Problem 5 BBZs V1

empirical contributions

" (1) in comparing the instructive graphics group and the no graphics group, there is a multimedia effect in which adding instructive graphics greatly improves recall test performance (d = 0.79) (2) in comparing the seductive graphics group with the no graphics group, there is a marginal seductive details effect in which adding seductive graphics hurts recall test performance (d = - 0.38) (3) in comparing the decorative graphics group with the no graphics group, recall test performance is not significantly different (d = 0.13). - relevant graphics are more effective in promoting learning than irrelevant graphics - satisfaction ratings were higher for lessons that contained any kind of graphics than for lessons with no graphics - liking (as measured by satisfaction ratings) does not automatically translate into learning (as measured by recall tests). - "

key claims about "digital natives"

" - (1) that a distinct generation of 'digital natives' exists and (2) that educationmust fundamentally change to meet the needs of these 'digital natives'. - based on fundamental assumptions with weak empirical and theoretical foundations"

Participants and design (sung)

" - 200 university students in South Korea (freshmen-seniors) - m=21.99 years (SD = 1.86), - 120 women and 80 men - 50 students in the instructive graphics group, 50 students in the decorative graphics group, 50 students in the seductive group, and 50 students in the no graphics group"

results (sung)

" - Do the groups differ on basic demographic characteristics? - Does type of graphic affect recall test score? - Does type of graphic affect satisfaction ratings? - "

results (sung et al)

" - Following instruction, students who received any kind of graphic produced significantly higher satisfaction ratings than the no graphics group, indicating that adding any kind of graphic greatly improves positive feelings - on a recall posttest, students who received instructive graphics performed significantly better than the other three groups, indicating that the relevance of graphics affects learning outcomes - The three kinds of graphics had similar effects on affective measures but different effects on cognitive measures"

criticism Sung

" - Korean - lessons used in this study were short, the material was simple, the test was immediate, the learners were college students, and only one lesson was involved. - "

conclusion (bennett)

" - Proponents arguing that education must change dramatically to cater for the needs of these digital natives have sparked an academic formof a 'moral panic' using extreme arguments that have lacked empirical evidence. - Education may be under challenge to change, but it is not clear that it is being rejected. - there is a need for rigorous investigation that includes the perspectives of young people and their teachers, and genuinely seeks to understand the situation before proclaiming the need for widespread change."

implications (may elder)

" - Technology does offer benefits to the educational experience - With careful implementation, methods can potentially harness the positive effects of educational technology while diminishing the negative effects of media multitasking. - for the most part, students do not recognize the extent of the negative consequences of media multitasking on academic performance - educators and parents should encourage students' self-regulation of laptop and cell phone multitasking behaviors, and the importance of fostering student self-efficacy and learning motivations. - though educators promote productive use of classroom technology with policies limiting off-task media multitasking, the collegiate education system relies on the increasing independence and self-regulation on the part of students - "

"Cognitive functioning while multitasking: Theoretical foundation"

" - Theories of attention - these theories serve to elucidate the manner in which media multitasking decreases academic performance and impacts cognition. - Working memory theories - Multitasking effects related to academic performance - In-class multitasking - Multitasking outside of class - Perceptions of multitasking and self-regulation - "

visual working memory

" - a cognitive system that holds a limited amount of visual information in a temporary storage buffer so that it may be accessed to efficiently achieve goals"

When graphics hurt learning

" - adding highly interesting but irrelevant graphics to text can hurt student learning - students with low working-memory capacity are particularly distracted by seductive graphics - graphics hurt learning when they were seductive"

multimedia effect

" - adding instructive graphics greatly improves recall test performance (d = 0.79)" theoretical contributions " - results support theories about cognitive processes in multimedia learning - the results support aspects of dual coding theory, cognitive load theory, and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning by confirming the prediction that instructive graphics would be more effective than seductive graphics (with decorative graphics in between) - Although any type of graphic can increase positive affect, which increases a willingness to engage in learning, learners are more likely to engage in instructionally appropriate cognitive processing when they receive instructive graphics which draw their attention toward the essential content than when they receive seductive graphics which draw their attention away from the essential content - results support aspects of arousal theory, emotional interest theory, and emotional design theory by confirming the prediction that adding graphics would increase learners' positive assessment of the learning situation"

trained attention hypothesis

" - argues that frequent media multitasking could positively affect cognitive control via eventual training and improvement of control processes - multitasking promotes mental flexibility that enables high-level efficiency and productivity, skills essential for success in modern work and learning environments - asserts that ability to filter irrelevant information could improve through frequent practice multitasking - research is less consistent with this - examination of distractor filtering in multitaskers of various frequencies presents a difference in performance, pointing to the potential validity of the blablabla - frequent media multitasking could have a positive effect on cognitive control via eventual training and improvement of control processes - there is some support"

moral panic

" - assumptions by society - not so much diff, actually - created (exacerbated) by media" multimedia principle " - states that adding graphics to text can improve student learning - all graphics are not equally effective - People learn better from words and pictures than from words alone. - supported in numerous experimental studies - adding graphics to a text lesson can improve performance on a transfer posttest by more than one standard deviation"

Frequent media multitaskers

" - attended to and processed stimuli to the same degree regardless of whether or not the presented stimuli could be the target - may maintain a wider attentional scope which allows attention to more visual information"

bottleneck theory of attention

" - attention can be allocated to only one task at a time.: why? : cogn load limit - multitasking is a myth - the mind switches between tasks. - Stimuli arrives at a processing 'blablabla,' at which only one item can be processed at a time - Because attentional resources are limited, filtering of stimuli must occur - The blablabla postpones aspects of processing of the secondary task until the primary task is completed"

"Paivio's dual coding theory, Mayer's cognitive theory of multimedia learning, Sweller's cognitive load theory, "

" - based on the idea that humans possess separate information- processing channels for processing visual materials (such as graphics) and verbal material (such as words), but possess limited capacity for processing within each channel - Meaningful learning occurs when learners engage in appropriate cognitive processing during learning, which includes attending to relevant words and pictures, organizing them, and integrating them with each other and with knowledge from long-term memory. - instructive illustrations encourage germane cognitive load (or generative cognitive processing) in which the learner makes connections between corresponding portions of the graphics and the text that support the instructional goal - seductive graphics do their damage by grabbing and holding the learner's limited attention, thereby creating extraneous cognitive load (or extraneous processing) for the learner—that is, cognitive processing that does not support the instructional goal - and by disrupting the coherence of the lesson and priming an inappropriate context for learning"

theories of attention

" - bottleneck theory - "

discussion (bennett)

" - clear mismatch between the confidence with which claims are made and the evidence for such claims - many of the arguments made to date about digital natives currently lack empirical support - "

"inherent mental habits of media multitasking"

" - dividing attention, switching attention, and maintaining multiple trains of thought - have significant implications and consequences for students' academic performance."

discussion Sung

" - empirical, theorietical, practical, methodological contributions - limitations and future directions - "

working memory theories

" - frequent media multitasking was associated with poorer performance on behavioral measures of working memory capacity. - relationship between working memory and multitasking is independent of the method of task used to assess working memory - working memory is perhaps fundamental to individual multitasking ability"

Claims about 'digital natives'

" - generation born roughly between 1980 and 1994 - described as living lives immersed in technology, 'surrounded by and using computers, videogames, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and all the other toys and tools of the digital age' - the 'millenials' - a positive view of this new generation as optimistic, team-oriented achievers who are talented with technology, and claim they will be America's next 'great generation'. - Immersion in this technology-rich culture is said to influence the skills and interests of digital natives in ways significant for education - two key claims"

Theory and predictions (sung)

" - graphics produce motivational effects (i.e., affecting the amount of effort the learner is willing to devote to cognitive processing during learning) and cognitive effects (i.e., affecting how the learner allocates effort during learning, such as toward appropriate cognitive processing that supports the learning goal or inappropriate cognitive processing that does not support the learning goal). - The three kinds of graphics differ in terms of their relevance to the instructional goal."

"Information technology use and skills amongst young people"

" - immersion is so complete that young people do not even consider computers 'technology' anymore --> such generalisations seem to be confirmed - only a minority of the students (around 21%) were engaged in creating their own content andmultimedia for theWeb, and that a significant proportion of students had lower level skills than might be expected of digital natives. - high levels of online activity by many school-aged children, particularly for helping with homework and for social communication. - technology skills and experience are far from universal among young people. - a proportion of young people are highly adept with technology and rely on it for a range of information gathering and communication activities - there also appears to be a significant proportion of young people who do not have the levels of access or technology skills predicted by proponents of the digital native idea - maybe there is as much variation within the digital native generation as between the generations. - "

in-class multitasking

" - leads to a 10.6% lower score - moderate text messaging group showed no score difference compared to the other two groups - Participants who received and sent more words in their texts performed worse on the test - moderated by elapsed time between receiving and sending a text, with longer delays resulting in better performance - Nearly three-fourths of participants felt that receiving and sending text messages during class was disruptive to learning - 40% felt it was acceptable to text in class - non-texting group outperformed regardless of gender and G.P.A."

scattered attention hypothesis

" - long-term media multitasking may lead to disrupted cognitive control in which the individual gravitates towards the preferred task rather than maintaining focus despite attentional distractions - Cognitive control includes several processes, such as focusing attention on goalrelevant (mor important/ primary priority task) information, filtering irrelevant information, switching efficiently between tasks, and retaining information temporarily - Engaging in multiple tasks highly demands attentional capacity, resulting in deficits in cognitive control - multitasking reduces performance by causing interference, distraction, and ultimately errors"

"On the distinctive characteristics of 'digital natives'"

" - main assumptions: 1. Young people of the digital native generation possess sophisticated knowledge of and skills with information technologies. 2. As a result of their upbringing and experiences with technology, digital natives have particular learning preferences or styles that differ from earlier generations of students. - little empirical evidence - often referenced uncritically - "

scattered attention hypothesis

" - maintains the information processing theoretical approach to cognition - the brain is a device that employs mental resources to carry out operations and complete tasks - the executive system controls mental resources, allocating them where necessary - media multitasking hastens the depletion of the attentional resource, consequently diminishing performance on the primary task - If—as is the case with media multitasking— attentional demand exceeds attentional capacity, the cognitive system overloads and performance suffers. - Research is more consistent with this. Why? because experimental literature to date on divided attention and dual-task performance demonstrates a limited processing system and consequential deterioration in performance and productivity when multitasking - "

"multitasking...(theories of attention)"

" - may impair learning through rapid use of the limited capacity of learners' information processing channels, especially attention processes, leaving insufficient space for meaningful learning. (information processing theory) - scattered attention hypothesis - bottleneck theory in which attention is a limited resource - "

results of review (may elder)

" - media multitasking interferes with attention and working memory - negatively affects GPA, test performance, recall, reading comprehension, note-taking, self-regulation, and efficiency. - effects have been demonstrated during in- class activities (largely lectures) and while students are studying - students struggle to accurately assess the impact media multitasking will have on their academic performance - "

"When graphics have no effect on learning (sung)"

" - no difference in high-level comprehension test scores for learning with text and diagrams versus learning with text alone, although adding illustrations aided performance on some retention test measures - adding the image of an onscreen agent to the screen does not improve learning - researchers expect learning outcomes to be strongest for adding instructive graphics to text, weakest for adding seductive graphics to text, and intermediate results for adding decorative graphics to text"

materials and apparatus (sung)

" - participant questionnaire (demographic information concerning the participant's age, gender, year in school, and major), pretest (five multiple-choice items concerning basic knowledge of distance education), recall test (pls recall key words, there were 25 in total), and satisfaction questionnaire (consisted of four rating items concerning the learner's feeling during learning with the web-based material) - 8 pics (either pony express - relevant info, famous actress - distructive, waterfall - neutral) - "

method (sung)

" - participants and design - Materials and apparatus - procedure"

coherence principle

" - people learn better from multimedia lessons when the graphics are relevant rather than irrelevant to the instructional goal. - blablabla applies more than the multimedia effect" methodological contributions " - this study compares the effects of various types of graphics within a single study - all learners in the present study received the same instructional text and took the same test - this study used a between subjects design to avoid carry-over effects - "

outside of classroom multitasking

" - performance could be mediated - has to do w things like emotional well-being" discussion (may elder) " - Media multitasking is detrimental to academic capacities of college learners - information processing theory is supported, because attention is a limited resource, media multitasking hastens depletion of attentional resources, thus diminishing performance on the primary task - "

results (bennett et al)

" - rather than being empirically and theoretically informed, the debate can be likened to an academic form of a 'moral panic'"

relevance

" - refers to the degree to which the content of a graphic corresponds to the essential content needed to support the instructional goal - refers to the degree to which relations among the elements in the text (such as a discussion of early mail delivery systems) are analogous to the relations among the elements in the graphic (such as graphic showing mail being moved from one place to another by horseback)."

Interestingness

" - refers to the degree to which the graphic draws the learner's attention"

attention

" - refers to how individuals actively process specific information in their environment. - is selective and enhances processing of the attended stimulus while diminishing processing of unattended stimuli"

"Students who were not frequent media multitaskers/infrequent ..."

" - relied on top-down information to complete the experimental task, applying top-down distraction filtering to improve performance - maintain a narrower attentional scope - top down: pieces --> whole (indicutive). bottom-up : whole --> pieces (deductive)."

prediction

" - satisfaction ratings will be improved by adding any kind of graphic whereas learning outcomes will be helped by adding instructive graphics, hurt by adding seductive graphics, and somewhat unchanged by adding decorative graphics."

"two opposing consequences of media multitasking with regards to cognitive control"

" - scattered attention hypothesis - trained attention hypothesis"

"Does type of graphic affect satisfaction ratings?"

" - significant main effect on satisfaction rating for type of graphic - each of the three graphics groups scored higher on satisfaction than the no graphics group - students liked having graphics added to their online lessons—but liking did not always translate into learning - presence of a photo is best correlate of satisfaction rating"

method (may elder)

" - snowball (using the most recent works to find citations provided in them) - analyzed 38 articles from 2003 to 2017 that primarily investigated academic effects of media multitasking habits of college-aged students - Articles were excluded if they did not involve multitasking but rather generalized media use, if they were published prior to 2000 (with the exception of theoretical articles), or if they were not primarily focused on investigating effects of multitasking on academic performance"

When graphics help learning

" - students tend to learn more from text with illustrations than from text alone - adding instructionally relevant graphics to text can improve student learning - graphics helped learning when they were instructive"

"Perceptions of multitasking and self-regulation"

" - students self assess themselves as less capable when engaged in multitasking - Multitasking students typically predict lower scores on academic performance than on-task students - students underestimated the effect of media multitasking on their performance - incapability of students to make accurate and discerning decisions about multitasking while completing academic tasks. - students are poor at recognizing and regulating inhibitors of performance - media multitasking inhibits metacognition and self-regulation, preventing implementation of the appropriate learning strategy and reducing performance - if u hav enough metacognition, and so u realise ur not paying attention, u can perform just as good as if u werent multitasking, so long as u go back and revisit/revise the things u werent paying attention to --> its mor time-consuming, but will enable u to perform on same level as so who didnt multi-task - college students with high levels of self-regulation are less likely to text during class and more likely to maintain attention to classroom learning. - Multitasking reduces efficiency when performing academic tasks - Although multitasking reduces efficiency, comprehension is not always affected - The role of media multitasking on comprehension is dependent on self-regulation and self-awareness - Although media, such as smartphones, provide access to educational resources and facilitate collaboration, studies indicate that technology-related distractions are negatively related to homework effort and environment"

method (sung et al)

" - students studied a short online lesson on distance education that contained instructive graphics (i.e., directly relevant to the instructional goal), seductive graphics (i.e., highly interesting but not directly relevant to the instructional goal), decorative graphics (i.e., neutral but not directly relevant to the instructional goal), or no graphics. - "

"Multitasking effects related to academic performance"

" - studies firmly establish a significant drop in academic performance due to media multitasking. - heavy media users (exposed to more than 16 h of media content per day, often via media multitasking) report receiving C's or lower in school, getting in trouble often, frequently feeling sad or unhappy, and frequent boredom - frequent in-class multitaskers have lower current college GPAs - media use was negatively related to academic outcomes after controlling for demographics and prior academics, and there were significant, indirect effects of social networking on GPA."

goal/aim of review (may elder)

" - synthesize research on the impacts of media multitasking on academic performance - highlight implications for students and educators"

homo zappiens

" - the generation that is growing up with modern communication technologies since the nineties of last century - preference for images and symbols as an enrichment of plain text - seemingly effortless adoption of technology - cooperation and sharing in networks - use technology for their purposes instead of what it was built for - they create unexpected uses - they take exploration and learning, discovering the world, into their own hands - they show us that we can increasingly rely on technology to connect us and allow us to organize and preserve our society as a group"

conclusion (sung)

" - the multimedia effect is qualified by a version of the coherence principle: Adding relevant graphics to words helps learning but adding irrelevant graphics does not. - "

"On arguments for fundamental changes in education"

" - there is little evidence of the serious disaffection and alienation among students claimed by commentators - student participants were frustrated that their freedom of use was curtailed at school and 'were well aware of a digital disconnect but displayed a pragmatic acceptance rather than the outright alienation from the school that some commentators would suggest - school use of the Internet can be frustrating, but there is little basis to conclude that these differences are causing widespread and profound disengagement in learning - tudents' everyday technology practices may not be directly applicable to academic tasks, and so education has a vitally important role in fostering information literacies that will support learning - "

practical contributions

" - this study confirms the coherence principle: people learn better from multimedia lessons when the graphics are relevant rather than irrelevant to the instructional goal. - this study serves to modify the multimedia principle, by emphasizing the need to incorporate educationally relevant graphics into a lesson - the educational effectiveness of e-lessons can be improved by inserting graphics that are relevant rather than irrelevant to the instructional goal"

Media multitasking

" - using two or more medias concurrently - prevails among adolescents and emerging adults - "

Literature review

" - when graphics help, hurt, or have no effect on learning - under appropriate conditions, adding certain kinds of graphics to text can improve retention of the material - taxonomy of instructive, seductive, and decorative graphics"

"does the type of graphic affect recall test score?"

" - yes - the four graphics groups differed significantly on recall test score - instructive graphics group performing much better than the other three groups - results are generally consistent with the predictions of the motivational-cognitive theory (satisfaction - motivation hypothesis) - negative effect for the seductive group - relevance of photos is strongly related to recall test performance - having graphics on the page may add modestly to learning outcomes (in addition to the relevance of photos). - "

"Distinctive digital native learning styles and preferences"

" - young people prefer discovery-based learning that allows them to explore and to actively test their ideas and create knowledge - WRONG? - multitasking may not be as beneficial as it appears, and can result in a loss of concentration and cognitive 'overload' as the brain shifts between competing stimuli - no clear evidence that the interactivity prevalent in most recreational computer games is applicable to learning - differences across the developmental stages need to be considered when making claims about the level of skills 'young people' have and their ability to successfully utilise these when interacting with ICTs - To attribute a particular learning style or even general preferences to a whole generation is questionable. - variations and differences within this population, which may be more significant to educators than similarities. - no evidence for milennials using diff learning styles"

"'digital natives' or the 'Net generation' (Homo Zappiens)"

" - young people who are said to have been immersed in technology all their lives, imbuing them with sophisticated technical skills and learning preferences for which traditional education is unprepared"

procedure Sung

"1) participants were randomly assigned to treatment groups and seated at a computer workstation where they were asked to sign the consent form and fill in their individual information in the participant questionnaire 2) participants answered the pretest containing five multiple choice items at their own pace 3) following an introduction, participants received the multimedia lesson corresponding to their treatment group 4) when participants completed the lesson, they were given the satisfaction questionnaire containing four rating items to be completed at their own pace 5) participants completed the recall test within a 5-min time limit, in which they were asked to write down the key ideas or to explain key sentences about the history and definition of distance learning 6) participants were debriefed and thanked for participating"

instructive graphics

"are relevant to the instructional goal and intended to facilitate learning the essential material in the lesson, such as showing a picture of the pony express in a lesson on early correspondence study programs of distance education that relied on the development of mail delivery systems - intended to activate prior knowledge - have high relevance - may be low to high in interestingness"

seductive graphics

"highly interesting but not directly relevant to the lesson, such as showing a photo of a popular movie star in a lesson on the role of early mail delivery systems in correspondence study programs for distance education - may draw the learner's attention away from the essential material in the text and thereby diminish learning. - low relevance - high interestingness"

decorative graphics

"present cognitively neutral material that is not directly relevant to the essential material, such as showing a photo of a sunrise or waterfall in the same lesson on early mail delivery systems. - neutral in cogn impact, pelasing in affective impact - low relevance - low interestingness"

working memory

- a predictor of multitasking ability

information processing theory

- attention is a limited resource

" types of graphics in multimedia lessons"

- instructive, seductive, decorative

"media use time adolescents & young adults"

- more than 7.5 hrs (average)

"using the mediums for off-task purposes"

21%

"reported using Facebook and email in class"

28%

"students reported text messaging during class"

69%

"sessions involved some multitasking"

99%

"A student with a specific goal and sufficient motivation, such as studying for an upcoming exam in a difficult class"

is less likely to multitask

"student with less consequential goals, such as communicating with friends for leisure via Facebook or email,"

is more likely to multitask

misconception

multitasking increases productivity

"do the groups differ on basic demographic characteristics?"

no

digital immigrant

someone bw the digital natives and those who lived under a stone(?) aim (bennett et al) - analyse the digital natives debate