompanied by a change in the response rate in the opposite direction on the other, unaltered component of the schedule.

Combining with reinforcement

Combine with point/token programs (differential reinforcement) Advantages: If all points or tokens are not lost, they can be exchanged for back-up reinforcers and the use of reinforcers reduce the legal and ethical concerns

Combining with group contingencies

Contingent upon any member of a group, the entire group loses a specified amount of reinforcement

The three schedules of reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement Intermittent schedule of reinforcement Basic schedule of reinforcement

Extinction

DECREASE of a behavior to REMOVAL of reinforcement. A procedure in which reinforcement of a previously reinforce behavior is discontinued; as a result, occurrences of that behavior decrease in the future.

Methods of response cost

Direct fine Bonus response cost Combined with positive reinforcement Group arrangements

Fines

Directly fine a specific amount of the positive reinforcer, consider legal and ethical appropriateness e.g., denying access to food and free time may be unethical or undesirable

Right to Effective Treatment (ethical consideration with punishment)

Failing to use a punishment procedure that research has show to suppress self-destructive behavior similar to the client's is unethical because it withholds a potentially effective treatment and may maintain a dangerous or uncomfortable state for the person.

Developing and Using a Punishment Policy can Procedural Safeguards (ethical consideration with punishment)

Follow a written policy statement. Consult local, state, or professional association policy statement regarding the use of punishment.

Edible reinforcers

Food

Reinforcement

If behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus event and as a result the future frequency of that behavior increases, reinforcement has occurred.

Reinforcement for alternative behavior (5/5)

If punishment is employed in an attempt to eliminate certain behavior, then whatever reinforcement the undesirable behavior had led to must be made available via a more desirable behavior.

Factors that influence the effectiveness of punishers (5)

Immediacy, Intensity, Schedule, Reinforcement of the target behavior and Reinforcement for alternative behaviors

Continuous punishment =

Increase response suppression, but allows for rapid recovery when the punishment contingency is removed.

Partition time out

Individual remains in time-in setting, but his view within the setting is restricted by a partition, wall, or cubicle. Advantage: Keeps individual in instructional setting Disadvantages: Individual still may be able to obtain covert reinforcement, negative public perception

Hallway time out

Individual sits in hallway outside of classroom or treatment area and not a highly recommended strategy. 1. Individual can obtain reinforcement from a multitude of sources 2. Child can escape easily

Basic schedules of reinforcement

Interval (time) and Ratio (instances)

If the conditioned punisher is repeatedly presented without the punisher with which it was initially paired

Its effectiveness as punishment will diminish until it is no longer a punisher

Response Cost

Loss of a specific amount of reinforcement contingent upon a target behavior reduces the future probability of the target behavior Examples: reclaiming awards or stickers, "fines" (e.g., loss of tokens or money)

Bonus response cost

Make additional reinforcers available to the individual, specifically for removal during a response-cost contingency. This may relieve many of the legal and ethical dilemmas involved with response cost

Sensory reinforcers

Massage and tickles

Immediacy (1/5)

Maximum suppressive effects are obtained when the onset of the punisher occurs as soon as possible after the occurrence of a target response.

Permanent response suppression

May occur when complete suppression of behavior to a zero rate of responding has been achieved with intense punishment.

Escape and avoidance (side effect of punishment 2/6)

Natural reactions to aversive stimulation: As the intensity of the punisher increases, so does the likelihood of escape and avoidance. Can be minimized by providing alternative responses that come into contact with reinforcement and avoid the punisher.

Do generalized conditioned reinforcers depend on establishing operations to be effective?

No

Does a person have to be aware that a response is being reinforced for it to increase?

No, the effect is automatic

Are certain behaviors susceptible to reinforcement and others are not?

No, the only relevant property is the temporal relation between the responses and the consequence

Superstitious Behavior

Occurs when reinforcement "accidentally" follows a behavior that did not produce the reinforcement (lucky sock)

Fixed ratio rates of response

Often produce high rates of response. Larger the ratio requirement, the higher the rate of response.

Social reinforcers

Physical proximity and social interaction

Non-exclusions of time out procedures

Planned ignoring Withdrawal of a specific positive reinforcer Contingent observation Time-out ribbon

Activity reinforcers

Playing a game/recess

Positive punishment

Presentation of a stimulus (or an increase in the intensity of an already present stimulus) immediately following a behavior that results in a decrease in the frequency of the behavior.

Consistency for performance for fixed ratio

Produces a typical pattern of responding (after the first response of the ratio requirement, subject completes required responses with little hesitation. Post-reinforcement pause follows reinforcement)

Continuous reinforcement (CRF)

Provides reinforcement for every occurrence of a behavior. Advantageous for SKILL ACQUISITION

Punisher

Punisher is a stimulus change that follows the occurrence of a behavior and decreases the future frequency of that type of behavior

A decrease in the future frequency of the occurrence of the behavior must be observed before a consequence-based intervention qualifies

Punishment

Modeling undesirable behavior (side effect of punishment 4/6)

Punishment tactics may model undesirable behaviors.

Overusing punishment because of the negative reinforcement it provides the punishing agent (side effect of punishment 6/6)

Punishment tends to terminate the punished behavior quickly. The punisher's behavior tends to be negatively reinforced by the immediate cessation of the punished behavior.

Elicitation of undesirable emotional response and aggression (side effect of punishment 1/6)

Punishment, especially positive punishment in the form of aversive stimulation, may evoke aggressive behavior with respondent and operant components.

Recovery from punishment

Recovery from punishment when punishment is discontinued, its suppressive effects on responding are not permanent-sometimes rate of responding may exceed levels prior to intervention

FR4 (Fixed Ratio 4)

Reinforcement is delivered after every 4th CORRECT response

FI2 (Fixed interval 2)

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after 2 minutes have elapsed

Automatic Reinforcement

Reinforcement that occurs independent of another person delivering it (the response itself produces the reinforcement)

Not teaching the learner what to do (side effect of punishment 5/6)

Self explanatory definition

Planned ignoring

Social reinforcers- usually attention, physical contact, or verbal interaction are removed for a brief period 1. Systematically looking away from the student 2. Remaining quiet 3. Refraining from any interaction for a specified period of time

Withdrawal of a specific positive reinforcer

Some sort of positive reinforcer that is already present is removed for a brief period of time contingent upon a target behavior, and then reinstated. Can be implemented as a group contingency

Unconditioned punisher

Stimulus whose presentation functions as punishment without having been paired with any other punishers.

Behavior has to have been previously reinforced for extinction to work. True or False

TRUE

Fixed ratio produces a break and run pattern. T or F

TRUE

Reinforcement of target behavior (4/5)

The effectiveness of punishment is modulated by the reinforcement contingencies maintaining the problem behavior.

Right to Safe and Humane Treatment (ethical consideration with punishment)

The first ethical canon and responsibility for any human services program is to do no harm.

Schedule (3/5)

The greater the proportion of responses that are followed by the punisher is the greater the response reduction.

Non-exclusion time out

The individual is not completely removed physically from time-in setting. However, position within the environment may shift

Exclusion time out

The individual is removed, physically, from the environment for a specified period of time 1. Time-out room 2. Separated by partition 3. Placed in hallway

Contingent observation

The individual is repositioned within the existing setting, observation of ongoing activities is still possible but access to reinforcement is lost.

Least restrictive alternative (ethical consideration with punishment)

The less intrusive procedures should be tried and found to be ineffective before more intrusive procedures are implemented. Interventions can be viewed as falling along a continuum of restrictiveness from least to most.

Intensity (2/5)

The more intense the punishing stimulus is the greater it will reduce future responding.

Variable schedules of resinforcement

The response ratio or the time requirement can change from one reinforced response to another.

Fixed schedules

The response ratio or the time requirement remains constant

Negative punishment

The termination of an already present stimulus (or a decrease in the intensity of an already present stimulus) immediately following a behavior that results in a decrease in the future frequency of the behavior.

How are Positive reinforcement and Negative reinforcement different?

The type of stimulus change that follows the behavior 1. Positive reinforcement produces a stimulus change that was absent prior to responding 2. Negative reinforcement terminates a stimulus that was present prior to responding.

Time-out from Positive Reinforcement

The withdrawal of the opportunity to earn positive reinforcement or the loss of access to reinforcers for a specified period of time If the effect of these is to decrease the future probability of the behavior, then this procedure has functioned as a punisher for the behavior

Exclusions of time out procedures

Time-out room Partition time-out Hallway time-out

Tangible reinforcers

Trinkets and toys

Intermittent schedules of reinforcement (INT)

Used to strengthen established behaviors and usually necessary for the progression to naturally occurring reinforcement.

Punishment

When a response is followed immediately by a stimulus change that decreases the future frequency of similar responses.

An example of automatic reinforcement

Wiggling your leg during a boring lecture to stimulate yourself and stay awake (the behaviors aren't automatic but the consequences are automatic)

Negative reinforcement

Withdrawing a stimulus from the environment which increases the future probability of the response to occur in the same or similar condition.

Ratio schedules require?

a number of RESPONSES before one response produces reinforcement (A fixed number of "instances" or "occurrences" of the correct target behavior)

Interval schedules require?

elapsed TIME before one response produces reinforcement (Reinforcement is contingent only on the occurrence of one response after the required time has elapsed)

Type II punishment

negative punishment-removal of a stimulus that decreases the future frequency of the behavior...motivating operation must be in effect or removing it won't constitute punishment

Type I punishment

positive punishment-presentation of a stimulus that decreases the future frequency of the behavior

Unlike unconditioned reinforcers, unconditioned punishers

will suppress any behavior that precedes their onset