Principles of Public Speaking DSST

ethos

(Aristotle) a speaker's moral character/credibility

pathos

(Aristotle) emotional appeals, evoking strong feelings (ex. anger, sadness, happiness, fear, sympathy, etc.) from listeners, (this is sometimes appropriate but sometimes immoral/coercive, they shouldn't be deceptive/manipulative or replace well-reasoned arguments)

proofs

(Aristotle) speakers use to support their assertions -extrinsic: supports claims with objective evidence (ex. laws) -intrinsic/artistic: based on the speaker's character, the emotional nature of the issue, and the logic of the argument to persuade listeners (types of persuasive appeals: logos, ethos, pathos)

logos

(Aristotle) using an appeal to reason or logic

halo effect

(Edward Thorndike) a bias which causes a person's overall impression of someone or something to influence the their feelings and thoughts about that entity's character or properties, liking one part thus liking the whole thing (failing to see their weaknesses)

motivated sequence

(a speech organization pattern made in the 1930s by communications professor Alan H. Monroe for sales presentations), used when the speakers want listeners to respond in a positive way (ex. used for political speeches, advertisements, etc.) steps: 1. gain listeners' attention 2. establish a need/problem 3. satisfy the need by offering a solution 4. visualize the need as being satisfied in the future 5. ask for action from the audience in order to ensure the need is satisfied

topoi

(based on ancient rhetoric techniques) asking and answering questions to generate speech topic ideas

improving listening skills

(be active not passive) -avoid: getting distracted, trying to remember every detail instead of the overall theme, jumping to conclusions and making assumptions without actually listening closely, and judging the book by its cover/being distracted by the speaker and the delivery of the speech instead of focusing on the actual message -good habits: sit up straight, remain quiet, silently paraphrase what you are hearing/the main points, take notes, organize ideas, develop questions, asses the speaker's organization, notice the speaker's nonverbal behaviors, do it with empathy (understand the speaker's feelings and point of view), have an open mind (recognize personal biases and avoid prejudgment of the message), note the total meaning (including verbal as well as nonverbal, and deep as well as literal)

common fallacies

(errors/flaws in reasoning and evidence) -hasty generalizations: jumping to a conclusion without sufficient evidence -false-cause: making the invalid/incorrect assumption that one event causes another event (the events were only coincidental) -invalid analogies: comparing two events or things that are not alike -ad hominen: attacking or praising the character or integrity of the person making the argument rather than dealing with the issue in question

active language

(listeners find it more engaging than it's opposite) structured in the typical way/the person doing the thing (the opposite/passive is when the thing being done is put first and they use the past participle of the verb, ex. spoken, written, etc.)

specific purpose statement

(often phrased as an infinitive statement) should include the general purpose (inform, persuade, entertain), intended audience, and exact goal of the speech

first amendment

(part of the Bill of Rights/first ten) freedom of speech, press, assembly, petition, and religion

interviews

(primary research) gathering information from talking with experts; you should determine the purpose, and be prepared with intelligent and meaningful questions

criticism

(the final step of effective listening) the process of evaluating a message and deciding whether it is believable, through, and valuable based on certain standards, (the Latin origin means "able to juge or discern" which is contrary to the negative connotation people associate with it), it helps people determine what information is relevant and true, and it encourages people to maintain evaluation standards and appreciate the creativity of others

research sources

(the library is still a valuable resource:) books, periodical (magazines and professional publications published on a regular bases) databases (ex. Reader's Guide, Lexis / Nexis, ProQuest), newspapers, encyclopedias, government publications, quotation books, biographical aids (for contemporary people, ex. Who's Who in America), atlases, and gazzetteers (geographical dictionaries), the internet is also helpful (although the accuracy of the information there is a concern), in a virtual library (online) the information is screened for accuracy before it is added

introduction

(the part of a speech which is written after the body is written, it's about 10% of the speech) it should: gain the attention/interest of the audience, preview the topic of the speech, establish speaker credibility and a connection with listeners, -startling statement (a shocking statement related to the topic) -rhetorical question (a question listener are supposed to answer mentally instead of vocally) -story -personal reference (an illustration of how the speech topic relates to audience members) -quotation (attention-getting or thought-provoking) -suspense (wording that leaves the audience uncertain about the topic and raises listener curiosity) it should *relate to the topic* of the speech so that people (who are now interested) aren't disappointed or annoyed

audience adaptation

(the purpose of audience analysis) modifying a message to make it appropriate for a specific audience; knowing the diversity of your audience can help you to know what examples are best and the viewpoint your audience will be listening to the speech from

imagery

(uses concrete words) vivid language that creates mental images of experiences, objects, or concepts

types of listening

-appreciative: for pleasure (ex. music, jokes, etc.) -empathetic: in order to give emotional support to the speaker (ex. friends listening to each other's problems) -comprehensive: in order to understand the message (ex. class lecture) -critical: in order to evaluate a message and decide whether to accept or reject the information, and determining fact from opinion (ex. court case)

leader types

-autocratic: makes decisions without consultation, issues orders or gives direction, and controls the members of the group through the use of rewards or punishments -free-rein: leaves members free to decide what, how, and when to act, offering no guidance -participative: seeks input from group members and gives them an active role in decision-making -social behavior: focus upon building and maintaining positive, productive relationships among group members -task behavior: directs the attention and activity of a group towards a specified goal -transactional: based on power relationships that relies on reward and punishment to achieve its ends -transformational: based on mutual respect and stewardship rather than on control -emergent: emerges as a leader during the group's deliberations

giving criticism

-based on: subject and purpose, audience, occasion, and context, research, thesis and main points, supporting material, organization, style and language, introduction, conclusion, and connectives, and delivery -guidelines: point out the positive more than the negative and start with something positive, provide specific comments rather than general ones (regarding both the positive and the negative), be objective instead of biased (you should critique speeches the same way regardless of whether you agree with the message or not), give constructive comments (explain how to improve, and avoid giving the speaker an exhaustive list of things to work on), structure comments as I-messages instead of you-messages ("I would have liked to see more examples" instead of "You should have used more examples"), and consider ethical responses (don't evaluate a speech based on your feelings toward the speaker or the speaker's diverse characteristics, ex. cultural differences, gender, religion, nationality, etc.)

special occasion/ceremonial speeches

-commemorative (paying tribute to someone or something) -introduction: introduces another person, generally the main speaker who the audience came to see -presentation: publicly presents an award or gift to another person -after-dinner: a thoughtful and lighthearted speech which is meant to entertain -acceptance: voicing appreciation for some form of public recognition (ex. gift, award, etc.) -roasts and toasts -eulogies

modifiers

-commenting: attempt to boost the meaning of a word but reveal nothing new -defining: provide new and needed information

word meaning

-denotative: literal and objective, as found in dictionary -connotative: subjective and variable depending on the person, culture, context, etc. (includes an individual's feeling associated with the word) -concrete: tangible objects (typically easier to visualize and more straightforward) -abstract: ideas or concepts which are typically more ambiguous and conjure up different images for people

pauses

-filled/vocalized: breaks in speech which are filled with utterances such as ah, well, um should be avoided because they make the speaker look unprepared or tentative -unfilled: 1-2 second breaks in speech can be used effectively (ex. before and after the speech, at transitions, etc.)

types of questions

-follow-up: helps gain additional information -open: broad questions -closed: seek brief/short answers -fixed-alternative: with limited answers available -loaded: limits answers to those that serve the questioner's agenda -leading: leads someone to answer to agree with the speaker's bias -vague: doesn't give enough information (leaving the person unsure how to correctly answer) -scale: designed to measure the level of agreement or disagreement with issues -mirror: repeat part of a previous response to encourage further discussion -rhetorical: have a self-evident answer, or that provoke curiosity that the speech then proceeds to satisfy

types of arguments

-from example: draw a conclusion from an example -from analogy: illustrate similarities between two things -from causation: saying that one event causes another -from sign: using an observable symptom/indicator as proof of a claim

methods of speech delivery

-impromptu: little or no specific or immediate preparation -from a manuscript: entire speech is written and read -from memory: entire speech is written and memorized -extemporaneously: speech is prepared and presented from a basic set of notes or an outline

credibility

-initial (how much you have before the speech) -presented (ex. brief biography in the event's brochure, introduction, PhD, books or articles you have written, being an executive in a well known company, etc.) -derived (based on/new opinions during your speech) -terminal (revised/summarized after the speech)

outline

-introduction (attention grabber, thesis, preview) -30sec -body (3 supporting points) -1min/each -conclusion (summary, call to action) -30sec

group needs

-maintenance: communicative actions necessary to maintain interpersonal relations between group members -procedural: routine 'housekeeping' actions necessary for the efficient conduct of business in a small group -task: actions necessary to help a small group complete its assigned task

fallacies

-of relevance: appeal to ignorance (there's a lack of contrary evidence), appeal to popular beliefs, disconnected conclusion/non sequitur (coming to an unrelated/incorrect conclusion), appeal to tradition ("it's how we've always done it"), red herring (introducing an unrelated issue to divert attention), and straw man (ignoring the actual argument and attacking a distorted/exaggerated/misrepresented version instead) -of reasoning: false dilemma ("Either A is true, or B is true" when they could actually both be false), begging the question (assuming that the conclusion is true/circular reasoning), faulty analogy, and slippery slope (one step will inevitably lead to the next and so on) -of inadequate evidence: false cause/post hoc, and hasty generalization -of personal attack: ad hominem, and guilt by association

articulation and pronunciation mistakes

-omission (leaving out a sound or syllable of the word) -substitution (replacing the correct sound in a word with a different/similar sound) -addition (adding unnecessary sounds to words) -incorrectly accenting a word (emphasizing the syllables wrong) -pronouncing silent sounds (sometimes letters in the word don't make a sound when said aloud)

voice

-pitch: the relative highness/lowness of a speaker's voice, you can use this and emphasize certain words or phases differently to communicate effectively -volume: the loudness/intensity of a speaker's voice (be careful not to speak to loud, too soft, or fade out at the end of sentences) -rate: the speed at which the speaker talks (average is 150 words/min. avoid speaking too slow, too fast, or without variation) -quality: the tone/sound of a speaker's voice (it should be clear and pleasant instead of breathy, harsh, raspy, or nasally) -inflections: changes in pitch and tone -monotone: speaking without a change in inflection -rhythm: pattern of sound the speech makes

types of outlines

-preparation: detailed; including the title, purpose, ideas, main points, subpoints, and conclusion of the speech) -key-word: briefly touches on the main points of the speaker

types of effects

-primacy: the presumed impact of placing the most compelling information/arguments first in the speech -recency: the presumed impact of saving the strongest or most important information for near the end of the speech (people remember what they last heard)

organizational patterns

-topical/categorical: when a topic is easily subdivided, each main point can be a part/section of the whole -temporal/sequential: chronological order (mostly for informative speeches) -spacial: ordered in a directional pattern, ex. top to bottom, left to right, east to west, inside to outside, etc. (mostly for informative speeches) -climactic: ordered according to importance, size, etc. -problem-solution/Dewey's reflective thinking sequence: the first point is the problem and the second point is the solution (for persuasive speech) -causal/cause-effect pattern: illustrates the cause and effect relationship, the cause and the effect are separate points but either can be presented first -statement of reasons: presenting the 2nd strongest argument first, the weakest argument second, and the best argument last so it will be memorable (for persuasive speeches) -structure-function: illustrates the structural/functional qualities of something by explaining the different functions separately and in detail (mostly for informative speeches) -pro-and-con/advantages-disadvantages: separately describing the ups and downs of something -circle pattern: arranging one idea that leads to another and finally the last idea leads back to the speech thesis

Frame of reference

A combination of a person's knowledge, goals, values, and experiences which affects how they interpret a message.

sleeper effect

A delayed reaction to persuasion.

Either-or

A fallacy in which the speaker claims or leads the listeners to believe that there are only two options available, when in fact more exist.

personification

A figure of speech in which nonhuman or abstract subjects are given human qualities.

mythos

A form of proof that connects a subject to the culture and tradition of a group through the use of narratives.

glass ceiling

A metaphor alluding to the invisible barriers that prevent minorities and women from being promoted to top corporate positions.

Vocal variety

A method of making a speech expressive by using inflections and changes in rate.

call the question

A motion that proposes to end the discussion on a motion and to bring it to a vote.

Visual framework

A pattern (including indentations) followed in outlining a speech which emphasizes the relations between the elements of the speech.

Attitude

A person's opinion about a topic, person, policy, or belief.

refutative design

A persuasive speech design in which the speaker tries to raise doubts about, damage, or destroy an opposing position.

identification

A process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences.

magnification

A speaker's selecting and emphasizing certain qualities of a subject to stress the values they represent.

Preview statement

A statement in the beginning of the speech which outlines the main points a speech will focus on.

an abstract

A summary of an article which was not written by the author of the article

co-active approach

A way of approaching reluctant audiences in which the speaker attempts to establish goodwill, emphasizes shared values, and sets modest goals for persuasion.

boomerang effect

An audience's hostile reaction to a speech advocating too much or too radical change.

PREP formula

An outlining technique for an impromptu speech: state a point, give a reason or example, and restate the point.

responsible knowledge

An understanding of the major features, issues, experts, latest developments, and local applications relevant to a topic.

maxims

Brief and particularly apt sayings.

inversion

Changing the normal order of words to make statements memorable and emphatic.

Feedback

Communication from the listener to the speaker which is generally non-verbal.

universal human values

Eight values identified by the Institute for Global Ethics that transcend cultural differences: love, truthfulness, fairness, freedom, unity, tolerance, responsibility, and respect for life.

receiver apprehension

Fear of misinterpreting, inadequately processing and/or not being able to adjust psychologically to messages sent by others.

malapropisms

Language errors that occur when a word is confused with another word that sounds like it.

filtering

Listening to only part of a message, the part the listener wants to hear.

Personalize

Making a speech applicable to the individuals in an audience.{}

inoculation effect

Preparing an audience for an opposing argument by answering it before listeners have been exposed to it.

amplification

The art of developing ideas by finding ways to restate them in a speech.

myth of the mean

The deceptive use of statistical averages in speeches.

preliminary tuning effect

The effect of previous speeches or other situational factors in predisposing an audience to respond positively or negatively to a speech.

Egocentrism

The human tendency to consider a person's own beliefs and values above those of others.

habitual pitch

The level at which people speak most frequently.

Channel

The means used to communicate a message.

great expectation fallacy

The mistaken idea that major change can be accomplished by a single persuasive effort.

audience dynamics

The motivations, attitudes, beliefs, and values that influence the behavior of listeners.

principle of closure

The need for a satisfactory end or conclusion to a speech.

cognitive restructuring

The process of replacing negative thoughts with positive, constructive ones.

proxemics

The study of how human beings use space during communication.

prepersuasive function

The way in which informative speaking shapes listeners' perceptions, preparing them for later persuasive speeches on a topic.

agenda-setting function

The work of informative speaking in raising topics to attention and creating a sense of their importance.

ideographs

Words that convey in a compressed way a group's basic political faith or system of beliefs.

qualifiers

Words that suggest the degree of confidence a speaker has in the conclusion of his or her argument.

thesaurus

a book of synonyms (two words that mean the same thing)

reference work

a book that puts all related information in an easy-to-find format

spiraling narrative

a narrative that builds in intensity from the beginning of the speech to the end of the speech

talking head

a person that is stationary during the entirety of the speech (often on tv with a closeup head shot)

organizational chart

a pictoral of the group's hierarchy

demagogue

a political leader who seeks support by appealing to popular desires and prejudices rather than by using rational argument

yearbook

a reference book that is published annually (e.g. Farmer's Almanac)

antithesis

a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect

evaluating speech topic ideas

a topic should be: interesting to the speaker, interesting and useful to the audience, ethically appropriate and improve society, and be appropriate for the specific occasion (meeting audience expectations, being relevant, and being narrow in scope)

effeminate style

a way of speaking with stereotypically feminine characteristics (ex. storytelling, self-revelation, and emotional appeals)

etymology

a word's history

dialect

accent, grammar, or vocabulary differences that indicate an ethnic background

groupthink

accepting ideas without critical analysis because other people do/peer pressure

audience analysis

acquiring information about an audience in order to adapt a speech to that particular audience, methods of doing this includes: -conventional wisdom (the popular opinion about issues and trends), -direct observation (be careful to avoid stereotyping), -questionnaires, -demographic audience analysis (ex. age, gender, religion, ethnicity, economic status, occupation, education, etc.), and -situational audience analysis (includes ex. size of particular audience, physical setting, occasion, time of day/length of speech, etc.)

self-fulfilling prophecy

also known as the Pygmalion Effect; if a person thinks of themselves as funny, clever, or stupid, they will act in accordance with their thoughts

enthymeme

an argument in which one premise is not explicitly stated

cliché

an expression that is overused

noise

any interference that distorts or interrupts message flow

ceremonial speeches

articulate and reinforce shared social values

bandwagon

assumption that something is right because it is popular

goodwill

audience perception of the speaker's motivation

personal based conflict

audiences argues with each other instead of focusing on topics

credibility centered ethics

believes that the effectiveness of a speech is undermined by the speaker losing credibility with the audience; uses sound reasoning, examines all available evidence, credits sources, avoids immoral emotional appeals

anecdotes

brief stories that are usually humorous

epideictic

characterized by or designed to display rhetorical or oratorical skill

question of policy

choices regarding future courses of action

nonverbal communication

communication based on body language, expressions, and gestures

metaphors

compare two dissimilar things, without using the words like or as (the mixed kind is illogical and confusing)

positive nervousness

controlling nervousness to helps energize a speaker for their speech

question of fact

controversy regarding existence, scope, or causality; whether or not a statement is true

dyadic communication

conversation between two people

plagiarism

copying of someone else's work and claiming it as your own

fair use

copyright law that allows students and teachers to use some copyrighted material for education

invisible web

databases and resources that are not indexed by search engines

name calling

derogatory words used to defame a person or group

operational definition

describing the meaning of something by what it does

question of value

determining how ideas and actions should be evaluated and judged/whether something is right or wrong

delivery cues

directions in a speaking outline to help a speaker remember how she or he wants to deliver key parts of the speech

reasoning

drawing inferences from known facts -inductive (using specific facts or examples to make a generalization) -deductive (starts with general information and narrows it down to create a conclusion) -causal (making inferences from cause to effect or vise versa) -analogical (inferring that what's true of a known case is/will be true of a similar case)

verbatim

exactly the same words as were used originally

analogy

extended story/metaphor/simile that compares something familiar to something unfamiliar to aid in understanding

testimonies

eye-witness accounts, personal stories, opinions of experts or famous/prestigious people, laymen, peer, reluctant (against their own apparent self-interest), etc. (these are usually more persuasive, if the expert's name is unknown to the audience it should be made clear what their expertise is), when they are unbiased they are more effective, they should also be recent

panel discussion

formal/structured conversation on a given topic

warrants

general assumptions, principles, or rules that connect our evidence to our claims

paralanguage

how something is said (not what is said)

body language

includes: eye contact (using this appropriately will keep the audience from viewing you as aloof, uncaring, and uncredible/untrustworthy), facial expressions (they convey emotion, ex. anger, fear, boredom, excitement, etc.), gestures (with the hands, arms, and fingers), and movements (with the whole body)

peripheral processing

lacking motivation to give subject the full attention

inclusive language

language that does not stereotype or patronize any group

tree diagram

limiting a speech topic by repeatedly dividing a topic into smaller parts until arriving at a manageable sized topic

connectives

links various ideas within a speech, and helps listeners understand the relationship between one concept and another types: -transitions (words/phrases indicating a shift from one point to another) -signposts (indicate where the speaker is in the speech or that an important part of the speech is coming next, ex. "Now the second reason...," questions, "It's important to remember that...") -internal previews (a statement that tells listeners what to expect next, more detailed than the previous terms) -internal summaries (reviews the points the speaker just made)

bibliography

list of sources used (the preliminary version is all possible sources of information for research)

similies

make direct comparison between two unlike things, by using the words like or as

mental dialogue with audience

mental conversation between audience and speaker during a persuasive speech

mental argument

mentally forming rebuttals to the speaker's arguments and therefore missing the speaker's entire message

visualization

mentally imagining success

incremental plagiarism

more subtle than other versions, often in the form of quoting or *paraphrasing* other sources without properly crediting them

fidelity

narratives that seem authentic to listeners because they ring true with their own life experiences

call number

number assigned to a library book to determine location (kept track of in an online catalogue which lists all books in a library)

statistics

numerical data which are used to illustrate points, they should be from reliable (and perhaps multiple) sources, be recent/valid, should be used comparatively to make them easier to understand, and they should be used in moderation (a few interesting numbers are better than an overwhelming amount of data) -the inferential type: facts that are used to predict things

stereotyping

oversimplification of a person based on a few demographical attributes (e.g. all women are motherly, all men are "macho")

speech to gain immediate action

persuasive speech seeking agreement and inciting action

speech for passive agreement

persuasive speech seeking agreement but needing no action

contrast

pointing out differences between two things

conversational quality

presenting a speech that sounds spontaneous (even if it is not)

pronunciation

producing syllables in a word based upon accepted standards, how the sounds which make up the word are grouped and accented/emphasized

strategic organization

putting a speech together to achieve a particular result with a particular audience

alliteration

repetition of the same sounds (normally in the initial consonants of two or more words)

primary research

research conducted first hand through interviews, surveys, etc

symposium

several people speak on different aspects of the same topic

word choice

should take into consideration: how formal the speech is, if the audience understands jargon (specialized language to a profession), slang, or technical terms, the topic of the speech, and the speaker (language should fit the speaker's style)

oral style

speaking style that reflects the spoken (informal and conversational) rather than the written word

supporting material

speech content that provides information, maintains listener interest, and asserts persuasive evidence, ex. narratives, examples, testimonies, statistics, and quotations

patchwork plagiarism

stealing (including the wording) from multiple sources

global plagiarism

stealing an entire speech from one source

narratives

stories to illustrate a point or abstract concept -explanatory: explains events -exemplary: examples of excellence (ex. rags-to-riches stories about famous people) -persuasive: attempts to change attitudes of listeners

affective language

strong provocative language that stirs an audience's emotions

evidence

supporting materials which should be relevant and significant, easy to understand, striking and unique, credible, ethical, and accurate

ethics

the branch of philosophy which addresses issues of morality, fairness, and justice

target audience

the broader audience that will most likely be influenced by the speech

thesis statement

the central idea or theme of the speech, summarizes/states the main point, (this is neutral for an informative speech but expresses a clear opinion in a persuasive speech), it infers a question (which is answered in the body of the speech), it focuses the audience's attention; it is usually stated towards the beginning of the speech but if the audience of a persuasive speech disagrees with the message it is better to present your reasoning first

stage fright/communication apprehension

the feeling of nervousness when going in front of people to perform or speak

matching hypothesis

the idea that people will be-friend other people with similar levels of attractiveness{}

agenda

the items to be accomplished during a meeting (the hidden version is when the goals are kept secret)

burden of proof

the level of evidence necessary to before an argument demands serious consideration

saliency

the level of interest or concern that listeners have in a particular topic or issue

main points

the major points made by a speaker in the body of the speech, most speeches have 2-5 of them,they should be in a parallel format/the same grammatical style, and should be distinct/different from each other (no overlap)

articulation

the movement of the tongue, palate, teeth, lips, jaw, and vocal chords to produce sounds, how each letter's sound is shapped

residual message

the part of a speech the speaker wants the audience to remember

claim

the part of an argument which is the conclusion speakers want listeners to accept (debatable dissertations about fact, value or policy)

ethnocentrism

the tendency to view your own culture's behaviors and values as superior to those of other culturs

syllogism

three part argument; major premise, minor premise, and conclusion

purposes of a speech

to inform, persuade (change the audience's attitudes, behaviors, feelings, beliefs, etc.), or entertain

listening

unlike hearing (which is merely the ear picking up sound waves and sending them to the brain), it is a selective activity which involves paying close attention and interpreting what is heard (it's active not passive), steps: 1. receiving (hearing transmitted sounds and deciding which to pay attention to and which to ignore) 2. understanding (using thought and emotion to assign meaning to what is said) 3. remembering (retaining and recalling information) 4. evaluating (judging and criticizing the usefulness and truthfulness of the message) 5. responding (answering and giving verbal/nonverbal feedback, deciding what to to with the information)

examples

used to illustrate a larger group of people, ideas, or conditions; brief examples/specific instances are 1-2 sentences, extended examples are at least 3 sentences, they can be either actual (events that actually happened) or hypothetical (theoretical events, it should be clearly stated when it is hypothetical)

repetition

using the same words or sets of words in a speech

sensory appeals

vivid language attempting to evoke one of our five senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling)

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

website address

conclusion

what a speaker leaves the listeners with, it should alert the audience that the speech is ending, summarize the speech (reinforcing the thesis/central idea), and clarify what listeners should think or do in response to the speech (the anticipated response is what the speaker seeks from listeners, for informative speeches it's what listeners should remember and for persuasive speeches it's what they should think or do) -crescendo ending: building a speech to a powerful and intense ending -dissolve ending: evoking emotions by fading gradually to one final dramatic statement

ends and means approach

when a speaker justifies the use of any means necessary (ex. deceit, emotional appeals, name calling/degrading based on certain characteristics, etc.) to achieve a particular end (this assumes that the speaker, not the listener, knows what is best)

eight by eight rule

when making a presentation not more than eight words on a line and eight lines on a slide

audience-centeredness

writing/giving a speech which is tailored specifically for the audience which it is being given to (taking into consideration the audiences' background, beliefs, knowledge, and attitude/mindset), focusing on and identifying with the audience is effective