P/S MCAT Quizlet

Word Association

- Common word game involving an exchange of words that are associated together

Somatosensory Communication (Animal Communication)

- Communicate through touch and movement. Movement can also convey food location, group bonding, body language - Ex: Mating dances. Dogs can show teeth when threatened, perk ears if alarmed

Intra-Generational Mobility

- If change in social class happens in a person's own lifetime

Regression to the Mean

- If first measurement is extreme, second measurement will be closer to the mean

Socialism

- Motivated by what benefits society as whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands

Simple Innate Behavior

- Reflexes (squinting/blinking), Taxis (bugs fly toward light), Kinesis (rats randomly scurrying in different directions)

Exercise (Managing Stress)

- Regular exercise requires control. Decrease risk of cardiovascular disease. Need 20-30 minutes daily to get those affects

Pancreas

- Regulate blood sugar and is not tied to the pituitary gland

Orientation Behaviors (Innate Behavior)

- Regulating specially in our environments - Ex: Kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis), change in rate in turning (klinokinesis) - Ex: Tripping on sidewalk

Variable Ratio

- Reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses - Most effect (very-rapid) - Ex: Bonus is paid after selling 5 cars for first bonus, 3 for second, 7 for third, 6 for fourth

Extroversion

- Talkative or quiet, fun loving or sober

Spatial Discrimination

- The ability to perceive as separate points of contact the two blunt points of a compass when applied to the skin

Emotional Intelligence

- The ability to perceive, understand, and manage and use emotions in interactions with others - 2 Major Categories: Fluid and Crystallized

Types of Somatosensation

- Thermoception (temperature) - Mechanoception (pressure) - Nociception (pain) - Proprioception (position)

Generalizing to Population

- They must ensure that the survey respondents include relevant groups from the larger population in the correct proportions

Transvestic

- Paraphilia about sexually arousing cross-dressing

Voyeurism

- Paraphilia about spying on others

Selective Exposure

- Refer to the avoidance to reduce dissonance.

Sensory Stimulus

- Referring to the type of information being received by your receptors which elicits a response (light, heat, touch, sound)

Perceived Behavior Control

- Refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior

Stereotype

- A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Nucleus Basalis

- A group of neurons of the basal forebrain that send projections throughout the cortex

Alpha Waves EEG

- (8-13Hz) and in a daydreaming state. Lower frequency than beta waves and disappear in drowsiness but reappear again in deep sleep

Monoamine Neurotransmitters

- (Biogenetic Amines): Amino group and aromatic group connected by a 2-carbon chain - Cognition/Thinking/Emotion/Attention - Serotonin, Histamine, Dopamine, Epinephrine, and Norepinephrine

Index of Dissimilarity

- 0 is total segregation and 100 is perfect distributions

Theory of Personality

- A set of statements or assumptions about human mental life or behavior that explains why people are the way they are

Closeness

- Authority giving orders - more likely to accept orders from someone we respect

Micro-Culture

- Cannot support people throughout their lifespan, refers to groups or organizations only affecting limited people of one's life - Ex: Girl Scouts, Sororities

Primary Groups

- Core social group. Parents, close friends from childhood. Long term relationships formed which have great social impact on the individual

Left Handed People

- Differences in the lateralization of some aspects of audition and language understand compared to right-handed people. These differences are not completely understood

Amphetamine

- Dopamine reuptake blocked

Task Difficulty

- Harder tasks require more focus (Texting while driving)

Master Status

- In perception, an individual's master status supersedes other identifying traits - Ex: If a woman feels that her role as mother is more important than role as a woman

Agraphia

- Inability to write

Somatosensory Cortex

- Motor Cortex (frontal) + Somatosensory cortex (parietal). Involved in receiving sensory signals from the skin

Fecundicy

- Potential reproductive capacity of a female

Swallowing Reflex

- Swallowing food happens automatically

Wernicke's Area

- Temporal Lobe (Sound Processing), Understand

Blind Spot

- Where the optic nerve connects to the retina and there are no cones or rods

Optic Disks

- inside rods, these optic disks are stacked on top of one another - the disks contain many proteins on the disks

Theories of Intelligence

-General intelligence (Spearman) -Primary mental abilities (Thurnstone) -Multiple intelligences (Gardner) -Triarchic (Sternberg)

Criticism (Symbolic Interactionism)

-doesn't explain how negative upbringing can result in a positive looking glass self - Self, me, and i are too vague and not testable - Mead's stages of development are too rigid - Credits people with unrealistic free will - Downplays macro-level factors

5 Stages of Psychosexual Development (Freud)

1) Oral 2) Anal 3) Phallic 4) Latency 5) Genital

5 Factor Model Trait Theory

1. Openness 2. Conscientisousness 3. Extraversion 4. Agreeableness 5. Neuroticism

Structure of Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Gross vs. Fine Motor Skills

Gross: Advancement occurs in balance, strength, coordination, agility, and reaction time Fine: Increased ability in fine motor skills Writing improves and becomes smaller and neater Fine motor skills will reach adult maturity by end of middle childhood

Sleep Cycle

N1 → N2 → N3 → N2 → REM → N1

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological, Safety, Love, Self-Esteem, Self-Actualization

Sexual Response (Biological Factors)

Sexual Response Cycle 1) Excitement phase (increased heart rate, muscle tension, blood pressure) 2) Plateau 3) Orgasm 4) Resolution/Refractory Period

Executive Attention

- Involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention

Schizophrenia Spectrum and other Psychotic Disorders

- Involves distress/disability from psychosis. Psychosis involves delusions (fixed fake beliefs not explainable by experiences), hallucinations (sensory perception without any stimuli)

Fertility Rate

- NUmber of birth a women is expected to give birth to in her life - (>2 increase in population and <2 is decrease in population)

Geographical Proximity

- Nearness is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships - People date, like, marry people of the same neighborhood or those that sit next to in class or work in the same office

Distress

- Negative stress that builds over time and is bad for body. Happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you some way (physically or emotionally) and you body becomes primed to respond to threat

Mesocortical Pathway

- Negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Connectome

- Neural map of the connections with the brain

Prosopagnosia

- Neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize familiar people based on facial information alone - Prosopagnosia = People

Synthestasia

- Neurological phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway

Sigmund Freud

- Neurologist and went to study hypnosis, but this turned him to medical psychopathology. Psychiatry and psychology as we knew it was unknown before his work

Neglect Syndrome

- Occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention

Substance-Use Disorders

- Occurs when drug use causes a serious/real degree of impairment in functioning in life, at work, school, or home. Not everyone experiences this

Elder Abuse

- Occurs when family isn't ready for responsibility of taking care of elders and expense of nursing homes - Ex: Robberies, threats, neglect of older family members

Medicalization

- Occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment - Ex: Mental health type issues (sadness/attention), and physical issues like birth

Interference

- Occurs when participant takes longer to read a word because it is emotionally charged than a neutral word

Attrition Bias

- Occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study

De-Individuation

- Occurs when people lose awareness of their individuality and instead immerse themselves in the mood or activities of a crowd

Dishabituation

- Occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed

Visual Sensory Information - Transduction:

- Occurs whenever energy is transformed from one form to another; in this case, light energy is transformed to electrical energy by rods and cones

Independent Stressor

- Occurs without the person's influence - Ex: Death of a loved one

Schizotypal (Cluster A)

- Odd beliefs/magical thinking

Formal Sanction

- Officially recognized and reinforced

Prestige

- Often based on occupation (Doctor, Lawyer). Minority group members have lower paid jobs typically (Janitor)

Disengagement Theory

- Older adults and society separate, assume that they become more self-absorbed as they age. Considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 - Death)

- Older people enter a period of reflection and life review. - Virtue is wisdom and look back on life with sense of closure/completeness and accept death without fear - Leads to despair or dissatisfaction upon death

Adrenal Glands

- On top of kidney and ACTH acts on adrenal cortex - Plays a role in the development of muscle and bones

Social Support (Stress Management)

- One of the best coping mechanisms of stress. Allows us to confide thee painful/difficult feelings and allows us to understand we are not alone in stress

Functional Neuroimaging

- One type of brain scanning, involves the measurement of brain activity. - Scanner produces a map of the area being scanned that is represented as voxels

Ego (Reality Principle)

- Operates on secondary processes (reality testing). Mediates the demands of reality vs. the desires of the Id. The self. this is who we identify with or believe ourselves to be

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 - 2)

- Toddlers learn to control will and do things for themselves - Virtue achieved is will (independence). Negative outcome is if child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self-esteem

Weak Social Constructionism

- Proposes that social constructs are dependent on brute facts, which are the most basic and fundamental facts

Thomas Theorem

- W.I. Thomas and D.S. Thomas - "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences" - Interpretation of a situation causes the action

Ebbinghaus

- Was first person to look at decay in human memory. Found his rate of forgetting very fast, but if he remembered it after initial stage it leveled out

Culture

- Way of life shared by a group of individuals - the knowledge, beliefs and values that bind a society together - Learned through observation, interactions, and biological component and shaped through evolution - Include artwork, language, and literature

Segregation

- Way of separating out groups of people and giving them access to a separate set of resources within same society

Society

- Way people organize themselves - bunch of people who live together in a specific geographic area, and interact more with each other than outsiders - Includes institutions (family, education, politics)

Synciotrophoblast

- The epithelial covering of the highly vascular embryonic placental villi, which invades the wall of the uterus to establish nutrient circulation between the embryo and the mother.

Locus of Control

- The extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives

Culture Lag

- The fact culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, resulting in social problems - Common because material culture changes rapidly, while non-material resist change

Target Behavior

- The final behavior you wish to train - Ex: Headstand (showing up to yoga class, hands on mat, legs up)

Conflict Theory (Macro-Sociology)

- The idea society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities. large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved

Frustration-Aggression Principle (Psychological)

- The idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Almost anything can cause frustration - Ex: Physical pain or presence of crowd. Higher temperatures can also lead to frustration

Ego Depletion

- The idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up and you'll have less to use in the future

Tyranny of Choice

- The impairment of effective decision making when confronted with an overwhelming number of options

Economic Globalization

- The increasing integration and interdependence of national economies around the world

Reciprocal Determinism

- The interaction between a person's behaviors, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another

Multiple Approach-Avoidance

- The internal mental debate (sometimes called a conflict) that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and bad elements.

Superego

- The internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions. "Moral" Interjection/Internalization. - Inhibits sexual and aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection. - Has subsystems: Conscious (what you should not be "wrong"), Ego Ideal (what you should want to be "right")

Corpus Callosum

- The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Social Behaviorism (Mead)

- The mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others - Preparatory Stage, Play Stage, Game Stage

Absolute Threshold of Sensation

- The minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

Alzheimer's Disease (AD)

- The most common form of dementia. The disease causes healthy brain tissue to degenerate and atrophy. Caused when neurons die off over time and as this happens. cerebral cortex shrinks in size

Alcohol (Depressant)

- The most popular depressant. Decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control. - Lack of coordination, slurring of speech. Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep

Social Capital

- The networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively.

Participant Observation

- The observer participates in ongoing activities and records observations - Extends beyond naturalistic observation because observer is a "player" in the action

"In" Group

- The one we are connected with. "US". Stronger interactions with those in the in-group than those in out group

Pupil

- The opening in the middle of the iris. Size of pupil can get bigger/smaller based on the iris relaxing/contracting respectively. Modulates the amount of light able to enter

Mating Behavior

- The pairing of opposite sex organisms for purpose of reproduction and propagation of genetic material

Cultural Relativism

- The practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture - Can falter if someone uses it to conduct activities that violate rights of humans no matter what culture they are from

Embryogenesis

- The process by which a single-celled zygote becomes a multicellular embryo. - Cleavage Happens: Splitting from 1 Cell → 2 Cell → 4 Cell → 8 Cell → 16 Cell → 32 Cell (Morula)

Gatekeeping

- The process by which a small number of people/corporations control what info is presented to the media - Gatekeepers are predominantly white, male, and wealthy

Source Monitoring

- The process of making attributions about the origins of memories. - Ex: Can't forget if the yield sign was in original video or in the written description)

Spontaneous Recovery

- The reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred

Id (Innate)

- The reservoir of all psychic energy. The id seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation - Made up all instincts and wants to get rid of all uncomfortable feelings

Overview of Social Inequality

- The resources in a society are unevenly distributed. Upper, middle, and lower class based on incomes. As you go up the social latter, have better access to education, healthcare, and housing - Poverty also face considerable barriers to obtaining same healthcare, education, and other resources - People may also feel increasingly socially excluded, live in segregated neighborhood, and feel politically disempowered

"I" Message

- The response of the individual to the "me". "I" thinks about what those things mean (attitude of others) - Ex: Is the best for me to go to college from HS, or work first or travel for a few years

Dominant Response

- The response that is most common in a given situation

Bureaucracy

- The rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations (DOES NOT mean something negative, lines, or red tape)

Means of Production

- Way we produce goods (factories and farms). Owned by fairly wealthy individuals, which hire a large amount of workers which offer labor without owning any means of production - Class divide between upper and lower class

Projection (Immature)

- Throw your attributes to someone else - like accusing another person of being jealous when you are the one being jealous - Causes projective identification

Spindle

- Tiny little receptor/sensor located in our muscles, and sends signals that go up to spinal cord and to the brain. Has a protein that is sensitive to stretching

Pleasure Principle (Id)

- To gain pleasure or avoid pain. to accomplish this it uses: 1) Reflex actions 2) Primary processes 3) Wish fulfillment

Function of Behavior

- To keep homeostasis, a maintained of a constant internal condition. - Behavior is coordinated internal and external response of an organism/groups of organisms to their environment - Functioning in the realm of adaptation to help maintain our homeostasis

Primary Appraisal

- Assessing stress in present situation. 3 categories of response to this primary appraisal (irrelevant, benign/positive, stressful/negative - Irrelevant: I see stress, but it is not important - Benign/Positive: Dinosaur takes out the dog - rabbits enemy - Stressful/Negative: Stressor is actually threatening (rabbit having to run away from dog)

Classical Conditioning (Learned)

- Associate one stimuli with another stimuli that produces a specific response - Ex: Freaking out (Conditioned Response) because of a fire alarm because the fire and alarm (Conditioned Stimulus) are paired stimuli. The UCS was the fire

Face Validity

- A measure of how representative a research project is 'at face value,' and whether it appears to be a good project.

Relearning

- A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

Split-Half Method (Internal Reliability)

- A method for assessing internal consistency by checking the results of one-half of a set of scaled items against the results from the other half.

Implosive Therapy

- A method for decreasing anxiety by exposing the client to an imaginary anxiety stimulus. The method is risky because overexposure can actually increase anxiety.

Algorithm

- A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Cannabis (Marijuana)

- A mix of all. Can be a hallucinogen and also be a depressant or a stimulant

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

- A model of how the size of a population changes as a country develops its economy

Dopamine

- A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system. - Produced in the ventral tegmental area, arcurate nucleus, and substantia nigra

Norepinephrine

- A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation - Locus coeruleus in pons releases it to cerebral cortex.

Serotonin

- A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood. - Released by lots of nuclei from all over the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) called raphe nuclei to cerebral cortex release serotonin. - Raphe nuclei also send serotonin to other parts of the nervous system

Molecular Genetics

- A new field of science that looks at the molecular structure and function of genes.

Receptive Aphasia

- A person will be able to read or hear, however she will be unable to understand meaning of communication - Fluent Aphasia

Power (Weber)

- A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others, particularly in their ability to engage social change - Ex: Individuals in government jobs, such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation

Class (Weber)

- A person's economic position in society, usually associated with income, wealth, and occupation, and sometimes associated with political voice - Based on birth and individual achievement.

Congruency

- A person's ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar

Status/Prestige (Weber)

- A person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society. Weber notes that political power is not rooted in capital value solely, but also in one's individual status - Ex: Poets or saints can have extensive influence on society despite few material resources

Trait Theory

- A personality trait is stale predisposition towards a certain behavior. Straightforward way to describe personality (pattern of behavior)

Social Stratification

- A society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political). - Upper Class, Middle Class, and Lower Class

Self-Report Study

- A type of survey, questionnaire, or poll in which respondents read the question and select a response by themselves without researcher interference - Any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs and so on

Cocktail Party Effect

- Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd or when someone calls your name

Conduction Aphasia (Associative Aphasia)

- Ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted

Fluid Intelligence

- Ability to reason quickly and abstractly, such as when solving novel logic problems - Ex: Solving Puzzles

Nociception

- Ability to sense or perceive pain - SLOW

Bipolar and Related Disorders

- Abnormal negative mood, bu these may have periods of abnormally positive mood called mania

Internal (Dispositional Attribution)

- About them

Olfactory Bulb

- Above the cribriform plate and an extension from the brain. A bundle of nerves that sends little projections through cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off

Weaker Genetic Traits

- Achievement, Closeness

Non-Inherited (Learned Characteristic)

- Acquired only through observation/experience

Covert Orienting

- Act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement

Regression (Neurotic)

- Acting like a baby in some situation (whining, temper tantrum)

Endocrine Response

- Action of a cell from a hormone at a distance - Play a role in the development of muscles and bones - The adrenal medulla release catecholamine's (epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline). Catecholamine's are tyrosine derivatives. Developed from ectoderm. - The adrenal cortex release glucocorticoid (cortisol) - steroid hormone redistributes glucose energy in body and suppressing immune system. Developed by endoderm. (Acronym: COTisol is released by the CORTex)

Relative Deprivation Theory

- Actions of groups that are oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. - Ex. Civil Rights Movements

Distal Stimulus

- Actual stimulus or object in the real world that you end up sensing and then perceiving, which results in proximal stimulus

Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 - 20)

- Adolescents develop a coherent sense of self and their role in society or they face identity/role confusion. - Virtue is fidelity, seeing oneself as unique. - Failure is role confusion and can cause rebellion and unhappiness

Adoption Studies

- Adopted child is compared to biological family and their adopted family. - Biological parents have shared gene to an adopted child but the parents

Emotional Social Support

- Affection, love, trust, caring. The type that involves listening and emphasizing. - Can include physical support. Provided by those closest to you

ABC Model of Attitude

- Affective, Behavioral, Cognitive

Muscle Stretch Reflex

- Afferent: stimulus / somatosensory neurons, form an excitatory synapse in spinal cord - Efferent: response, lower motor neurons - Both occur on same side in knee jerk reflex. - Does not use brain/cerebrum

Amygdala

- Aggression center. If you stimulate amygdala, produce anger/violence and fear/anxiety - If you destroy it, get mellowing effect

Overcompensation (Maladaptive Coping Mechanism)

- Aggression, Hostility: Counterattacks through defying, abusing, blaming, attacking, or criticizing others - Dominance, Excessive Self Assertion: Controls others through direct means to accomplish goals - Recognition-Seeking, Status-Seeking: Overcompensates through impressing, high-achievement, status, attention-seeking Manipulation, Exploitation: Meets own needs through covert manipulation, seduction, dishonesty, or conning - Passive Aggressiveness, Rebellion: Appears overtly compliant while punishing others or rebelling covertly through procrastination, pouting, "backstabbing", lateness, complaining, rebellion, non-performance - Excessive Orderliness, Obsessionally: Maintains strict order, tight self control, or high level of predictability through order and planning.

Group Meetings

- Alcohol anonymous or Narcotics anonymous involve 12 step program that help people go through process of recovery - Three of the steps are acceptance, surrender, and active involvement

Gordon Allport Trait Theory

- All of us have different traits. Came up with list of 4500 different descriptive words for traits.

Criticism of Asch Conformity Studies

- All participants came from the same population (male from undergrad and female from minority) - Participants knew they were coming in for study and were suspicious

Factors to Influence Decision Making

- All they view do not have equal influence. Viewpoint shared by majority of members of group. - Arguments made tend to favor popular/majority group view. Any criticism is for minority view.

Correlation (Statistics)

- All variables examined are continuous. Makes no assumptions about causation. - (1) is perfect correlation coefficient - (-1) is opposite - (0) is random

TrypV1 receptor

- Allow us to sense temperature (thermoception) also sensitive to pain (nociception) - Heat causes a conformational change in the physical structure in the protein

Directed Attention

- Allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task

Class System

- Allows for degree of social mobility, combination of background and movement, often by education. Less stability

Language (Symbolic Interactionism)

- Allows humans to generate meaning through interactions, and humans modify meanings to thought processes

BioPsychoSocial Model

- Also considers abnormalities and might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorder but also includes psychological and cultural/social factors that might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorder

Low-Effort Syndrome

- Also known as low-effort coping and it refers to the coping responses of minority groups in an attempt to fit into the dominant culture - Ex: Minority students at school may learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe they are being discriminated by a dominant culture

Authoritative Parenting

- Also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. - Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline

Community Building

- An orientation to practice focused on community, rather than a strategic framework or approach, and on building capacities, not fixing problems - Enforcer of social norms

Reinforcement (Operant Conditioning)

- Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Aggression

- Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy - ExL Physical, verbal, or spreading a malicious rumor

Pleasure Principle (Freud)

- As a young child (or if you are immature) you want to immediately feel pleasure to avoid suffering. Not willing to compromise. Fill task of gratification - Ex: I want the candy now

Identification (Freud)

- As children develop, there comes a time in which the child must adopt characteristic of one parent - During this, the child adopts characteristics of same-sex parent. - Freud stated that this process also involves the development of the child's supergo

Urban Decline

- As people move out of city centers, city can fall into disrepair. Buildings abandoned, unemployment/crime rises. Population of city declines.

Method of Adjustment - Method of Average Error

- Asks subject to control the level of the stimulus, instructs them to alter it until it is just barely detectable against background noise

Theory of Intersectionality

- Asks us to consider all the different levels of discrimination - Ex: Individuals position within a social hierarchy is determined not only by social class, but by race or authority

Vibrational Theory of Olfaction

- Asserts that the vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor profile.

Criterion Validity

- Assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities. - "Is the test valid". Refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome

Pavlov

- Associated with classical conditioning. Places a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger an involuntary response - Ex: Ringing a bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating

Insula

- Associated with disgust with basal ganglia. Anterior insula receives signals from the senses of olfaction and gustation - Posterior insula receives signals from audition and somatosensation (rear or body)

Mesolimbic Pathway

- Associated with reward, motivation, and many of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Extrinsic Motivation

- Associated with rewards or obligated behavior. Motivation to do something based on an external reward (money or fame)

Orbitofrontal Cortex

- Associated with the processing of both positively and negatively balanced emotions - When activity is lowered in the right hemisphere, euphoria is experienced - When activity is lowered in left hemisphere, depression is reported - Vision, taste, olfaction, and touch are all first integrated

Semantics

- Association of meaning with a word. Semantics are broad meanings of each word, phrase, sentence, or text

Temporal Monotocity

- Assumes that adding pain at end of painful experience will worsen retrospective evaluation of experienced pain and adding pleasure at end will enhance retrospective evaluation

Suspensory Ligaments

- Attached to a ciliary muscle and these two things together form the ciliary body which is what secretes the aqueous humor

Multitasking/Divided Attention

- Attempting to do more than one thing at the same time. This can be tougher when tasks are similar and harder Becomes better with practice

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory

- Attention, Memory, Imitation, Memory - Ex: Want to teach you to draw a star. In order to learn it, need a long enough attention span, the memory to remember it, and be able to imitate it. Question is, are you motivated enough to do it? If you are, you do the action (draw the star)

Attitude to Behavior Process Model (Attitude)

- Attitude → Behavior - An event triggers our attitude. Then attitude + outside knowledge together determines behavior - Ex: Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, because of relative heart disease. So at home, he does not eat junk food

Prejudice

- Attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. - Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences - Ex: CEO doesn't think women are capable of running a team

Sexual Orientation

- Attraction and Fornication. Not dependent on sex or gender of person. You can be attracted to any gender but only have sex with females, or any combination - Stereotype norm is straight. Many differences between men and women, discrimination and pay - Women > 50% but treated as minority and Men have narrow definition of masculinity - Ex: Some differences (success in school - hard work in girls and intelligence in boys).

Consciousness

- Awareness of ourself and environment. Can have different levels of consciousness and can be natural or be induced by external factors (drugs)

Genital Stage (Puberty on)

- Back on libido. Because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs - Now focus on needs of others. No adult fixation - person is mentally healthy. Goal is to establish balance between various life areas

Age

- Based on age different cohorts. Each generation have similar events and time periods - Elderly people have harder time with health insurance

Reactivity

- Because the observer is a participant in the activities and events being observed - Easy to influence other people's behaviors, thereby raising the problem of reactivity

Events that Inspired Milgram Studies on Obedience

- Began in 1961, important because often studies are conducted in response to something (Holocaust)

Endocrine System Relation to Behavior

- Behavior coordinated response to environment - Hormones effect how we respond to attitude/personality - Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Control what your body is doing physiologically with your mind (when you are afraid, epinephrine causes increase heart rate)

Psychological Factors (Depression)

- Behavioral Theory: Uncontrollable stressors. "Learned Helplessness" - Cognitive Theory: Negative cognitive triad. People with depression have a negative view of themselves, the world around them, and the future - Casual attribution: Locus of control - internal vs. external. Stable* vs. Unstable

Innate Behavior

- Behavioral traits - genetically programmed behavior. Present at birth and requires no experience with the environment

Learned Behaviors

- Behavioral traits, that are persistent changes in our behavior that result from our experiences (not present at birth, but acquired after experience)

Taboos (Norms)

- Behaviors completely forbidden or wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more - Ex: Incest and cannibalism

Social Exclusion

- Being an integral member of society has lots of advantages - access to good social networks, housing, educational resources, and resources in community - Certain individuals can be excluded to the peripheries of society, and are prevented from participating in society - Education, Housing, and Employment are important factors

Self-Efficacy (Bandura)

- Belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation/ to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation - More specific than self-esteem and has impact on everything from psychological states, to behavior and motivation

Egoism

- Belief that a of our behaviors and actions are based on the benefit that we will receive from it

Psychosexual Theory of Development (Freud)

- Believed early childhood was the most important age/period in which personality developed - Most of personality developed by age 5 and early experiences play a large role in personality development which later influences behavior in life

Sociocultural Cognitive Development Theory (Vygotsky)

- Believed learned actively through hands-on processes, and suggest parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for higher function of learning - Child internalizes information with interactions with others

Recognition

- Best out of 3 test/easiest to recall. Present two words and say which one you heard. Retrieval of correct word is highly likely - Ex: What was on the list? Fork or spoon and you answer fork

Positive of Incentive

- Better allocation of resources, higher product output, more employment worldwide, and cheaper prices - Free-Trade encourages cultural practice/expressions to be passed/spread abroad from group to group (diffusion)

Exurbs

- Beyond suburbs, prosperous areas outside the city where people live and commute to city to work, like suburbs - Rochester outside Detroit, Michigan and Woodlands near Houston, Texas

Hypertension and Vascular Disease

- Biggest physical effects of stress - Disease of blood vessels - get damaged with higher force of blood movement

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

- Bilateral destruction of amygdala can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior

Adaptive Associations

- Biological advantage and are learned faster than learning with no biological value.

Sex

- Biological factor (XX or XY). Non-binary. Intersex people have 1 or 3+, so express different characteristics

Jeffery Alan Gray

- Biopsychological theory of personality proposed personality is governed by the behavioral inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system

Blastulation

- Blastocyte: Now the inside - cluster more and you develop an inner cell mass and blastocoel (hollow space). Zona pellucida disintegrates - Bilamar disk (epiblast + hypoblast)

Implantation

- Blastula moves through fallopian tube to the uterus & burrows into the endometrium

Global Aphasia

- Both Broca's Aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia are damaged. Globally affects language - Result of damage to large portion of the left hemisphere. Difficulty producing speech, understanding speech, and unable to read and write

Avoidant-Avoidant Conflicts

- Both options are unappealing

Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution

- Both physical traits and behaviors can be selected for if they contribute to success of the species - Ex: In Biology, Physical traits can be selected for - Ex: Behaviors can be selected for: If they contribute to fitness of a species

Unconscious Mind

- Bottom part of the iceberg and is the larger part of the mind (mostly unconscious). - Consists of primitive, instinctual wishes and information that cannot be accessed

Thesis (Conflict Theory)

- Bourgeoisie ran factories and working class provided labor. Thesis causes the formation of the reaction - New thesis included equal rights and women's suffrage movements

Central Nervous System (CNS)

- Brain and spinal cord - Brain includes cerebrum, cerebral hemispheres, brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla), and cerebellum - Forebrain becomes cerebrum, midbrain becomes midbrain, and hindbrain becomes pons/medulla/cerebellum

Tonotopical Mapping

- Brain can distinguish different frequencies

Neuroplasticity

- Brain changes in response to experience (not sure if it is cause or effect)

Disruptive, Impluse Control and Conduct Disorders

- Distress/disability from behaviors that are unacceptably disruptive or impulsive for someone's culture. Inability to control inappropriate behaviors

Paraphillic Disorder

- Distress/disability from having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli for a person's culture. Must cause distress/disability or if causes harm to another person, particularly people or a child who does not have decision making capacity for proper consent

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder

- Distress/disability from obsessions or compulsions.

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorder

- Distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to illness unrelated to mental disorder, but of psychological origin with or without having a general medical condition at the same time - Ex: Someone that has abdominal pain, caused by psychological disorders such as stress without any physical signs

Elimination Disorders

- Distress/disability from urination/defecation at inappropriate times or places - Ex: Urinary accidents

Personality Disorders

- Distress/disability related to personality. Involves long-term mental and behavioral features that are characteristic of a person, huge spectrum of personality types considered acceptable from a culture

Gestation

- Divide it into months (9-10 months) or trimesters (3 months each) or divide into weeks (10/20/30/40 weeks) - LMP (Time 0) = Last menstrual period - Fertilization (Week 2) = Egg + Sperm Combines - Embryogenesis (Week 10) = Fetal Development - Birth at 24 weeks: 50% survival Birth at 40 weeks: Full Term - End of Gestation: Birth

Cerebral Cortex

- Divided by the Left and Right hemispheres - Right handed people are positive (positive emotions evoke more activity on left side) - Negative emotions evoke more activity on right side (more timid, fearful, depressed has more activity on right)

Functionalist

- Division of labor in government and economy. Everyone is required to have responsibility in society - We value jobs that require lots of specialization, rather than jobs essential in our society - Ex: Garbage men (essential to society) not as valued as athletes (non-essential)

Nature vs. Nurture

- Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being?

Filiform Papillae

- Do not contain taste buds and exist all over the tongue. The center of tongue contains only this

Gender Queer

- Do not identify as male or female

Taste/Small

- Do not synapse on the thalamus. Oribofrontal cortex is the first place of integration

Ecological Validity (Criticism of Asch Conformity)

- Do the conditions of the study mimic those of real world. If they don't, we can only make limited conclusions. A lone in lab is not same as conformity in real world

Transformational Perspective

- Doesn't have specific cause or outcome. Believe national governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change - They see the world order is changing. Just a new world order is being developing. CHANGING

Dominant Groups - Racial and Ethnic Variation

- Dominant group ascribed some racial identity to members of racial group they didn't identify for themselves

Exogenous/External Cues

- Don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture out attention. "bright colors, loud noises"

Acrosome Reaction (Step 2)

- Enzymes leak into zona pellucida and digest it. Sperm gets closer to plasma membrane of egg

2 Main Neurotransmitters in Peripheral Nervous System

- Epinephrine and Acetylcholine (main)

Escape

- Escape an unpleasant stimulus once it has occurred (stimuli has element of surprise) - The response is conditioned (escaping) in response to a stimuli and then stimuli goes away

Aversive Control

- Escape and Avoidance Learning - Situations where behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant - examples of negative reinforcement (removing undesirable stimulus following correct behavior)

Churches

- Established religious bodies in a larger society

Secondary Appraisal

- Evaluation of the individuals ability to cope with the situation (Harm, threat, and challenge) - Harm: What damage has already been caused - Threat: How much damage could be caused - Challenge: How can the situation be overcome or conquered

Normative Influence

- Even if you know what's right, do what group does to avoid social rejection

Iron Rule of Oligarchy

- Even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they are governed by select few - Conflict theory explains it. Once a person gains leadership in role organization and they might be hesitant to give it up - Also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valueable

Episodic Memory (Explicit)

- Event-related memories like last birthday party

Completeness (Rational Choice Theory)

- Every action can be ranked - Ex: A is preferable to B which is preferable to C (C isn't to A) (A>B>C)

Modified Semantic Network

- Every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. Some links might be shorter/longer for different individuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories to exemplars

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

- Everything else. Cranial (12 pairs) and Spinal Nerves (31 pairs) - Nerves, Ganglia, Afferent and Efferent Neurons

Surface Traits

- Evident from a person's behavior

Cultural Universals

- Ex: All cultures have ways of dealing with illness/medicine/healing or wedding/funeral ceremonies.

Misleading Information

- Ex: Participants watched a traffic safety video in which they observed a car crash, and then then participants were asked questions on what happened and the key question was "how fast cars were the cars going when they hit each other" "Some people got the question with the word "hit" and some got "smash". Those participants who received the question with the word "smashed", they were more likely to say there was glass on the ground in the video (even though there was not any glass on the ground)

Non Associative Learning

- Ex: You are sitting in a bedroom and you hear a thunder clap which results in you jumping out of your bed (Habituation, Sensitization, or Same)

Retrospective Chart Study

- Examine past charts

Freudian Slip

- Example of a mental conflict - Ex: Financially stressed patient, please don't give me any bills - meant any pills

2 Cues to Direct Attention

- Exogenous/External Cues and Endogenous/Internal Cues

Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)

- Expanded ideas of what can be included in intelligence. Gardner divided into 7 and 9 independent intelligence (they don't depend on each other and hence intelligence in 1 area does not predict intelligence in another way) - Logical-Mathematical Intelligence, Verbal-Linguistic, Spatial-Visual, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Musical. Later 2 added: Naturalist, and Existential Intelligence.

Ludwig Gumplowicz (Conflict Theory)

- Expanded on Marx by proposing that society is shaped by war/conquest, and cultural/ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others

Sick-Role

- Expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities . However, if you don't get better or return you are viewed as deviant

Factors of Absolute Threshold

- Expectations: When you are expecting a text - Experience: How familiar you are with it (Phone text vibration sound) - Motivation: You are interested in the response of the text - Alertness: Are you awake or drowsy (Notice text if awake)

Coping (Managing Stress)

- Expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize or tolerate stress or conflict

Positive (Obedience)

- Firefighter tells you to not enter a building because it is on fire (probably acknowledge authority and obey)

Culture (Fundamental Attribution Error)

- Fundamental attribution error occurs more in individualistic societies who place an emphasis on individual achievement - Individualistic Cultures: Success is over-attributed to internal and failure is over-attributed to external/situational factors - Collectivist Cultures: Success is attributed to external and failure to internal factors

Amino Acid Neurotransmitters

- GABA (CNS) and Glycine (PNS) and Glutate

Chemical/Olfactory Signals (Animal Communication)

- Gain information from environment through smells. They can so release scents for human communication called pheromones - Can detect predators using smell, or presence of other animals. These signals are a lot slower than sound, but longer lasting

Cohort Study

- Following a subset of a population over a lifetime. Group of people who share common characteristic in period of time - Ex: People born and exposed to same pollutant/drug

Economically Opportunity in Life

- For Latin/African Americans, cost of education can be quite high because they statistically work lower wage jobs

Law of Common Fate

- For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units

Critical Period (Sensitive Period)

- For language development, meaning that a window of opportunity exists during which language develops most rapidly and with the greatest ease.

Standardized Test

- Form of test that requires all test takers to answer the same questions, or a selection of questions from common bank - It is scored in a consistent manner, which makes it possible to compare the relative performance

Cognitive (Attitude Component)

- Form thoughts/beliefs, and have knowledge about subject/topic that will influence and shape attitude - Ex: I believe spiders are dangerous which forms attitude

Formal and Informal Norms

- Formal norms are written down and informal norms are understood but less precise and have no specific punishments

Secondary Groups

- Formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. Do a few goal-directed activities with these people

Ganglion Cells

- Found in the retina and these cells send signals to the ganglion cells

Bipolar Cells

- Found in the retina and they send visual signals from the rods and cones to the ganglion cells.

Culture is Transmitted

- From one generation to the next. We teach a way of life to the next generation. Humans are only mammals with culture to adapt to environments

Mirror Neurons

- Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy. - Support observational learning

Consummate (Innate Characteristic)

- Fully developed right away, at first performance. Not influenced by experience - Ex: Nausea in women during pregnancy helps them avoid toxic foods/novel-strongly flavored food in critical period of development. Thought of as programmed.

Growth Rate

- How much population of a country grows or shrinks over a period of time - It is not always a positive number. While world population grows, growth rate is negative - [(People Added - People Removed)/(Initial Population)] * 100

Intelligence

- Intelligence Quotient. A mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems, and use your knowledge to adapt to new situations

Fixed Mindset

- Intelligence is biologically set and unchanging - Praise that reinforces a fixed mindset describes characteristics and actions as innate and unchangeable

Growth Mindset

- Intelligence is changeable if you learn more - Praises effort, perseverance, improvement, and strategies rather than end result "You worked hard on your assignment"

Locus Coeruleus

- A small area of the brain that seems to be active in the regulation of emotions. Many of its neurons use norepinephrine.

Thermoception

- Ability to sense or detect temperature - SLOW

Risk Factors

- Actions or behaviors that represent a potential health threat

People Share Culture in Society

- All people share culture with others in their society, provides rules and expectations for carrying out daily rituals and interactions

Regression (Statistics)

- All variables examined are continuous

Divided Attention

- Attention is a limited resource. Can't split it very well. Doing 2x at once you end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously - Occurs when an individual must perform two tasks which require attention, simultaneously

Treisman's Attenuation Theory

- Attenuator can weaken incoming signals. - Sensory register->attenuator-> perceptual process -> conscious

Stereotyping

- Attributing a certain thought or cognition to a group of individuals and overgeneralizing - Can involve race, gender, culture, religion, shoe size - Ex: People who wear glasses are smarter, people who live in cities are abrasive

Dispositional Attribution

- Attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits (internal characteristics/personalities of people)

Anthromorphism

- Attributing human characteristics to non-human animals - We can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretation as we cannot speak to animals - Ex: Pet sleeping with you at night and you can assume that they love you but maybe they are just there because of body heat

Situational Attribution

- Attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck (due to situation)

Continuous Reinforcement

- Becomes less reinforcing so there is a need for ulterior reinforcement. - Occurs on a 1:1 ration (each behavior, there is a reward) - Discovered by B.F. Skinner via reward schedules with animals but apply to animals

Stage 1: Pre-Processing Stage due to Target Characteristics

- Before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by interest, motivation, important - Central and Peripheral Processing

Why do People move to Urban Areas

- Began during industrial revolution, losing jobs on farms due to machines and technology - Improve utilities and now there are more job opportunities and options for education/healthcare

Bottom-Up Processing

- Begins with stimulus and it influences what we perceive (our perception) - No preconceived cognitive constructs of stimulus - Data Driven and the stimulus directs cognitive awareness of what you are looking at - Inductive Reasoning: Always correct

Situational Approach

- Behavior is determined by the environment and context

Hypothalamus

- Below the thalamus. For limbic system, it regulates the Autonomic Nervous System (fight or flight vs. rest and digest) - Controlling endocrine system by triggers hormones like epinephrine/norepinephrine; responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex

Lens

- Bends the light so it goes to back of eyeball - focused light specifically on the fovea of the retina. Adjust how much it bends the light by changing its shape, using the suspensory ligaments

Birth Rate

- Birth/1000 people per year

Narcolepsy

- Can't help themselves from falling asleep.

Buildup of Acetaldehyde

- Causes symptoms such as nausea, headache, flushing of the face, and internal organ damage

Significant Life Changes

- Changes in your personal life (Death of loved one, marriage, loss of job, having children)

Prospective Cohort

- Design follows a group of individuals over a period of time

Coronary Artery Disease

- Disease of the arteries surrounding the heart

Ecclesia

- Dominant religious organization that includes most members of society - Ex: Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran

Acronym (Mnemonic Device)

- Each of the letter of a popular word you know stands for the first letter of a set of words you need to remember

Pluralism

- Encourages racial and ethnic variation

Social Stigma

- Extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society (social stigma and self-stigma) - Associated with stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination. Derived from symbolic interactionist perspective - Ex: Stereotype is mentally ill are violent (cognition), I become scared of mentally ill (affect, prejudice), so may not want to live with them or hire them (behavior, discrimination)

Fixation

- Getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem

Corticobulbar Tract

- If the axons go to the brainstem

Outsourcing

- Made possible by globalization and can hurt core country - Leads to greater profits for company and more employment in host-countries

False Memories

- Memories that incorporate hypnotizers expectations even when not intended

Drive-Reduction

- Negative Reinforcement

Stereotypic (Innate Characteristic)

- Performed the same way each time

Secondary Trait

- Preferences or attitude - Ex: Love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat

Positive Feedback

- Process that increase production of product. One product stimulates production of another product - Ex: Domino or chain effect

Systematic Desensitization

- Process that involves teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. Works great with phobias

Working Memory

- Processing anything that you are think ing about at this particular moment

Survey

- Provide a way to sample and measure

Anterograde Memory

- Refers to ability to form long-term memories after brain injury

Agender

- Rejecting gender categories

Race

- Socially defined category based on physical differences between groups of people

Broca's Area

- Speak/Language Expression and Frontal Lobe

GCPR Receptors

- Sweet, Umami, Bitter cells rely on these receptors

Etiology

- The study of the causes of diseases

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

- The threshold at which you are able to notice a change in any sensation

Dysgraphia

- Writing disorder (removed)

Activity Theory

Looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Lost social interactions (work, certain activities) need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged

Fads

- "Fleeting behavior" is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popular just as quickly. - Last for short period of time, but reach influence of large number of people in that time - Ex: Cinnamon Challenge

Conformity

- "Peer Pressure", tendency for people to bring behavior in line with group norms. Powerful in social situations

Motion Parallax

- "Relative motion" and that things further away move slower, and closer moves faster.

Parasympathetic

- "Rest and Digest" opposite effects of sympathetic nervous system Effects: 1) Pupils constrict 2) Increased salivation 3) Decrease respiratory rate/decreased heart rate 4) Increase glucose storage (digesting food) 5) Decrease in adrenaline 6) Increase digestion

Sympathetic

- "Result due to fear" - Effects: 1)Pupils dilate 2) Decrease in salivation 3) Increase respiration rate (more O2) 4) Increase heart rate (more O2) 5) Increase glucose release (more energy) 6) Increase adrenaline (epinephrine and norepinephrine) 7) Decrease in digestion (too much energy)

"Out" Group

- "THEM". Group we are not associated with, "group of people who we do not feel connected too"

Total Population Increase Rate

- (# of birth + # immigration)/1000 multiply this by population number

Total Population Decrease Rate

- (# of deaths + # of emigrants)/1000 = rate multiply rate of population #

Delta Waves EEG

- (0.5-3Hz) and slower/lower frequency than theta waves. Deep sleep or coma

Beta Waves EEG

- (12-30Hz) and is associated with awake/concentration. If you are alert for too long, beta levels get high and you experience increased stress, anxiety, restlessness

Theta Waves EEG

- (4-7Hz) and these are slower/lower frequency than alpha waves. Drowsiness is right after you fall asleep (sleeping lightly)

Biological Factors

- 1st Factor that regulates food, sex, and drugs - Hormones and brain regulates each drive by controlling them automatically and unconsciously

Asch Conformity Studies

- 1st Trial: Each participant everyone gives what is obviously the right answer. - 2nd Trial: Same occurrence (Error Rate < 1%) - 3rd Trial: Answer remains just as obvious, but the first participants gives the wrong answer. Second group member than gives the same wrong answer (75% of participants give wrong answer - conform, and 37% conform) - Other participants of group were confederates (actors) and were told what to do by experimenter. Purpose was to determine if the real test participant would go along with the other group confederates incorrect decision

Behavioral Effects of Stress

- 2 areas of brain with most glucocorticoid (secreted in response to stress) receptors are hippocampus and frontal cortex

Kitty Genovese

- 28 year old woman living in NYC who was stabbed, raped, and robbed while 38 people were witnesses. Attack was on for 30 min and she was pleading for help and victim later returned to kill her. All 38 people never took action because there were so many other people present

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg)

- 3 Independent Intelligences based on real world success. Analytical (problem solving ability), Creative Intelligence, and Practical Intelligence

Parathyroid

- 4 spots back of thyroid and it regulates calcium level

Marshmallow Test

- 4 year old given choice take marshmallow now or wait 10 minutes, until researchers returns, and have 2. at age 18, group who took marshmallow was more irritated, had more fights, still couldn't delay gratification. second group, ones who waited, had 210pt advantage on SAT's, more popular, could still delay gratification

Retinal Disparity

- A binocular cue for perceiving depth. Gives humans an idea on DEPTH - The image is different based on the angle of the eyes

Wernicke's Encephalopathy

- A brain disorder caused by thiamine deficiency and characterized by visual disturbances, ataxia, somnolence, stupor, and , without thiamine replacement, death. - Nt progressive, unlike Alzheimer's and if people are diagnosed and treated, they can better

Shape Constancy

- A changing shape still maintains the same shape perception - Ex: A door opening means the shape is changing. But we still believe the door a rectangle

Antipsychotics

- A class of psychotropic medications used for the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorders that involve psychosis - Manage psychosis (delusions, hallucinations, paranoia, disordered thought) - Both types block dopamine pathways and cause Parkinson like symptoms - Treat anxiety with dementia, OCD, and anxiety disorder

Basal Forebrain

- A collection of structures located to the front of and below the striatum. Includes the nucleus accumbens, nucleus basilis, and medial septal nuclei.

Correlation Coefficient

- A correlation coefficient that is below -1 is likely the result of an error by the experimenter when computing the correlation between developmental dyslexia and illiteracy

Consumer Culture

- A culture in which personal worth and identity reside not in the people themselves but in the products with which they surround themselves

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

- A disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolism of phenylalanine - Consumption of diet soda during pregnancy does not directly cause

Counterconditioning (Stimulus Substitution)

- A form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus. - Common treatment for aggression, fears, and phobias. Weaker stimulus is replaced by stronger stimulus.

g-factor

- A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity

General Intelligence - Spearman

- A general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Slum

- A heavily populated urban informal settlement characterized by substandard housing and squalor

Means-End Analysis (Heuristics)

- A heuristic where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems. - When we attack the problem that has the most difference between current and goal state - Biggest --> Smallest Problem --> Current State --> Goal State - Ex: Planning a trip to a new country where biggest problem is getting to the country

Door in Face Phenomenon

- A persuasion method in which the individual begins by making a large request that most likely will be turned down. After this large initial request is denied, the person makes a more reasonable request that is now more likely to be granted.

Deindividuation

- A phenomenon that occurs when immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values (loss of self) - Ex: People on Black Friday. Internet (anonymous platform)

Positive Priming

- A positive prime speeds up processing. caused by simply experiencing the stimulus. Positive priming is thought to be caused by spreading activation.

Trial and Error

- A problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work.

Detoxification

- A process in which the body adjusts to functioning without alcohol - To treat detoxification, separating addict from the drug. Sometimes require strong medications for strong addictions.

Diathesis-Stress Model

- A psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a predispositional vulnerability together with stress from life experiences.

Quasi-Experimental Design

- A quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design but lacks random assignment. - This type of design describes an effect on specific cohort of the population

Twin Studies

- A research design in which hereditary influence is assessed by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.

Limbic System

- A set of structures in the brain, and many structures play an important role in regulating emotions - Responsible for storage/retrieval of memories, especially ones tied to emotions - Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, Hippocampus (HAT Hippo)

Lexicon

- A set of vocabulary items. Entire set of morphemes in a language

Oligarchy

- A small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution

Neutral Stimuli

- A stimuli you can sense by taste, sight, or hearing it. Typically does not produce the reflex being tested

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

- A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

Raphe Nuclei

- A string of nuclei in the midline of the midbrain and brainstem that contain most of the serotonergic neurons of the brain

Insight

- A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem (aha approach)

Cochlear Implants

- A surgical procedure that attempts to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with sensorineural narrow hearing loss (nerve deafness) - Needed when you have a problem with conduction of sound waves from cochlea to brain

Qualitative Survey

- A survey which indicates if a species is present or not

Quantitative Survey

- A survey which records or estimates the numbers of a species (in a particular ecosystem).

Operational Span Testing

- A task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification and then ready the word, with a recall test following some number fo those and verify/read pairs

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

- A three-stage physiological response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered - Alarm Phase: Stress reaction kicks in, heart races, resources mobilized ("Ready for fight or flight") - Resistance: Fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, body bathed in cortisol - Exhaustion: If resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body stress resources are depleted, our tissues become damaged and our dampened immunity can make us susceptible to illness. Negative impact on long term stress

Somatosensory Humunculus

- A topological map of your body in your brain. Information all comes to the "sensory strip"

Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

- A two-factor theory stating that for an emotion to occur, there must be (1) physiological arousal and (2) a cognitive interpretation or explanation of the arousal, allowing it to be labeled as a specific emotion. - Event → Physiological Response + Identify the reason for situation → Emotion

Conditioned Memory

- A type of memory that is formed based on your associations between two things. For example, if your professor rings a bell at the end of the exam, you will remember the bell as the sign that the exam is over.

Hawthorne Effect

- A type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. - Occurs when an individual participant changes his or her behavior, specifically due to the awareness of being observed

Extrinsic (Learned Characteristic)

- Absent when animals are raised in isolation (social skills)

Rational Techniques

- Accept Reality - Prevent or Correct Injustice: With charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system

Validity

- Accuracy. Items that are high in validity accurately address the construct - Actually getting an answer for something you wish to measure

Other Neurotransmitters

- Acetylcholine (ANS) and Motor Neurons

Methadone

- Activates opiate receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and if heroine is taken the user can't experience the high because receptors are already filled with longer-acting methadone

Compulsions

- Activities that one must do and are often related to obsession

Practice

- Activities well practiced become automatic processes, or things that occur without need for attention

Voxel

- Activity of a particular coordinate in a 3-D space. Exact size will vary depending on technology used

Two Stages of Withdrawal

- Acute: Few weeks, physical withdrawal symptoms and is different for each person - Post-Acute: Fewer physical symptoms, more emotional and physiological symptoms are are the same for everyone

Dealing With Positive/Adaptive/Constructive Coping

- Adequate nutrition, exercise, sleep contribute to stress management, as do physical fitness and relaxation techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation - Humor is also great way

Passive Agression

- Aggressively doing something for someone and failing to do it or doing it slowly. Passive way to express anger

Life-Course Theory

- Aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from the time you are born until you die. - Holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life

Activist Movements

- Aim to change some aspect of society

Sound Waves

- Air molecules are pressurized and try to escape, creating areas of high and low pressure - Sound waves can be far apart or close together

Modernization Theory

- All countries follow similar path of development from traditional to modern society - Looks at internal social dynamics as country adapts to new technologies - Looks at political and social changes that occur during adaptation as well

Step 1 (Mental Process)

- All humans categorize ourselves and others without really realizing it, part of human nature. - Categorize in order to understand objects/identify them. If we assign categories to others, we can make pre-judgements about them - Ex: Categorize to groups (which we belong to and those different) like race (black and white)/job (student/accountant)

Random mating

- All individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other - Not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation - Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity

Amnesia

- Amnesic syndrome is a loss of memory caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs

Limbic System (Change During Adolescence)

- Amygdala: Responsible for emotion/emotional responses (teenagers are moody) - Hypothalamus: Regulates endocrine system (hormones)

Absolute Poverty

- An absolute level at which if you go below, survival is threatened. Minimum level of resources a human being needs to survived

Dependency Ratio

- An age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in the labor force, and compares that to number of people who are 15-64 - Higher the ratio, more dependent people there are - Living longer = older residents can contribute to workforce for longer time

Long Term Potentiation (LTP)

- An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Test Validity

- An indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results

Glass Ceiling Effect

- An invisible barrier limiting career advancement of women and minorities

3 Types of Intelligences

- Analytical, Creative, Practical

3 As of Stress

- Anger: Type A is easily angered individuals, aggressive, competitive and Type B. is easy going - Anxiety: Centers on the amygdala (fear and phobia). Perceive more things as fearful - Addiction: When searching for coping mechanisms there are good options and bad options (alcohol, tobacco)

Solitary Foraging

- Animal looks for food by itself - Ex: Tigers do this

Animal Communication

- Animals are communicating with members of same species - Ex: Some frogs use bright colors to signal they are toxic so communicate with other animals that they should not eat them, cat communicates with a human when they are hungry - They are trying to communicate information about food location. Defend territory and to tell animals to back off. Signal dominance and submission

Group Foraging

- Animals look for food in groups. Hunting based on both your behavior and those around you. Can lead to competition within a group if food is scarce - Benefit of this strategy is that animals can take down larger/more aggressive prey and everyone can benefit - Ex: Lions do this

Biological Backing

- Anterior cingulate (anterior part of frontal cortex) stops responding to serotonin

Haloperidol

- Antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia

Personal Control

- Any control is important; any control people have on their environment even a little has good effect on well-being

Stimulus (S)

- Anything that stimulates your senses (hear, see, smell, touch, taste)

Semantic Memory (Explicit)

- Anytime you are taking a vocabulary test or state capital

Rural

- Anywhere will less than 1000 people per square mile (Farm Country). Has to have less than 25,000 residents

Exchange Theory

- Application of rational choice theory to social interactions. - Looks at society as series of interactions between individuals. Used to study family relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc. - Interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action. - Basic principle behind exchange theory is that the behavior of individual in interaction can be figured out by comparing rewards and punishments (rewards - can be social approval, punishments - negative gestures)

Histrionic (Cluster B)

- Are very attention seeking. Display emotions outwardly, wear bright clothe

Posterior Chamber

- Area behind the iris to back of lens; also filled with aqueous humor

Dermatome

- Area of skin with sensory nerve fibers from a single posterior spinal root ganglion

Ghettoes

- Areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, due to social or economic inequities

Social Constructionism

- Argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement - it's something constructed, not inherent - Social construct is a concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value

Anger

- Associated with left superior temporal sulcus. - Damage to basal ganglia causes problems recognizing angry facial expressions

Prototype Willingness Model (Attitude)

- Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination is what influences behavior 1) Past Behavior 2) Attitude → Behavior 3) Subjective Norms (what others think) 4) Our intentions (our behaviors intentions) 5) Willingness to engage in specific type of behavior 6) Models/Prototyping

Covert Behavior

- Behavior that is not observable

Branch of Epidemiology

- Branch of medicine that deals with the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and other factors relating to health

Social Anomie

- Breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community- society doesn't have the support of a firm collective consciousness. - Can be resolved by strengthening social norms and redeveloping group's set of shared norms. Can lead to uncertainty in social situations.

Synaptic Pruning

- Breaking down connections between certain neurons. - Focus resources on the ones we use the most.

Cognitive Theory

- Bridge between classic behaviorism and other theories like psychoanalytic

Temperament

- Broader than personality. It is their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, shyness and sociability

Gender Inequality (Feminist Theory)

- Central to all behavior/organization in society. Women subordination is viewed as inherent feature. Our society is a patriarchy (men controlled) - Ex: ben Barres began life as women, and after sex change people thought his work was better than his sisters

Discrimination Magnet

- Certain groups may face discrimination, based on their race/gender/sexual orientation/etc

Ways to Improve Self Control

- Change Environment: Make object of your temptation harder to get while making better/healthier options easier to get - Operant Conditioning: Reinforcing good behaviors with rewards. Positive and negative reinforcement or punishment - Classical Conditioning: (Eat healthy snack every time you crave chocolate and over time you might start craving healthy snacks) - Deprivation: Removing the object of temptation completely is problematic. Can make you want it more, and leads to ego depletion.

Privately Conform

- Change behaviors and opinions to align with group - Ex: If you are privately conformed to shock color, you would leave the situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a shock color

Intergenerational Mobility

- Change in social class between generations - Ex: Parent is working class and son is working class.

Neural Plasticity

- Changes in brain size/ and involves function of environmental influences

Prejudice (3 Components)

- Cognition (Stereotypes): fundamental underlying thought, overgeneralized belief - Affect - Prejudice: Carries an emotional component - Discrimination: Tendency for prejudice to lead to behavior and capacity to carry out behavior and act on prejudice

Bias

- Cognitive bias is the tendency to think in certain ways. Cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgement - Failure to be objective

3 Components of Emotion

- Cognitive, Physiological, Behavioral - Emotions are subjective experiences accompanied by physiological, behavioral, and cognitive changes - Ex: "Surprise party when it's your birthday" - Different physiological responses possible

Corticospinal Ttract

- Collection of axons

Long Tracts

- Collection of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem. (motor and somatosensory)

Somatosenation

- Collection of senses that allow you to perceive the body and its position in space

Complex Behavior

- Combination of innate and learned behavior. Relationship between genes and environment in adaption - Ex: Ability of insects to fly, starts off as innate but through learning become more efficient in ability to fly

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

- Common after wars, or other traumatic experiences (rape, or natural disasters)

Depression and Bipolar Disorder

- Condition where someone swings from extreme emotional highs to extreme emotional lows - Mania: High optimism, high energy, high self-esteem, euphoria, poor judgement

Substance-Induced Disorders

- Conditions that are caused by substance. Can be substance induced mood disorders (high mood -mania/low mood - depression), or disorders related to anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis (loss of contact with reality, characterized by seeing things, hearing voices, becoming paranoid).

Role Conflict

- Conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different statuses compete for someone's time - Ex: Someone who is a parent, friend, husband, and worker

Brainstem

- Connect all parts of the brain together, including the cranial nerves - Midbrain pons, medulla (medulla oblongata)

Arcuate Fascilicus

- Connects Broca's to Wernicke's by a bundle of nerve areas are connected by bundle of nerves fibers - Found in deaf people who know sign language. Not specific to spoken language, but brain adapts to whatever modality is needed for communication.

Corpus Callosum (Change During Adolescence)

- Connects right and left hemisphere. Changes to connections associated with language/language learning. These develop until puberty

Double Approach-Avoidant Conflicts

- Consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics

Co-Variation Model

- Consistency (Time) - Distinctiveness (Situation) - Consensus (People)

Reliability

- Consistency in answers across participants. Degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results - Also used to measure the consistency, or reproducibility, or an examinee's performance on the test

Retest Reliability

- Consistency when a measure is taken multiple times

Inter-Rater Reliability

- Consistency when two different people measure the same thing

3 Main Parts of External Attribution

- Consistency: Does person usually behave this way - Distinctiveness: Does person behave differently in different situation - Consensus: Do others behave similarly in situation

Subconscious Mind

- Consists of information that becomes accessible once you direct your attention to it

Method of Constant Stimulation

- Constant stimuli rather than ascending or descending order. Varying levels presented randomly - Prevents the subject from being able to predict the level of the next stimulus, and therefore reduces errors of habituation and expectation

Pupillary Reflex (Permanent)

- Constrict pupil when bright light

Internal capsule

- Contains many important pathways, including the corticospinal tract

Sensory Cortex

- Contains the homunculus and is the part of the cortex or parietal lobe - Information from body all ends up in this somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe

Religious Beliefs/Faith (Managing Stress)

- Correlated by generally healthier lifestyle and social support

Cheynes-Stroke Breathing

- Crescendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop in breathing. Normal breathing pattern is inhale/exhale changes from a normal fixed pattern

Demand Characteristics

- Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected

Subculture

- Cultures (ideas) of a meso-level (medium) sub-community (small) that distinguishes itself from the larger dominant culture of larger society/community

Phrenologist

- Each brain area is devoted to a certain personality characteristic, thought, emotion (They were wrong, but there are brain areas associated with specific tasks) - As areas of brain developed, they would grow and create bumps on skull which would then be used to study individual - You had to wait till someone died but also to figure out how it worked you had to wait for someone to have braiin injury

Hierarchy of Organization

- Each position is under the supervision of a higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal - Pro: Clarify who is in command - Con: Deprive people of voice in decision making and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks. Allows individuals allows them to hide mistakes

Immigrants (Demographic Structure)

- Face severe challenges when arriving to a new country. People want to help them but are wary of their different cultures/customs of immigrant - Number of immigrant can put pressure on welfare capabilities (capability to promote wellbeing) of a country. Immigrants move to North America/Middle East

Micro-Sociology

- Face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of society, look at sample of society - Ex: Doctor-patient interactions, or family dynamics

Source Traits

- Factors underlying human personality and behavior

Explicit Memory (Declarative - Long Term)

- Facts and events you can clearly or explicitly describe

3 Types of Collective Behavior

- Fads - Mass Hysteria - Riots

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

- Focuses on the relationship between behavior and their consequences, and how those in turn influence the behavior

Fundamental Attribution Error

- Focuses only on actions of others, tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws - Idea of attributing character too strongly to explain another group's actions. - Ex: When someone cuts us up on the road, we may think its because of their personality. They are simply not a nice person. However, the error occurs when that action is actually attributed to the situation.

Join Attention

- Focusing of attention on an object by two separate individuals

Attention

- Focusing/concentrating on something at the exclusion of the other stimuli in environment

Physiological (Maslow)

- Food, water, breathing, sleep. Essential to survive and basic needs

Fornication (Examining Sexual Orientation)

- Gender they are sexually attracted to

Expression (Examining Sexual Orientation)

- Gender they express

Identity (Examining Sexual Orientation)

- Gender they identify as

Biology (Agression)

- Genes - Brain Structure Impact - Testosterone

Latent Content

- Hidden meaning of a dream (job pushing you out).

Expansive Population Pyramid

- High birth rate and high death rates, short life expectancy

Stage 1 (DTM)

- High birth rates due to limited birth control, economic advantage for more workers - High death rate due to disease/poor nutrition. Overall population is stable - Stationary Pyramid Model: Large young population and small old population

Environmental Burden

- Higher burden in minority/poverty areas such as waste, transport, factories and disposal. Environmental issues low on agenda and few alternatives. - Can be responsible for higher incidence of obesity and asthma

Assimilation (Schemas)

- How we describe new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding

Accommodation (Schemas)

- How we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences - to remember

Syntax

- How words are put together to form sentences. Syntax refers to the way words are placed together to form language. Describes how words are arranged tot create grammatically correct sentences

Social Facilitation

- How would presence of others affect your behavior? - Most dominant response for particular behavior would be shown. Occurs when individuals perform better in front of an audience. - Occurs when an individual completes a manageable task in front of an audience. When the task is challenging, this might increase arousal beyond optimal and interferes with performance

Homeostasis

- How you maintain temperature, heartbeat, metabolism. Occurs when you are resting and takes place when you take drugs - Ex: If you take amphetamines (stimulant that increases heart rate), your body quickly tries to lower HR and get back to normal. Brain is smart. - Like taking drugs at same time of day and same location. If you take drugs at a new location, you might overdose

Framing Effects

- How you present the decision can affect decisions as well

Social Reproduction

- Huge amount of social inequality between rich families and poor families. Large social inequality seems to replicate itself across generation - They h ave financial capital and can invest it to obtain social capital - building up reliable, useful social networks

Narcissistic (Cluster B)

- Huge egos, need for admiration and praise, grandiose

Just World Phenomenon

- Idea that universe is fair so people must get what they deserve - belief good things happen to good people and vice versa

Internalization

- Idea/belief/behavior has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity - Ex: Start going to gym to comply with friends, but then might internalize that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior

Genes (Biology)

- Identical twins, if one is more aggressive the other as well. With fraternal twins - not the case, and we can breed for aggression

Step 2 (Mental Process)

- Identification. When we adopt identity of the group, we see/categorize us as belonging - behaving and acting like the category we belong to - Emotional significance to identification - our self esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging - Ex: Student (act and behave like a student if we identify and it starts to be a norm)

Lexical Access

- Identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory

Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives

- If I have a fourth option X, won't change order of how I ranked firs three options A>B>C and B>C>X: A>B>C>X

Secondary Deviance

- If a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance. - Individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have means or legitimate ways to achieve success - Ex: Athlete attends a school that doesn't have proper baseball training equipment or no coach, or funding. Athletes becomes frustrated and turns to deviant behavior

Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy - 1)

- If needs of dependency are met, babies develop basic trust. - Virtue is hope and failure to acquire virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust

Commitment and Consistency (Cialdini)

- If people commit, orally or in writing, to an idea or goal , they are more likely to honor that commitment because of establishing that idea or goal as being congruent - Cognitive Dissonance

Normative Social Influence

- If we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we are complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly and internally believe something differently - Ex: Friends are all obsessed with a certain singer. You tell the group you like the singer as well even if you absolutely hate him or her. You continue to say you like it

Group Cohesion

- If we feel no connection with group, feel less of need to go along with that group

Functionalism (Medicine)

- If we look at medicine from this point of view. When people become ill medicine ensures they return to functional state so they can become functional to society

Prior Commitments (Internal Factors)

- If we say something earlier that goes against group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later

Public Response

- If we think we are met with acceptance vs. shunning

Legitimacy

- If wearing lab coat/carry a clipboard we are more likely to obey

Tetris Effect

- If you play tetris before bed, you might see images of tetris blocks in your sleep

Positive Conformity

- If you see a bunch of people running out of a building, that you are just about to enter, you would probably conform to this behavior and run away as well

Extensor Plantar Response

- If you take hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - tones will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up

Belief Perseverance

- Ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts - Ex: During elections learned about and then ignore facts about someone you like

Net Migration

- Immigration - Emigration (number of people entering - number of people leaving)

Inattention

- Impacts memory formation negatively (being bored would do this)

Stable

- Implicit memory and recognition memory

Negative Priming

- Implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus

Similarity Bias

- Implies we will not befriend people different from us

World-Systems Theory

- Importance of world as a unit rather than individual countries - 3 Countries: Core, Periphery, and Semi-Periphery

Thiamine

- Important because converts carbohydrates into glucose cells need for energy. Important for normal functioning of neurons

Biological Theory

- Important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes

Culture and Socialization

- Important contributions of society to our personal development, the people and culture in which we live

Permanent Reflexes

- Important for newborns and also present throughout life

Pre-Operational Stage

- In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Sensorimotor Stage

- In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities - Ex: Child sucking thumb

Concrete Operational

- In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Formal Operational Stage

- In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Selection Bias

- In an experiment, unintended differences between the participants in different groups - Type of bias related to how people are chosen to participate

Observational Study

- In an observational study, the researcher is unable to control the assignment of groups

Complexity (Stratification)

- In any complex society, the total stock of valued goods is distributed unequally, wherein the most privileged individual and families enjoy disproportionate share of income, power, and other valued resources

Unconditioned Response (UR)

- In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

Relative Poverty

- In developed countries, use a different marker - % level below the median of the country - If country income rises, absolute poverty line will not change, median income level will

Operant Extinction

- In operant conditioning it results from some response by the organism no longer being reinforced - Ex: You keep getting your dog to sit on command, but you stop giving it a treat or any other type of reinforcement. Over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the command

Victim Distance

- In original Milgram study, teacher couldn't see learned (victim). If could see participant, reduced likelihood participant (teacher) would obey experimenter.

Equal Opportunity in Life (Equal access to Education)

- In reality, different races are stereotyped for different jobs. Minorities are expected to have lower paying jobs while majority are expected to have higher - Asian-American and White have more access to education than African and Latin Americans - Interesting discrimination is present in criminal justice system (more incarceration) - Ex: Laws of similar offenses vary drastically. Punishment for crack cocaine are tougher/harsher than powdered cocaine

Altruism (Mature)

- In service of others - we feel fulfilled and gain pleasure/satisfaction

Photoreceptor

- In the case of the eye, light is being converted to a neural impulse by this

Meaning-Focused Coping (Positive/Adaptive/Constructive Coping)

- In which the person concentrates on deriving meaning from the stressful experience

Anterograde Amnesia

- Inability to form new memories

Anomia

- Inability to name things - Anomic aphasia is characterized by problems difficulties in naming objects or in retrieving words

Anosmia

- Inability to perceive order (aNOSEmia = Smell)

Retrograde Amnesia

- Inability to recall information previously encoded

Source Amnesia

- Inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining factual knowledge

False Information

- Inaccurate recollections of an event - Ex: Experiment done where participants watched a car stop at a yield sign. After the video, participants were given a written description on what happened, and some of the descriptions included false information about the car stopping saying that the car stopped at a stop sign instead of a yield sign. Those who got the false information, more likely claimed the car stopped at a stop sign than the yield sign.

Urban

- Include cities/towns with over 1000 people per square mile - Cities have over 50,000 people and Metropolis have over 500,000 people - Megapolis is multiple connected metrapolis

Social Identity

- Includes the groups you belong too in our community

Cerebral Cortex Bumps

- Increase cellular mass/surface area

Sensitization

- Increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus

Hyperreflexia

- Increase in the muscle stretch reflexes. - Cause is unclear, but when muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic simulation of LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get bigger reflex

Global Changes (Change During Adolescence)

- Increase myelination (faster communication of neurons - faster connections betweeen brain areas)

Right Anterior Insula

- Increased attention control and is the goal of meditation - Those who regularly go to deep meditation, have shown increased activity in prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus

Hypertonia

- Increased tone of skeletal muscles. Increase muscle tension, and reduce muscle stretch

Openness

- Independent vs. Coforming, Imagining vs. Practical

Semi-Periphery

- India and Brazil, middle ground between core and periphery. Not dominant in international trade but diversified/developed economy

Stationary/Constructive Pyramid

- Indicate low birth and death rates in population

Ca2+

- Indicator of chelation. Extremely versatile. Rise in this ion, postsynaptically, in dendritic spines is essential for activity-dependent plasticity - Important second messenger in the neuron. Abnormal amount of signaling in this ion has been implicated in disease states such as Alzheimer's, Huntington's or Schizophrenia

Social Contract

- Individual becomes aware that even through rules and laws exist for greater good, there are time this law works against interest of people - Ex: For Heinz, people said protection of life is more important than breaking/stealing

Bystander Effect

- Individual may feel less inclined to take action because of presence of others in the group. Refers to a group process in which individuals observe an injustice or a crime being perpetuated and do not intervene - Small Group: Less Bystander Effect and Large Group: More Bystander Effect - Amplified by amount of people in group. Feel more personal responsibility

Individual Discrimination

- Individual person acting to discriminate based on something (sex, religion, age, race) - Ex: A science professor who doesn't let women into his class (sex discrimination)

Genes

- Individual units of heredity. Segments of DNA that are capable of synthesizing a protein

Large Societies

- Individuals become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles. Forced mutual independence - In functionalism, a change to production/distribution/coordination will force others to adapt to maintain stable state society

Illness Anxiety Disorder

- Individuals diagnosed with illness anxiety disorder are often more concerned with illness or the idea of being ill and often lack or have minimal somatic symptoms

General Anxiety Disorder

- Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder experience excessive and persistent worry or anxiety regarding many different spheres of life that cause distress, impairment, or maladaptive behavior

Breathing Reflex (Permanent)

- Inhalation and exhalation

Inherited (Innate Characteristic)

- Innate behaviors are encoded by DNA

Primary Reinforcers

- Innately satisfying/desirable, like food, water, and sexual activity

Nativist (Noam Chomsky)

- Innatist/Biological Perspective - children are born with ability to learn language - Thought that humans had a language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language

Retina

- Inside, back area filled with photoreceptors, where the ray of light is converted from a physical waveform to a electrochemical impulse that the brain can interpret

Progressive View

- Institutions are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if they are not helpful (Business)

Conservative View

- Institutions are natural by-products of human nature

Manifest Functions

- Intended consequences of institutions - Ex: Business provide service, school educate people, and laws maintain social order

Theory of Planned Behavior (Attitude)

- Intentions + Implication - We consider implication of our actions before we decide on how to behave - Intensions are based on our attitude toward behavior.

Preparatory Stage

- Interaction through imitation - Ex: Play with pots and pans when parents cooking. As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols

Society (Stigma)

- Interactions between self and society like education/employment/health care and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job - Ex: A great intervention to stop societal level stigma is the use of legislation and anti-discrimination laws

Sound Localization

- Interaural time difference describes the difference in time it takes a sound to reach the left vs. right ear - Describes difference in round pressure level between ears

Intrinsic Motivation

- Internal motivation; completing the activity because it please you; ex. Singing, reading, crosswords, etc.

ICD-10

- International classification of diseases-10th revision. System from the WHO (11 top level categories)

Socioeconomic Gradient

- Inverse relationship between social class or income and health

Latent Functions

- Invisible and unintended effects of social structures - Ex: Schools expose students to social connections/new activities

Blinking Reflex (Permanent)

- Involuntary blinking of eye when something comes near head/bright light

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

- Involve distress/disability due to abnormality in development of nervous system. Includes intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD.

Implicit Memories (Non-Declarative - Long Term)

- Involve things you may not articulate. Type of memory in which previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences

Drowsiness

- Just before falling asleep/after waking up. Can also be self-induced in deep meditation

Hippocampus

- Key role in forming new memories. - Convert Short Term Memory → Long Term Memory - If destroyed, you still have old memories intact, just can't make any new ones (anterograde amnesia)

Agreeableness

- Kind vs. Cold, Appreciative vs. Unfriendly

Hindsight Bias

- Known as the knew-it-all-along effect or creeping determinism, is the inclination - After an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis

Upper Motor Neurons

- LMNs control muscles of limbs and trunk, while LMNs that pass through cranial nerves control muscles of head and neck - UMNs control the LMNs. Found in the cerebral cortex, and synapse on LMNs in the brainstem or spinal cord - UMNs start in cerebral cortex, axon travels down braainstem, aand where it meets the spinal cord. Most axons travel down the other side until they reach LMN.

Amotivation

- Lack of motivation

Vygotsky Theory

- Language and thought are both independent, but converge through development. - Eventually learn to use them at the same time via socialization. Believed children developed language through social interaction with adults who already knew the language.

Strong Linguistic Determinism (Sapir-Whorfian Hypothesis)

- Language determines thought completely. People understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience the world - Ex: Native tribe called Hopi without grammatical tense in language so they couldn't think about time in same way

Linguistic Determinism

- Language has an influence on thought. They are called the Weak and Strong hypothesis

Dominant Hemisphere (Left)

- Language, Logic, and Math Skills

Catastrophic Events

- Large scale event that everyone considers threatening (natural disasters, wars)

Macro-Sociology

- Large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population - Social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations - Looking for patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups

Food (Biological Factors)

- Lateral Hypothalamus (LH). In normal conditions, LH sends positive signal to us to start eating - Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH), so when functioning properly, it signals us to stop eating. - Brain detects insulin to see amount of sugar and fat stored in blood. Too much insulin = lots of sugar/fat stored - Metabolism rate. In dieting we get a slowdown in metabolism and makes it easier for people to gain weight - Genetic predisposition to our weight, set point influenced by parents

Periphery Countries

- Latin America and Africa. Relatively weak government, greatly influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporation - Economy focused on narrow economic activity like extracting raw material - High percentage of poor/uneducated people and strong upper class that controls most of economy

Information Overlord

- Leads to decision paralysis and increased regret over the choice made

Latent Learning

- Learned behavior is not expressed until required

Learned Behaviors (Operant Conditioning)

- Learned behaviors through experience

Emotional Memories

- Learned emotional responses to various stimuli. Positive or negatively valenced

Attitude

- Learned tendency to evaluate things a certain way.

Observational Learning

- Learned through watching and imitating others - such as modeling actions of another

Acquired Traits

- Learned traits that come from experience with a person's environment

Learning-Performance Distinction

- Learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things

Shaping (Operant Conditioning)

- Learning through successively reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior - To teach a bird to perform a complex task (spin in a circle and press a button) you might reward it at varying steps through the process over time. So, for example, you might give it a treat every time it turns a little. After a while you only give it a treat when it makes a full circle. After this you only give it a treat if it makes a full circle and maybe bends towards the button. Finally, you reward the bird only for completing the full task. In this way, it learns to perform a different part of the task in small intervals. Another example is a dog who can shake hands/roll over on commands.

Central Trait

- Less dominant than cardinal - Ex: Honesty, Sociability, Shyness

N1 (Stage 1)

- Light sleep and dominated by theta waves

Eros Drive (Life Drive)

- Like health, safety, sex comes with love, cooperation, and collaboration.

Continuity

- Lines are seen as following the smoothest path. Ex: You group the line together!

Mnemonic Devices

- Link what you are trying to learn into previously exist long-term information that is already in your memory

Upward and Downward Mobility

- Lower Class: Manual work, labor and low-pay jobs - Middle Class: Professionals, and better paying jobs - Upper Class: Very wealthy businessmen and family wealth

Motor Unit

- Lower Motor Neurons (LMN): Efferent neurons of the PNS synapse on control skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit. Form a neuromuscular junction - Weakness: Abnormalities can occur in the motor unit - Abnormalities of LMN can cause the LMN signs, which can happen in addition to weakness - Signs: Atrophy of skeletal muscle, fasciculations (involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle), hypotonia (decrease in tone of skeletal muscle - how much muscle is contracted when relaxed), hyporeflxia (decreased muscle stretch reflex)

Functionalist Perspective

- Main role is to provide entertainment. Occupy our leisure time and can act as an agent of socialization - Ex: Collective Experience of watching Olympics

Other (Dreaming Theory)

- Maintain brain flexibility - allows us to learn and be creative when we are awake. - Consolidate thoughts to long-term memory and cleaning up thoughts.

Law and Order/ Law Abidance

- Maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws "to follow rules"

Heterogamy

- Marriage between two individuals who are culturally different

Delivery of Healthcare

- Massive inequalities in terms of access. We take care of elderly through Medicaid and Medicare, and children through health child insurance. But people in between are left behind - those who populate working force. - Ex: Affordable Care Act is trying to fix this but too early to tell. Spend a lot of $ on healthcare without desired outcomes, because we invest a lot more in helping people when they are sick instead of preventative medicine.

Sexual Response

- Master and Johnson. Measured the physiological indicators and created the sexual response cycle -

Dyscalculia

- Mathematics learning disorder (removed)

Tolerance

- Means you get used to a drug so you need more of it to achieve the same effect. - The shift in the dose -response curve that causes decreased sensitivity to a drug due to exposure

Electroencephalograms (EEG)

- Measure brainwaves (alpha, beta, delta, theta)

Predictive Validity

- Measure of how well a test predicts abilities. Involves testing a group of subjects for certain construct and then comparing them with results obtained at some point in future

Hypomania

- Mild forms of mania is sometimes not that bad. Lots of energy and do not need to sleep a lot so you get lots of work done - Results in hypomanic episode and manic episode

Folkways (Norms)

- Mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a daily basis - Ex: Opening a door, helping person on street, saying thank you

Demographic Transition

- Model that changes in a country's population - which will eventually stop growing when country transitions from high birth or death rates to low birth or death rates - Immigrants affect the demographic transition of the country by increasing fertility and decreasing mortality

Post Acute Withdrawal

- Mood swings, Anxiety, Irritability, Tiredness, Variable Energy, Low Enthusiasm, Variable Concentration, Disturbed Sleep - Feels like a rollercoaster of symptoms, Each withdrawal episode lasts a few days and post-acute withdrawal can last for 2 years

Ill-Defined Problems

- More ambiguous starting and/or ending point. An ill-defined problems does not have an obviously stated goal or lacks relevant information to solve the problem - Ex: How to live a happy life. Can still solve ill-defined problems solve but don't know outcome

Play Stage

- More aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as others (firefighters and doctors) - Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on perceived point of view and focused on role-taking (mentally taking perspective of another person and acting on that perceived viewpoint)

Generalizing to Theory

- More broadly, concept of generalizability deals with moving from observations to scientific theories or hypothesis - Amounts to taking time- and place- specific observations to create universal hypothesis

Elaboration Likelihood model for Persuasion (Attitude)

- More cognitive approach - focuses on the how and why of persuasion - Central Route: Degree of attitude change depends on quality of arguments by persuader. - Peripheral Route: Looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader

Facial Attraction

- More important than body attraction. For women, high forehead/small chin and nose/full lips/high cheekbone are attractive - For men, strong chin, jaw, cheekbones, and long lower face

Modernization (Religion)

- More information available to the public, and less emphasis on religion

Physical Proximity

- More likely to comply with someone we are close to. In Milgram when authority standing close by/behind the experimenter they are more likely to obey

Group Size

- More likely to conform in groups of 3-5

Role Models of Defiance

- More likely to disobey orders when we see others doing the same

Feelings of Insecurity (Internal Factors)

- More likely to follow judgements of others (conformity)

Back Stage (Dramaturgy)

- More private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself and do what you feel makes you comfortable - Ex: Guy who said he loves baseball might come home and like watching cooking shows. Nobody knows this about him

Brute Facts (Weak)

- Most basic and fundamental facts - Ex: Brute facts are what explain quarks in atoms, not the atoms themselves

Self-Actualization Theory

- Most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency, innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential

Existential Self (Self-Concept)

- Most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from others. Awareness that the self is constant/consistent throughout life

Alzheimer's Disease

- Most common disorder in dementia category, or neurocognitive disorder - Symptom: Loss of cognitive function and memory

Glutamate

- Most common excitatory neurotransmitter - Associated with increased cortical arousal

GABA (Brain) and Glycine (Spinal Cord)

- Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters

Family

- Most important agent of socialization. When you are a child, totally dependent on others to survive.

Sleepwalking/Sleeptaking

- Mostly genetic, occur during N3 (stage 3) and are harmless

Ethnic Villages

- Native culture brought here when the people who live here immigrate. They settle together with people of similar backgrounds and create a community that looks like their home. Ex. Chinatown/Little Italy.

Fertility

- Natural ability of human beings to have babies, which add to the population

Libido (Freud)

- Natural energy source - fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure - When this energy is stuck or fixated at various stages of psychosexual development, conflicts can occur that have lifelong effects

Aging

- Natural process and with it comes changes in memory. Associate aging with declines in cognitive performance, but some abilities decline, some remain stable, and some improve

Sexual Selection

- Natural selection arising through preference for one sex for characteristics in individuals of the other sex

Nature vs. Nurture (Motor Development)

- Nature: Maturation. Genetic factors/anatomical/neurophysiological/biological traits that drive development. Identical twins walk on the same day; children all over the world develop motor skills in the same time and same order. Blind children tend to show same timing and progression of motor development. - Nurture: : Environment/culture influence. Back sleeping = reduce SIDS chances (sleeping on back makes it so children take a longer time to start crawling). Diaper = baby walk around a bit later.

Love (Maslow)

- Need to belong, acceptance from friends/family intimacy, love. Social needs or belonging

Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN)

- Neuronal nucleus in the hypothalamus. Contains groups of neurons that can be activated by stressful and/or physiological changes - Project directly to the posterior pituitary where they release oxytocin or vasopressin into circulatoin

Epinephrine

- Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline.

Neustress

- Neutral stress, that doesn't actively or directly affect you. - Ex: News about a natural disaster on the other side many be very stressful, but body does not perceive it as good or bad for you, so you are unaffected

Marriage (Social Institution)

- New families begin via marriage. It is when people join together - Ex: Some families contain violence (child abuse)

Retroactive Interference

- New learning impairs old information. Refers to later information interfering with emory for earlier information - Ex: Writing new address makes it difficult to recall old address

Dictatorship

- No consent of citizens and obedience to authority

Types of Learning

- Non-Associative - Associative

Permissive Parenting/Indulgent Parenting

- Non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child

Broca's Aphasia

- Non-fluent aphasia Broken speech. Damage to language production centers of the brain. (Frontal lobe region damaged) - Characterized by apraxia, a disorder of motor planning, which causes problems producing speech

Assortative Mating

- Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a high frequency - Ex: Large animals mate with large animals and small with small - Result in inbreeding which is a problem that occurs if animals too genetically similar mate. Tends to be harmful to species overall

Secondary Sex Characteristics

- Non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Activities of Daily Living

- Normal motor functions are fine until later stages in which they lose these activities - Ex: Toileting, Eating, Bathing

Negative (Obedience)

- Normal people committed such negative acts during the Holocaust due to obedience

Sactions

- Norms are reinforced. Rewards/punishments for behaviors in accord with or against norms respectively

Sleep

- Not aware of self or world around you

Closure

- Objects grouped together are seen as a whole. Mind fills in missing information. Ex. You fill in the triangle even though there is none.

Flynn Effect

- Observation regarding the growth of IQ from one generation to the next

Groupthink

- Occurs when maintaining harmony among groups members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand. - Happens in very cohesive, insulated groups. Often have important/respected leaders, and in the interest of group "unity" individuals suppress/sensor own opinions

Peripheral Somatosensation Cont.

- One of the difference between the two types is how big their axons are. Position, vibration, touch receptors have large diameter axons and thick myelin sheath (fast) - Rest have smaller diameter axons (slower) - Touch is both. Fine touch travels in fast neurons, less precise information travels in many smaller ones

Proactive Coping (Positive/Adaptive/Constructive Coping)

- One positive coping strategy, anticipating a problem

Self-Actualization

- One reaching their maximum potential, achieving the most one can be. - They were moral to their own principles and mastered the other needs. Differs from person to person. Maximum potential

Decay

- One reason forgetting happens. When we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we can't recall it anymore

Size Constancy

- One that appears larger because it is closer, we still think it is the same size - Ex: Size of the moon - when closer to the horizon, the moon appears larger

Peptide Neurotransmitters

- Opioids (Endorphins - Perception of Pain)

Emigration

- Opposite of immigration. Movement of a person out of a country - Number of people moving out/1000

Routes of Drug Entry

- Oral: Ingesting something, one of the slowest routes (pill, alcohol) - Inhalation: Breathing or snorting or smoking, because once you inhale goes straight to brain. Highly addictive but less than injected drugs. (cocaine, tobacco) - Injection: Most direct, intravenous means goes right to vein. Takes effects within seconds. Fastest can be very dangerous. Likely to inject bacteria - Transdermal: Drug absorbed through skin (nicotine patch). Drug in patch has to be pretty potent, released into bloodstream over several hours. Occurs slowly since absorption takes time. - Intramuscular: Needle stuck into muscle. Can deliver drugs to system slowly or quickly (epiPen is quick and shots would be slow). Fastest route of entry and most abused drugs are injected intravenously

Hypocritin

- Orexin in the CNS is to control sleep and arousal

Institutional Discrimination

- Organization discriminating - including governments, banks, schools - Ex: Brown vs. Board of Education (1954). In this court case, overturned separate schools for whites and African-Americans. Brown said schools aren't equal and that Africans were being mistreated

Points we can detect a Signal

- Origins in Sonar: small fish vs. strong whale - Role is Psychology: Which words on second list were on the first list - Real World Example: Traffic Light - Options: Hit (subject responded affirmative when signal present) False Alarm (subject perceived a signal when there was none) Correct Rejection (correct negative answer for no signal) Miss (negative response to a present signal)

Sociocultural Factors

- Our conscious choices on how we express our needs

Self (Social Construct)

- Our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people

Gonads

- Ovaries (females) and testes (males). FSH/LH stimulation releases sex hormones (progesterone's/estrogen - females) and testosterone (males)

Masochism

- Paraphilia about being humiliated, bound, or suffering

Division of Labor

- People are trained to do specific tasks - Pro: People are better at tasks, and increased efficiency - Con: Increase alienation in workers, separating them from other works (conflict theory), and they don't see work from beginning to end. lead to trained incapacity where workers are so specialized in tasks - Ex: Administrators don't teach classes at university and professors are not responsible for building maintenance

Authority (Cialdini)

- People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are asked to perform objectionable acts - Milgram Experiments

Scarcity (Cialdini)

- Perceived scarcity will generate demand. When conveying scarcity, in general, can influence others, the more people that agree, the more likely others follow, so scarcity is not desirable - Ex: Saying offers are available for a limited time only encourages sales

Interposition (overlap)

- Perception that one object is in front of another. An object that is in the front is closer

Internal Locus of Control

- Perception that you can control fate your own destiny. Events come primarily from their own actions - Ex: If someone did bad on test, they attribute outcome to not studying or if they did well based on ability to study

Innate Behavior (Operant Conditioning)

- Performed correctly the first time in response to a stimulus (instinct) - Simple Innate Behavior and Complex Innate Behavior

Hypomanic Episode

- Period of abnormally elevated mood and abnormally increased energy lasting at least 4 consecutive days

Manic Episode

- Period of abnormally elevated or irritable mood that may include inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, pressured speech, flight of ideas, agitation, or self-destructive behavior.

Prodrome

- Period of time before schizophrenia before symptoms are actually present

Insomnia

- Persistent problems in falling or staying asleep

Denial (Pathological)

- Person pretends something hasn't happened. Most important defense mechanism - Ex: If someone has breast cancer, they just deny the fact that they do.

Habituation

- Person tunes out the stimulus

Overt Orienting

- Person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event

Hhypochondriac

- Person who is abnormally anxious about their health

Status/Social Status

- Person's social position in society. Each person has many statuses - Ex: One individual can be a son, student, and friend. They affect the type of interactions we have - some situation people are equal some not - you hold an inferior

Behaviorist Theory

- Personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment (deterministic), in that people begin as black slates and environment completely determines behavior and personalities

Cognitive Flexibility (Managing Stress)

- Perspective change is huge in our perception of what is stressing us out (working with counselor)

Group Polarization

- Phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted

Phonology

- Phonetic component, actual sound of a language "sound system" - 40 phonemes (smallest unit of sound) - Distinction between sounds: categorical perception. Children must learn to do this

5 Language Components

- Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics

Prejudice and Discrimination

- Physical characteristics with social significance - some have more meaning that other (skin color, but not eye color)

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

- Physiological changes which aren't under your control are due to the autonomic nervous system - 2 Branches: Sympathetic (Fight or Flight) and Parasympathetic (Rest and Digest)

Choroid

- Pigmented black in humans, is a network of blood vessels that nourishes the retina. If black all light is absorbed

McDonaldization

- Policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. These have dominated everything (sports to media) - Primarily, Principles of Efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity, and control - Ex: Movie theaters all look and work similarly, with same concession stands look same, carry same brands and same movies, with same seating arrangement and all tickets now the same

Meso-Level

- Population size falls between micro and macro levels. They are medium sized groups such as communities, organizations, cities, states, clans, and tribes.

Stage 4 (DTM)

- Population stabilizes, both birth and death rates are low and balance each other out. - Low Birth Rates: Improvement in contraception and high percentage of women in work force - Low Stationary Pyramid: Low birth rates and low death rates

Peripheral Somatosensation

- Position Sense, Vibration, Touch, Pain, Temperature - Mechanoreceptors: Position Sense + Vibration + Touch (fast) - Nociceptors: Pain (slow) - Thermoreceptors: Temperature (slow)

Incentive

- Positive Reinforcement

Shape

- Positive and Negative Reinforcement, and Positive and Negative Punishment are the consequences that affect shape

Eustress

- Positive stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating (enjoyable)

Schizophrenia

- Positive symptoms (Mesolimbic): hallucinations (sensation), delusions (beliefs), disorganized speech - Dopamine may be hyperactive, creates euphoria, explains positive symptoms - Negative symptoms (Mesocortical): avolition (loss of motivation, flattened affect, reduced social interactions), alogia (decreased speech) - Frontal lobe may be be hypoactive, explains negative - Cognitive symptoms- poor WM, attention, executive functioning - Genetic factors- only influence risk environmental factors- stress/cortisol during pregnancy - Types of Schizophrenia: 1. paranoid- delusions and hallucinations, normal cognitive function 2. catatonic- extremes of behavior 3. disorganized- disorganized behavior and speech 4. undifferentiated- mixed symptoms - Other types: 1. schizophreniform disorder- milder, not life-long 2. schizoaffective disorder- mood disorder 3. prodrome- deterioration before schizophrenia diagnosis - Neuroleptics were first antipsychotics used, increased negative symptoms though

Endogamy

- Practice of marrying within a specific ethnic group, class, or social group, rejecting others on such a basis as being unsuitable for marriage or for other close personal relationships

Just World Hypothesis

- Predictable result as a consequence for our actions. Noble actions performed/good deeds by an individual are rewarded, while evil acts/deeds are always punished - Ex: College Tom does a noble-act (helps an old lady cross the road). We would expect a predictable appropriate consequence such as reward

Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 5)

- Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry them out, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. - Virtue is they reach a sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make. - Negative outcome is if tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt - as if they are annoying other people

Intrinsic (Innate Characteristic)

- Present even if you are raised in isolation - Ex: Pooping, peeing

Trial

- Presentation of both stimuli

Biases

- Prevent us from making correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made - Overconfidence, Belief Perseverance, Confirmation Bias

Capitalism

- Private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand

Illness Experience

- Process of being ill and how people cope with illness. Can change a person's self identity - Ex: Diagnosis of chronic disease can take over your life where every decision revolves around disease

Attribution

- Process of inferring causes of events and behaviors

Operationalization

- Process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors - Process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantitatively

Social Dysfunction

- Process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society

Vigilance Attention and Signal Detection

- Processes that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest. This allows responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest, i.e. a pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are undertaken.

Paranoid (Cluster A)

- Profound distrust + suspicion of other people

Projection (Defense Mechanism)

- Projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another

Word Association Testing

- Projective test in which the interviewer says a word and the respondent must mention the first thing that comes to mind

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

- Psychological treatment for drug treatment. Adresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction - Patients learn to recognize problematic though patterns and develop more positive thought patterns and coping behaviors - They learn to anticipate problematic situations (going to party where there is alcohol for an alcoholic) and to self-monitor for cravings so they can apply their coping strategies early.

Negative Sanction

- Punishment for violating norms

Inherited Traits

- Qualities that are passed down from parents to children - Ex: Eye Color, Hair Color, and Height

Psychophysics

- Quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect

Leading Questions

- Questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way

Memory Consolidation

- REM is most important for this and the formation of episodic memories - BATS Drink Blood (Beta, Alpha, Theta Sleep - spindle/K-complex delta beta)

Racialization

- Racial identities can be ascribed to you even if you do not ascribe to those characteristics

Negative Feedback

- Rate or process that needs to be controlled to decrease product. Put into place to inhibit production of product - Ex: In our body

Taste Aversion Lab

- Rats deprived of water, and then rats were given sweet water afterwards. Each time they got water, a light flashed and a sound beeped 1st Group: Substance that makes them ill is added to sugar water 2nd Group: Nothing is added to the sugar water

Dependency Theory

- Reaction to Modernization Theory. Uses idea of Core + Periphery countries to look at inequalities between countries - This is not because they are in an earlier stage of development but because they have been integrated into world economy

Fundamentalism

- Reaction to secularization, by going back to strict religious beliefs. Creates social problems when people become too extreme.

Dyslexia

- Reading difficulty. Characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities

Pragnanz

- Reality organized reduced to simplest form possible. Ex. Olympic rings, where the brain automatically organizes these into 5 circles, instead of more complex shapes.

Egg Cell

- Really big and not made for mobility. Has genetic material and a thick outer coating (zona pelludica which is thick layer of glycoproteins) - Deep to zona pelludica - plasma membrane and when sperm gets to plasma membrane you fertilize

Obedience vs. Punishment

- Reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment

Decline

- Recall becomes more difficult (although recognition is stable), episodic memories impaired (forming new episodic memories is difficult, old memories stable)

Primary Auditory Cortex

- Receives all information from the cochlea and is separated by regions which detect different frequencies

Changes in Society (Symbolic Interactionism)

- Recently, medicalization of society, where everything has a medical fix. Standards of beauty have made many undergo unneeded plastic surgery

Subcallosal Cingulate

- Recognition of facial expressions associated with sadness have been linked

Individualism and Exchange or Self-Interest

- Recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints - Doing what is right for personal gain

Cross Tolerance

- Reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target

Hallucinogens

- Referred to as psychedelics. Drugs that alter moods, thoughts, and sense perceptions including vision, hearing, smell, and touch. Give them energy or calm them down - Emotional Responses: Feeling of connectedness and mood swings. - Ex: LSD, mescaline, peyote, PCP, psilocybin (active ingredient in mushroom) - LSD modifies serotonin neurotransmission, especially the 5-HT2 receptor familty

Retrograde Memory

- Refers to ability to remember experiences before a brain injury

Crystallized Intelligence

- Refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills - Ex: Riding a bike

Cultural Capital

- Refers to non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means. Examples can include education, intellect, style of speech, dress, or physical appearance. - Ex: If parents exposing, you to trips abroad and learning foreign languages.

Agents of Socialization

- Refers to parts of society that are important for socialization (process of learning the norms and values in a society)

High Culture

- Refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of a society (wealth and formality)

Popular Culture

- Refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist within mainstream normative society (attending game or watching a parade)

Implicit Bias

- Refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner - These biases encompass both favorable and unfavorable assessments, are activated involuntarily and without an individual's awareness

Transformationalist Grammar

- Refers to the different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information

Confidence Level

- Refers to the percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true population parameter.

Material Culture

- Refers to the physical or technological aspects of our daily lives, including food, houses, factories, and raw materials - Ex: Cars first invented no laws to govern driving (no speed limits). Very dangerous when cars first started entering roads but laws written to fix problems

Morphology

- Refers to the structure of words. Many words are composed of multiple building blocks called morphemes - "Grammatical system, which puts meaningful elements together into words"

Good-Subject Tendency

- Refers to the tendency of participants to act according to what they think the experimenter wants

Normative Culture

- Refers to values and behaviors that are in line with larger social norms (avoidance of crime)

Fixed-Ratio

- Reinforcement only occurs after a fixed number of responses. Contingent on number of cars sold regardless of how long it takes - Ex: Child being given a candy for every 3-10 pages of a book they read. For example, they are given a candy after reading 5 pages, then 3 pages, then 7 pages, then 8 pages, etc.

Religion (Social Institution)

- Religiosity. How religious a person is can range from private beliefs/spiritual routines, to institutionalized religion, celebrating certain holidays

Intuition (Heuristics)

- Relying on instinct. High chance of error

Prospective Memory

- Remembering to do things in the future.

Damaging Effects of Stress on Reproductive

- Reproduction huge energy expense in women, so this gets shut down during stress response - Boys have a reduced testosterone as well

Reproduction and Environment (Game Theory)

- Reproduction: Important because it can't happen in isolation and it needs to involve others - Environment: How organism fits in with social and physical environment. Work with other organisms to find food, raise young, deal with predators

Inpatient Treatments

- Require residence at a hospital or treatment facility

Prefrontal Cortex

- Responsible for many higher-order functions, everything that distinguishes humans. - Executive control - solve problems, make decisions, how you act in social situations

Frontal Cortex

- Responsible for motor functions, higher order functions, planning, reasoning, judgement, impulse control, memory, insight, stability of personality, motor aspects of written speech, and motor aspects of spoken speech.

Sleep-Wake Disorders

- Result in distress/disability from sleep-related issues. Include insomnia and breathing-related sleep disorders.

Health and Healthcare Disparities

- Result of poor economic and environmental conditions - Socio-economic status is a pyramid and as we go up, access and quality of healthcare improves - Bottom of pyramid has more disease and less high quality healthcare, substandard housing - 2 Factors 1) Race: Hispanics/African Americans have higher mortality rates, worse healthcare access 2) Gender Differences: Men typically use fewer checkups and vaccines

Positive Sanction

- Reward for conforming to norms

Self-Concept

- Rogers and Maslow. - Genuine + Acceptance

Evolutionary Approach (Motivation)

- Role instincts play in motivation. - Ex: Think about baby, cries, sleep, eat. Basic instincts that all humans have

Malthusian Theorem (Stage 5)

- Run out of resources, global food shortage. Will not be able to maintain natural resources

Safety (Maslow)

- Safety of employment, health, resources, property. Can only be fulfilled after physiological needs are met - Associated with stability, security, protection, and freedom from threats

Functional Magnetic Resonance (fMRI)

- Same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active. Neurons that are active need oxygen so you measure relative amounts of oxygenated vs. deoxygenated blood in brain - Both brain structure and brain function way of studying the brain

Rote Rehearsal

- Say the same thing over and over remember (least effective)

Spreading Activation

- Says all ideas in your brain are connected together. Pulling up one memory pulls up others as well - Ex: Saying fire engine activates truck, fire, red which makes it easier to identify/retrieve those items

Cognitive Economy Principle

- Says our brain is efficient. Evidence: How long it takes people to verify certain statements. For example, it takes people little time to verify a canary is canary, more time to verify canary is a bird, and even more to verify canary is an animal.

Psychoanalytic Theory

- Says personality is shaped by childhood experiences, person's unconscious thoughts, desires, feelings, and past memories. - Developed by Freud - Personality has memories, beliefs, urges, drives, and instincts that we are not always aware of that make up the unconscious. Says childhood experiences and unconscious desires

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

- Scans - cannot give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT and MRI. Inject glucose into cells and see which areas of brain are more active at given point in time (active cells = most glucose) - Both brain structure and brain function way of studying the brain

Mass Society Theory

- Scepticism about groups that were involved in social movement, said social movements would only form for people seeking refuge from main society. - Ex. Nazism, Fascism, Stalinism (social movements in 20th century that destroyed millions of lives). [People who joined social movements were dysfunctional, irrational, and dangerous]. - Theory did not persist. People only join to satisfy a psychological need for involvement.

School

- Schools teach life skills along with science and math - don't learn from academic curriculum, but learn social skills from interaction with teacher and other student - Part of the "hidden curriculum" - standard behavior that are deemed acceptable that are subtly taught by teachers

Social Coping (Positive/Adaptive/Constructive Coping)

- Seeking social support from others

Daily Hassles

- Seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life (long store lines, forgetting car keys, aggravating roommates) - Racism may be one for minorities

Stage 2 (DTM)

- Seen in beginnings of developing populations/countries. Population rises as death rate decreases/lower death rate - Overall population growth - Early Expanding Pyramid Model: High birth rates and death rates declining so you get nice shape

Hyperglobalist Perspective

- Sees globalization as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Countries become one global society. Theorists don't agree if this good or bad. Driven by a legitimate process.

Central Dogma

- Segments of DNA codes for RNA and these will code for 1 of 20 amino acids, and eventually become building blocks of proteins

Centralization Segregation

- Segregation and clustering in a central area

Spotlight Model of Attention

- Selective attention - takes info from 5 senses, but don't pay attention to everything. - Priming: Where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been consciously paying attention to it

Oxidopamine

- Selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons. Can model Parkinson's Disease. - Similar to dopamine and it destroys substantia niagra neurons completely

Self-Concept

- Self Identity - is how someone thinks about/perceives/evaluates themselves

Thantos (Death Drive)

- Self-Destructive/Harmful to Others. Comes with Fear, anger (inward or outward), hate.

Subjective Bias

- Self-reported information is always vulnerable to subjective bias

Improve

- Semantic memories imrpove till around age 60, other adults have better verbal skills. Also IQ is crystalized in IQ

Adaptation

- Sensory level, and habituation is at the perceptive/cognitive level

Network Analysis

- Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of network and graph theories.

Homophilous

- Social network is similar to a reference group

Tonotopy

- Special mapping of sound frequencies that are processed by the brain

Fovea

- Special part of macula and completely covered in cones, no rods

Macula

- Special part of retina rich in cones, but there are also rods

Cerebral Localization (Phrenology)

- Specific parts of the brain can control specific aspects of behavior and emotion, thought, and personality

Mediating Variable

- Specifies a given cause that works indirectly through a more direct cause to a final effect. - Mediator adds to the overall variance accounted for in the data and can explain how the dependent and independent variables are related

Stage 5 (DTM)

- Speculation. World population will be forced to stabilize - Lack of resources will lead to public health disaster and force population to stabilize and then negative growth rate - Constrictive Pyramid Model: Fewer young people than older people

Somatosensory Tracts

- Spinal cord carries information to the brain in one tracts. Crosses other side immediately and goes into cerebrum - Why injury to one side of brain often results in damage to other side → because all the somatosensory pathways cross to the other side

Organ of Corti

- Splits the cochlea into 2 the upper and lower membrane

Diffusion

- Spread of an invention or discovery or ideas from one place to another. Spread of ideas such as Capitalism, democracy and religious beliefs have brought change in human relationships - Ex: Food in America seen all around the world - McDonalds in Asia. Nike in Japan

Spacing

- Spreading out study sessions overtime in shorter periods rather than cramming them into one study sessions (opposite of procrastinating)

Neuroticism

- Stable vs. Tense, Calm vs. Anxious, Secure vs. Insecure

Norms

- Standards for what behaviors, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not. - Rules that dictate how person should behave around certain group of people - and are defined by that group and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value - Ex: At a baseball game you stand up and yell very loudly when your team gets a homerun

Game Stage

- Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "generalized other". With this comes a whole new understanding of society. - Children start to realize that people perform in ways not only one what they personally believe but what also in the ways society more broadly expects of them

Culturally Opportunity in Life

- Starting a family is more important than continuing an education

Monro Reflex (Neonatal)

- Startle reaction. Fan out arms then back. Disappears in 4-6 month of age

SNS

- Starts middle of spinal cord - Cord → Short Axon Synapses with Short Ganglia close to Spine → Second neuron goes to the target cell (smooth, cardiac, gland cells) - SNS is short then long - "Fight or Flight" - blood flow to intestine decreases → goes to skeletal muscle; HR increases; sweat glands activated

Linguistic Universals Theory

- States that there are characteristics that remain consistent across all languages of different cultures

Neural Networking Theory

- States that there are innate language mechanisms that can be activated by experiences

Strong Social Constructionism

- States that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts

Social Class

- Status (social status) is relative (to have high status you need a lower status). Social class often sets stage for prejudice (people on top maintain differenced between themselves and lower class) - Ex: Of just world phenomenal thinking: High social class people say they are there because they work harder and low social class people are their because they do not work hard

Achieved Statuses

- Status you earn yourself after working for it - Ex: Olympic Athlete

Ascribed Statuses

- Statuses you cannot change, given from birth - Ex: Prince of a royal family

Stress Reaction

- Subsequent physical and emotional response (Bunny response to dog chasing it)

Age Stratification Theory

- Suggests age is way of regulating behavior of a generation

Physical Components of Depression

- Suicidal Thoughts - Interests Decreased - Guilt - Energy Decreased - Concentration Decreased - Appetite Disturbance - Psychomotor Changes - Sleep Disturbances - Weight Gain or Loss

Megnetoencephalography (MEG)

- Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUIDS) - better resolution than EEG, but rarer because requires a large machine and special room to shield it - Brain function way of studying the brain

Token Economy

- System of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior - Reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers - Ex: Prizes

Functionalism

- System of thinking based on ideas of Emile Durkheim that look at society from a large-scale perspective, and how each part helps keep society stable - Ex: Local business must adapt to new ways to cater to customers

Social Institutions

- Systems and structures within society that shape the activities of groups and individuals - Conservative and Progressive View

Problem Solving/Decision Making

- Takes place in groups. Factors that influences an individuals problem solving/decision making - the group interactions shape the outcome

Evolutionary Game Theory

- Tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring and those genes will become more common in successive generations - Predicts availability of resources and social behavior. Strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players

Sects

- Tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches. - Ex. Mormon/Amish

Homophily

- Tendency for people to choose relationships with other people who have similar attributes - People often prefer mixing with those who are similar to themselves

Halo Effect

- Tendency people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics - Ex: Jim, our initial impression is in the midd.e His accounting rating/skills is very high, sales are negative, and leadership is moderately good

Traditionalism

- Tendency to follow authority. Shown to be common in twins

Practical Intelligence

- The ability to use information to get along in life and become successful

Object Permanence

- The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Actual Self

- The balance between "I" and "Me" - "I" is he spontaneous and autonomous part of unified self and "Me" is the societies view

Optimism Bias

- The belief that bad things happen to others, but not to us

Physical Attractiveness Stereotype

- The belief that physically attractive individuals possess socially desirable personality traits and lead happier lives than less attractive persons

Primary Sex Characteristics

- The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Inter-Rater (External Reliability)

- The degree to which different raters give consistent estimate of the same behavior

Cultural Imperialism

- The deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture

Principle of Aggression (ELM)

- The effects of an attitude become more apparent when we look at a person's aggregate or average behavior rather than at isolated acts.

Self-Esteem

- The respect and the regard one has for oneself

Conjunctiva

- Thin layer of cells that lines the inside of your eyelids from the eye

Temporal Confounds

- Time related confounding variables

Moderating Variable

- Variable that specifies conditions under which a given predictor is related to an outcome - Explains when a dependent and independent variable are related. Influences the strength of a relationship between two other variables

Phonological Loop

- Verbal information (any words and numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) - Ex: repeating phone number to yourself

Defense Mechanism

- Ways to protect ourselves - a psychological shield against anxiety or discomfort of unconscious psychological processes - Pathological Mechanism, Immature, Neurotic, and Mature

Herbert Blumer (Symbolic Interactionism)

- We act based on meaning we've given something (tree is placed to rest) - Different people assign different meanings to things. We give meaning to things based on social interactions (someone tell us tree is infested with ants) - The meaning we give something is not permanent (something bites my back, so might not sit under next tree one finds)

Hans Eysenck Trait Theory

- We all pose all traits in which we express to different degrees. - 3 major dimensions of personality, which encompass all traits we possess, but the degrees to which we individually express them are different (psychoticism, extroversion, neuroticism)

Phobias (Biological Constraints)

- We are more likely to develop phobias to something that impacted our ancestors rather than things that might be dangerous to us in the real world

Perceptual Blindness (Inattentional blindness)

- We are not aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field "miss something right in front of you"

Situational Approach to Behavior

- We are placed in new situation every day. These affect our behavior

Out-Group Derogation

- We are super friendly to our in-group, but not friendly to out-group - we discriminate. Happens if we feel that the out-group is threatening to our undermine in group's success

Actor-Observer Bias

- We are victims of, but others are willful actors - We attribute our personal behaviors but others behavior on internal factors

Food (Sociocultural Factors)

- We eat for different ocassions, time, desire, appeal, availability

In-Group Favoritism

- We favor/friendly people in our own group, but those in out-group we are neutral and we do not give them favors we do to in-group

Government

- We give government the power and authority to manage the country.

Chunking

- We group information we are getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization

Temptation

- When desire conflicts with values or long term goals

Passing Responsibility of Actions to Others

- When experimenter said they would take full responsibility and participant would not be responsible for harm, participants feel more comfortable

Short Social Interactions

- When groups stay together and socialize for a long period of time

Bipolar I Disorder

- When hypomania becomes manic with or without major depressive disorder

Self-Stigma

- When individual can internalize all these negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they have had, and may begin to feel rejected by society, avoid interacting with society - Ex: Someone who has HIV/AIDS and feels the social-stigma may go into denial that they have the condition, experiences hits from self-esteem and suffer from depression, and display behaviors that isolates themselves from society and stop them from taking part in vocation/education/other social activites

Diffusion of Responsibility Theory (Bystander)

- When individuals are in presence of others where help is needed, feel less personal responsibility and less likely to take action when needed - Ex: In small group you may realize that you are the only one that learned CPR

Bipolar II Disorder

- When it remains hypomania and one major depressive episode

Mass Psychogenic Illness (Epidemic Hysteria)

- When large amount of people believe they have the same illness despite lack of disease - After anthrax attack in US, reports said 2000 false alarms

Depersonalization

- When learner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them - Symptom of serious mental illness in which person feels like she has stepped outside of herself

Anticipation (Positive/Adaptive/Constructive Coping)

- When one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it

Unanimity

- When opinions of group are unanimous. In the Asch experiment, there was one supporter who answered correctly before the experimenter, and full-compliance of experimenter dropped from 37% to 5%

Relapse

- When patient can slip and go back and depends on environmental triggers and drug they were addicted too - More addictive substances make relapse more likely

Identification

- When people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual - Ex: Football player people admired and bought his jersey, but then he engaged in domestic violence and once it was made public the identification of this player was dropped

Front Stage (Dramaturgy)

- When people are in a social setting. Manipulating how he is seen to gain or make friends - Ex: Someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn't like baseball

Social Scripts (Socio-Cultural)

- When people are in new situations they relay on social scripts or instructions provided by society on how to act - Ex: Violent video games model aggressive behavior for them

Gentrification

- When redone they target a wealthier community which increases property value. - People being pushed out because they can't afford property anymore

Embedded Field Study

- When researchers pose as participants

Galant Reflex (Neonatal)

- When skin is stroked, baby moves/swings to the side it was stroked. Disappears at 6 months

Minimum Justification Principle

- When someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it creating more dissonance

Fertiliztion

- When sperm and egg cells meet. - Sperm Binding → Acrosome Reaction → Cortical Reaction → Genetic Transfer

Informational Social Influence

- When we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don't - Ex: When you move to a new place. You would ask people around you (who lived in place for longer period) of things to do/places to eat and go along with their suggestions

Life-Table Mortality Table

- When you break mortality rate by age. Tells you probability someone will die given age which varies by country

Role Strain

- When you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status - Ex: A student has to write two papers, five reading assignments, give a speech, two lab reports in one week

Selective Attention

- When you divide your attention on one task between 2 (watching TV and studying together), you are selecting one at a time

Peter Principle

- Where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence - They remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further

Backstage (Impression Management)

- Where you work on impression management - Ex: Put on makeup, look in mirror and try different outfits

Externa Validity

- Whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people - To protect external validity, sample must be completely random, and all situational variables must be tightly controlled

Observed Behavior

- Whether we believe our behavior is observed. In Asch experiment, when the participant came in late, they said his response would be recorded on paper and not shared with group

Sampling Bias

- Which a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others.

Authoritarian Personality

- Who are very prejudice. They are obedient to superiors, but do not have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves are are oppressive. - And rigid thinkers, and inflexible with their viewpoints. These people probably had a harsh bringing/lots of discipline growing up - Use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they are always focused on others

Group Status

- Why children more likely to go along with popular group. Why we trust four doctors over four gardeners about our health.

Circadian Rhythms

- Why you get sleepy in the afternoon. They are our regular body rhythms across 24-hour period and controlled my melatonin (produced in the pineal gland)

Vomeronasal System

- Within the accessory olfactory epithelium and there are basal and apical cells that have receptors at tips - Molecule will come in and activate receptor on basal cell/ apical cell. Basal cell sends axons through accessory olfactory bulb to glomerius, then mitral or tufted cell which eventually goes to the amygdala

Karl Marx (Means of Production)

- Workers in working class do not realize they are being exploited and oppressed by this capitalistic model of working

Motivational Interviewing

- Working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change

World Systems Theory

- World is a single social unit divided into 3 regions - core, periphery, and semi-periphery

Global Inequality

- World is extremely unequal. Inequalities in individual countries. - Maternal Mortality Rate: Marker for healthcare systems

Publicly Conform

- You're outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs - Ex: You agree to shock color in the group situation but you also know that the treats is a more effective route. You are not convinced. When you are alone you rain the dog with a treat

Intimacy vs. Isolation (20 - 30)

- Young adults form intimate connections with others, if not, they may experience feelings of isolation. - Virtue is completion leads to comfortable relationships or love - Negative outcomes is avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation, loneliness, depression

Secure and Insecure Attachment

- Young babies are happy to be passed around, but then around 8 months (stranger anxiety sets in) - Ex: If baby doesn't see grandma often, they might not want to be held by even her. Child ends up being wary of strangers and even people they know

Recency Bias

- Your most recent actions are important--> people place emphasis on your more recent actions/performances - More important to developing memory - Ex: You are only as good as your last game, last match

State-Dependent

- Your state at time of encoding makes a difference. When you are in a certain mood when you encode, you can then remember if when you are in the same mood - Ex: If you learn something while drunk you will remember next time you are drunk

Role-Playing

Everyone plays many roles in life. Now if you are in a new role, it feels strange as we are trying to fit that role, but over time it starts to feel right - Ex: Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment

Molecule Bind to a Receptor

The molecule binds to the GPCR receptor on odor molecule → GPCR on olfactory epithelia → G-protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell → G protein binds to ion channel which allows cells outside the cell to come inside → opens and triggers an AP → goes to cribriform plate → glomerulus → activate mitral/tufted cell → synapse to brain.

Encoding Specificity

- Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning

External (Situational Attribution)

- Environment

Negative Response

- Group with no response expected

Prospective Chart Study

- Look at charts as they come

Attentional Capture

- Occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus

Associative Learning

- When one event is connected to another (classical and operant conditioning)

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

- When one option has both aspects, but here there are two options

Dizygotic Twins (Fraternal)

- Develop from 2 separately fertilized eggs. Share 50% of genes like regular siblings

Insecure Attachment

- 40% of the children were split into this - Experiment 1: Children cling to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore - Experiment 2: When mother left became upset/distress - Experiment 3: Distress did not go away when she came back - Others were avoidant and were not upset when they left the room

Secure Attachment

- 60% of the children were split into this - Experiment 1: Child was secure with parent and explored room, might have stayed with mother and eventually explored room - Experiment 2: When parent left, child became really distressed/upset - Experiment 3: When parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy

Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (LL Thurnstone)

- 7 factors of intelligence (word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory) - Strength: Breakdown seems intuitive (possible to have high inductive skills w/o high verbal comprehension) - Problems: limited in what considers intelligence, scores seem to vary together suggesting underlying intelligence factor

Negative Correlation

- <0, >-1, and -1 is a strong negative correlation. - Relationship between two variables in which one variable increases and the other decreases

Positive Correlation

- >0, <1, and 1 is strong positive correlation - Relationship between two variables: as one increases, the other also increases

Labeling Theory

- A behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labeled it as so - Ex: Steroids can be labelled as deviant. Not labeled as right or wrong, it is possible that in some situations steroids are necessary. In professional sports - steroid use can be labeled as wrong or unfair and can be considered deviant and subject to critic by others. Deviance is determined by the team members, sporting league, or greater society label.

Partial Reinforcement Schedule

- A behavior is reinforced only some of the time. More resistant to extinction that continuous reinforcement - Behavior is shaped through a process of successive reinforcement of approximations of target behavior

Representativeness Heuristic

- A heuristic where people look for the most representative answer and look to match prototype - Ex: Linda is outspoken and very bright, majored in philosophy and as a student she participated in antinuclear demonstrations and organizations that fought discrimination. What is more likely? Linda is a Feminist bank teller or a bank teller. Most people will say she is more like a feminist bank teller even if they don't know feminists or anyone like Linda. She fits you prototype of how a feminist would act (she is representative of a feminist).

Oxytocin

- A hormone released by the pituitary gland that causes increased contraction of the uterus during labor and stimulates the ejection of milk into the ducts of the breasts. (stronger in women)

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Condition)

- A learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus - Achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with potent stimulus - Does not involve change in behavior like operant conditioning

Activation Synthesis Hypothesis

- Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. - Brainstem = Activation, and Cortex = Synthesis - Our brain is simply trying to find meaning from random brain activity (dreams might not have meaning)

Paradoxical Sleep

- Brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything

Old Brain

- Brain needs to take care of survival at the minimum. - Inside of brain = older structures/most simple (control breathing/sleeping) - Brainstem (medulla and pons), Controls heart rate and breathing - Reticular Formation: From brainstem to other brain areas. Filters information and sends important information info to the thalamus - Thalamus and Cerebellum

Atrophy (Alzheimer's)

- Brain tissue has decreased in size significantly or shriveled up - Cerebrum decreases in size and it correlates with severity of dementia - Starts in temporal lobe, important for memory

Broca (Brain Study)

- Broca studies a patient with loss of speech (nothing else). This patient had a specific part of frontal lobe damaged and so he conducted autopsy. The brain region is involved in speech production so now it is called Broca's Area

Sleep Spindles

- Burst of rapid brain activity. In some parts of brain associated with ability to sleep through loud noises

Alcohol

- CNS Depressant

Nicotine

- CNS stimulant by working as a acetylcholine agonist

Piaget (Theory of Language and Cognition)

- Came up with cognitive development in children. He believed once children were able to think a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts → influences build it. Language is influenced by cognitive development - Ex: When children develop object permanents, they start to develop words like gone and missing

Ill Health Magnet

- Can also drag people away, can't participate in society.

MDMA (Ecstacy)

- Can be a stimulant or hallucinogen

Ethnic Minority

- Can be absorbed in majority after 1-2 generations. Cannot stereotype and have to consider everyone as equal - Minority is a group that makes up less than half the total population and is treated differently due to some characteristic - Ex: In 1900s, native born Americans did not consider Irish, Italian, or Jewish immigrants to be white.

Immigrant (Pro vs. Con)

- Can be functional to receiving country by alleviating labor shortages and the sending/origin country by reducing population - Dysfunctional as immigrant can be exploited by countries which are interested in maximizing their profits while being unconcerned about global, social, economic inequalities

Spouse Abuse

- Can be physical or psychological like all abuse. Usually men are perpetrators, but men can also be victims - Economic issues are usually the cause. controlling and limiting the support network of victim

Conformity and Obedience

- Can be positive (useful/helpful/important aspects) or negative in their effects on social behavior in society - Ex: We obey traffic laws or agree that cereal is a breakfast food. We do not question if we should stop at a stop sign - Compliance, Identification, and Internalization

Racial Difference

- Can cause drastic events, like genocide or population transfer (group is forcefully moved), inter-colonialism (minorities are segregated), and assimilation (minority group is absorbed)

Poverty Magnet

- Can drag people away from the core part of society, and experience a greater degree of social exclusion

Auto-Communication

- Can give information to themselves - Ex: Bats and echolation and this allows them to gain information about the environment

Reinforcement-Modeling (Psychological)

- Can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to temper tantrums in future

Evolution

- Can shape culture, but can also think of how culture can shape human evolution - Ex: Hunter-gatherer society vs. Farming society, people moved less, and populations grew. Because of this more people were more exposed to outbreaks of disease

Dreaming

- Can tell when someone is dreaming because eyes are moving rapidly under eyelids, and brainwaves look like they are completely awake (memorable ones, NREM are not memorable) - Activity in the prefrontal cortex during REM sleep is decreased (logic is part responsible)

Deprived/Trapped Individuals

- Cannot afford to leave the city - Ex: Unemployed, elderly, homeless, poor

Adaptable (Learned Characteristic)

- Capable of being modified in response to changing conditions

Altruism

- Care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them. Beneficial to society and also individuals - Kin Selection, Reciprocal Altruism, and Cost Signalling

Conscientisousness

- Careful vs. Careless, Disciplined vs. Impulse, Organized or not

Myers Briggs Personality test

- Carl Jung - 4 letters that characterize you in one of 16 personality types

McGurk Effect

- Categorical change in auditory perception that occurs whenever the auditory stimulus does not match the visual stimulus during speech perception.

Factor Analysis

- Cattell, Eysenck, and Big 5 all use this. Allport used different methods - Statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits

Parkinson's Disease

- Caused by low dopamine levels, dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra of basal ganglia die off - Basal ganglia- voluntary motor movement, procedural learning, routine behavior - Symptoms include tremors, hypokinesia - Lewy bodies- protein aggregates of alpha-synuclein inside neurons

Korsakoff's Syndrome

- Caused y lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. Caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism - Most cases not caused by brain injuries

Stable Characteristic

- Causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways. Combination and interaction of traits forms the personality

Normalcy "Can't Happen to me" Bias

- Causes people to underestimate both the possibility of a disaster occurring and its possible effects

Morula

- Cells become tighter (closer together and the outside cells are different). Differentiation is occurring and outside is trophoblast and inside is embryoblast

Anal Stage (18-36 months)

- Centered around anus (toilet training). Leads to developing control/independence, encouraging child to feel positive outcomes and helps child feel capable and productive - Serve basis for competent, productive, creative adults - If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness

Central Sleep Apnea

- Central (brain is part of CNS), Sleep (at night), Apnea (Effects airflow)

Stage 2: Processing Stage by Message/Source

- Central and Peripheral Processing

Meaning (Symbolic Interactionism)

- Central aspect of human behavior. Humans ascribe meanings to things, and act towards those things based on the meanings

Confounding Variables

- Changes in dependent variable may be due to existence of or variations in a third variable - The third variable could provide an alternative explanation to the relationship between the variables of interest

Brain Change During Adolescence

- Changes in prefrontal cortex, limbic system, corpus callosum and global changes (changes throughout the brain)

Epigenetics

- Changes to gene expression resulting from changes other than to gene/DNA sequence - Ex: Addition oof methyl groups to gene, which make it more difficult for TFs to come in and activate gene

Sublimation (Mature)

- Channeling negative to positive energy. - Ex: Violent energy, instead of expressing violence you become a boxer.

Target Characteristics

- Characteristics of a listener, such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence - How we receive a message

Cardinal Traits

- Characteristics that direct most of person's activities - Dominant trait that influence all of our behaviors, including secondary and central traits

Autism Spectum Disorder (ASD)

- Characterized by a variety of issues related to social and communication abilities, and first symptoms of the disorder typically include delayed language development and unusual communication patterns

Riots

- Characterized by large number of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes

Mania

- Characterized by little sleep, talking quickly, making bad decisions due to impaired judgement, making bad decisions based on bad assessment of risk or abilities of a task (lead to social/legal problems)

OCD

- Characterized by obsessions and compulsions. These interfere with every day life (washing hands so much, they become rough) - 2-3% of people (typically teen and young adult)

Depression/Major Depressive Disorder

- Characterized by prolonged feeling of helplessness and discouragement about the future.

George Herbert Mead: The I and Me

- Charles Cooley and George Herbert Mead both thought others could play a significant role in how we view ourselves

Rooting Reflex (Neonatal)

- Check stroking = baby turns head. Allows for orientation to mothers nipple or bottle. Disappears in few weeks of life - then baby turns head voluntarily

Pheromones

- Chemical signals released by an animal that communicate information and affect the behavior of other animals of the same species.

Histamine

- Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries. (causing allergies, itching)

Neurotransmitters

- Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another - Bind to external-ligand gated ion channels

Abuse through Neglect

- Child's basic needs aren't met lack of supervision poor nutrition

Learning (Behaviorist) Theory

- Children aren't born with anything, they only acquire language through operant conditioning - Associated with BF Skinner - Ex: Child learns to say "mama" because every time they say that, mom reinforces child

Palmer Grasp Reflex (Neonatal)

- Children closes their hands on anything that comes in their palm. Disappears at 3-4 months, then child grasps things voluntarily

Major Motor Milestones

- Children come in the world with reflexes or pre-programmed motor skills. Involuntary movement/automatic 2-4 Months: Head and chests up 2-5 Months: Roll over 5-8 Months: Sit Up 5-10 Months: Stand with support 6-11 Months: Pull up to standing position 7-12 Months: Children are able to crawl 7-13 Months: Walk while holding onto furniture 10-14 Months: Stand on their own 11-15 Months: Walk Alone

Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

- Children watched an adult kick inflatable toy - When children were allowed to play in the room, they inflicted similar violence on doll - Not imitation - Can be used to teach individuals to avoid behavior - Children who watched the adult get scolded for punching doll were less likely to be aggressive toward doll

Physical Effects of Stress

- Chronic sttress has a serious negative effects of body. Damaging effects of stress on our heart - Increased BP, BV distend, so they build up more muscle and become more rigid

Symbolic Interactions Theory of Cities

- Cities are places where people have different ways of looking at life. - Strong cultural values, people have strong cultural values and people have different interactions and perspectives of urban life

Functionalist Perspective of Cities

- Cities have important functions and have a slice of cultural and diverse population but also host to crime and other disruptions to society

Communism

- Classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community

Sociocultural/Environment Factors (Depression)

- Co-Rumination (Empathy) - Low Socioeconomic Status

Categorical Self

- Comes once baby realizes they're separate (comes after existential self)- becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others. And each of these objects/entities has properties. Ex. age and gender are the first categories first babies learn, then skills and size. Then, as we grow older, compare ourselves with others - traits, comparisons, careers (these are more developed categories)

Political Isolation

- Communities segregated are politically weak because their political interests don't overlap with other communities - become political vulnerable, don't have the political influence to keep their own needs addressed

Linguistic Isolation

- Communities who are isolated may develop own language, even in same city. May limit jobs

Multinational/Transnational Corporations

- Companies that extend beyond borders of a country - T&C Cross Borders to take opportunities they can find in different countries to manufacture, distribute, market, and sell product

Classical Twin Study

- Compare monozygotic + dizygotic each raised in same household

T-Test

- Compares mean values of a continuous variable between 2 categories/groups. - Two-Tailed: Possibility of relationship in both directions - One-Tailed: One direction

Surrender

- Compliance, Dependence: Relies on others, gives in , seeks affiliation, passive, dependent, submissive, clinging, avoids conflict, people-pleasing

Crowding

- Con of Urban areas. Too little space and too many people - Less sense of belonging in a city when compared to a town, so we join groups to form communities

Taste Buds

- Concentrated anteriorly (front) on the tongue and taste buds can be fungiform (anterior), foliate (side), and circumvallate (back) - In each taste bud are the 5-receptor cells that can detect each taste

Meritocracy

- Concept that people achieve social position solely based on ability and achievements. Highly idealized. - Birth/parental background doesn't matter. Extreme social mobility and equal opportunity - Not necessary for everyone to have same talent or skill level or outcome.

Semantic Networks

- Concepts are organized in your mind as connected ideas. For closely related ideas, they might be closer and longer for less closely related ideas

Dramaturgical Approach

- Concepts of from stage self, back stage self, impression management, and communication are all relevant to the dramaturgical approach to social interactions - When interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of audience - 2 Parts: Front and Back Stage

Inclusive Fitness

- Concerns the number of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other

Protective Factors

- Conditions that shield individuals from the negative consequences of exposure to risk

Suppression (Mature)

- Conscious thought get pushed to unconscious but can access thoughts at a later time

Consensus (People)

- Consensus of people = attribution of external factors - Ex: "Group lateness" - if you arrive late at meeting but if you are with 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus

Operant Conditioning (Learned)

- Consequences that follow behavior increase/decrease likelihood of behavior happening again

Other Disorders

- Distress/disability from any person that appears to have a mental disorder causing distress/disability but doesn't fit into other categories rare

Feminist Theory

- Contemporary approach of looking at work from macro perspective, focusing on stratifications/inequalities in society, particularly women's social roles in education, family, and workforce. Women face discrimination (unjust treatment), objectification (regarded as an object), oppression (unjust treatment and encouraged to occupy gender based role), and stereotyping (women viewed until same image) - Not an attempt to replace men - different perspective on society to point out inequalities that exist between men and women due to institutions of society

Automatic vs Controlled

- Controlled task is harder and would struggle to complete if attention is divided. Automatic task occurs with greater experience

Cerebellum

- Coordinates voluntary movement and balance (alcohol severely affects this) - Middle of cerebellum coordinates middle body movement and walking, while sides are involved in movement of limbs - arms and legs - Also controls speech and movement of eyes

Self (Stigma)

- Core circle - media, society, family interactions can be internalized by an individual can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society

Neurulation

- Core in the mesoderm differentiates into a notochord. Notochord induces change above on cells above in the ectoderm (cells become thicker) called the neural plate - Neural plate cells begin to dive into mesoderm. Ring structure/tube forms and becomes known as a neural tube

Homunculus

- Cortical body map of how different areas of the skin are represented in the primary somatosensory cortex

Cost-Benefit of Foraging

- Cost: Going out to get food can take up time and energy - Benefit: It survives - Goal is to get highest energy yield while expanding least amount of energy

Anti-Malthusian Theorem (Stage 5)

- Couples only want to have one child or have children later in life (Low birth rate)

Imagery (Mnemonic Device)

- Crazier the better

Institutional Facts (Weak)

- Created by social conventions and do rely on other facts - Ex: Money depends on the paper we have given value

Central Processing (Stage 3 - Change in Attitude)

- Creates a lasting attitude change

Peripheral Processing (Stage 3 - Change in Attitude)

- Creates a temporarily attitude change

Culture Builds on Itself

- Creation of culture is ongoing and cumulative, and societies build on existing cultures to adapt to new challenges and opportunities - Normal values are shaped by your culture. (Putting baby in a crib is strange in other parts of world)

Skeptical Perspective

- Critical of globalization, considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized. Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits as first world countries. - Current economy is not leading towards global capitalism. Transnational corporations still tied to their home countries and national borders remain important. CRTIICAL.

Cultural Transmission

- Cultural transmission addresses how culture is learned. Culture is passed along from generation to generation through various childrearing practices, including when parents expose children to music

Dominant Group

- Cultures that have the power to determine the cultural expectations of society

Third Gender

- Cultures that recognize non-binary gender

Drugs (Sociocultural Factors)

- Curiosity, novelty of drug, rebel, poor control of user, cope with stress, low-self esteem, relief from fatigue, feel good

Darwin and Emotional Expression

- Darwin hypothesized ability to understand and express emotion is an innate ability that allowed them to act in ways that gave them a better chance of survival - Newborns reacting same way and blind individual have same reaction as regulars

Longitudinal Study

- Data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, can take years or decades - Longitudinal study follows variables over a long period of time to look for correlations

Mortality

- Death and decreases population

Stage 3 (DTM)

- Death rates continue to drop and birth rate begin to fall, and population continues to grow - Birth control cause birth rates to grow and Death rates drop cause of healthcare - Late Expanding Pyramid Model: Birth rates decline and people are living longer lives as people are getting older

Punishment (Operant Conditioning)

- Decreases behavior

N2 (Stage 2)

- Deeper stage of sleep. People in N2 are harder to awaken. We see more theta waves, as well as sleep spindles and K-complexes.

Regression (Defense Mechanism)

- Defense mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations

Reaction Formation (Defense Mechanism)

- Defense mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want or feel

Sublimation (Defense Mechanism)

- Defense mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful

Subconscious Coping

- Defense mechanisms (these are usually excluded), strategies reduce stress levels

Feeding and Eating Disorders

- Distress/disability from behavioral abnormalities related to food - Ex: Anorexia nervosa (takes in insufficient amount of food), bulimia nervosa (binge eating and then purging)

Socioeconomic Status

- Defined as consisting of income (or wealth), educational attainment, and/or occupational status

Family (Social Institution)

- Defined by many forms of kinship, including marriage, blood, or adoption - Ex: Rural families were production based, so large family

Ethinicity

- Defined by national origin/distinct cultural patterns (Indian, Puerto Rican)

Linear Regression

- Degree of dependence between one variable and another - Data is on scatter plot, one-way influence of one variable or another

Extroversion vs. Introversion (Eysenck)

- Degree of sociability

Psychoticism (Eysenck)

- Degree to which reality is distorted - Aggressive - Cold - Egocentric - Impersonal - Impulsive

Lesion Studies and Experimental Ablation

- Deliberately making brain lesions/destroying tissues in order to observe changes on animal behavior. (Not done in humans)

Stroop Effect

- Demonstration of interference in the reaction time of a task. - When the name of a color is printed in a color not denoted by name - Naming the color of the word takes longer and is more prone to errors than when the color of the ink matches the name of the color

Irrational Techniques

- Denial of the situation: Refuse to accept situation - Reinterpreting the Events: Change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause and character of victim - Ex: If a Victim of violence that was hurt, they were really hurt, we can reinterpret outcome, reinterpret cause, or reinterpret character of victim

Pragmatics

- Dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. Affected by prosody - the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices

Successful Retrieval

- Depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present and encoding and cues present at retrieval

4 Main Categories of Psychoactive Drugs

- Depressants, Stimulants, Hallucinogens , Opioids/opiates

Dependent Stressor

- Depressed person would be expected to experience a greater number of stressful events that he or she influences

Posner and Synder

- Described an action as sutomatic if the action did not affect other mental activities

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

- Describes a person whose general state is tense and uneasy to a degree it influences their life (6+ months) - Symptoms: Eyelids, Trembling, Fidgeting, High BP, and other bodily symptoms - Affects women (2/3)

Labeled-Line Theory of Olfaction

- Describes a scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain.

Demand Characteristics (Criticism of Asch Conformity)

- Describes how participants change behavior to match expectations of experimenter. Conformed because experimenter wanted them to

Obedience

- Describes how we follow orders/obey authority. No cognitive component (just following orders)

Content Validity

- Describes the extent that the test measures the construct accurately. - Is the estimate of how much a measure represents every single element of a construct

Construct Validity

- Describes the extent to which the theory is supported by the data or results of the research "Does the test have results that is supported by what is expected"

ABC Model

- Describes three major components of attitudes - Affective component- person's feelings about the thing - Behavioral component- The influence that attitudes have on behavior - Cognitive component- Beliefs/knowledge about a specific object of interests

Retrospective Cohort

- Design looks back at events that have already taken place

Antithesis (Conflict Theory)

- Desire of working class to change the thesis. - Cannot coexist with thesis peacefully

Color Constancy

- Despite changes in lighting which change the image color falling on our retina, we understand (perceive) that the object is the same color - Ex: A red apple will be perceived as red in well or poorly illuminated surrounding

Kainic Acid

- Destroys cell bodies but doesn't influence axons passing by

Flashbulb Memories

- Detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events - Ex: Memory about your birth can be positively valenced while 9/11 is negatively valenced

Parallel Processing

- Detect and focus all information (color, form, motion) at the same time

Cones

- Detect color and discern high level of detail in what you are observing (cone shaped)

Rods

- Detect light and rod shaped

Implicit Association Testing

- Detect strength of person's automatic association between mental representations of objects (CONCEPTS) in memory

Gene Mapping

- Determination of the relative positions of genes on a DNA molecule (chromosome or plasmid) and of the distance, in linkage units or physical units, between them.

Theory of Differential Association

- Deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws - Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm - Ex: Elite athlete who grows up believing that cheating is wrong and to be a succesful athlete one must train hard, avoid drugs and alcohol, and be respectful to opponents. Elite athlete now switches teams and now new team member believe that using steroid and partying is best way to be successful. You now accept these behaviors overtime

DSM-5

- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition from American Psychiatric Association (APA) - 20 top level categories - Describes paraphilia as any intense and persistent sexual interest other than genital stimulation or fondling in phenotypically normal, physical mature, and consenting human partners

Sleep Disorders

- Diagnostic category representing persistent or recurrent sleep related problems that cause significant personal distressed or impaired functioning

Health Disparities

- Difference in health outcome that is closely related to social and economic factors. Causes difference, not a biological one

Sexual Dimorphism

- Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. - Both men and women are attracted to this

Discrimination

- Differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. Can be based on different factors including race, age, religion - Can occur at individual or at the organization/institutional level

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

- Directly related to the consumption of alcohol during pregnancy

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

- Disagreed with James-Lange, and found flaws in idea that physiological response triggered emotion - Flaws: 1) You can experience physiological response without emotion 2) Noticed many different emotions had same physiological responses 3) Physiological response system was too slow to produce emotion that seemed to happen almost instantly - Later believed physiological response and emotion occurred simultaneously - Event → Physiological Response + Emotion at Same Time

Cognitive Dissonance

- Discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, emotional reaction)

Relative Deprivation

- Discrepancy of what they are entitled to and what they get

Past-In-Present Discrimination

- Discrimination based on how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in present - Ex: After Brown vs. Board verdict, but girl in integrated school still doesn't feel welcome in her classroom

Visual Agnosia

- Disorder of the ventral pathway, because it is an inability to recognize an image - Vision = Ventral

Aphasia

- Disorder that involves language. Aphasia is a communication disorder that causes problems with language, like speaking, listening reading and writing

Mental Disorders

- Disorders of the mind. Mental illness, psychological/psychiatric illness. Abnormalities of the mind that cause distress or disability.

Examples of Maladaptive Coping

- Dissociation, Sensitization, Safety Behaviors, Anxious Avoidance, and Escape

Distinctiveness (Situational)

- Distinctiveness of a situation = attribution to external factors - Ex: Very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive. So much more likely to be related to environment

Traits

- Distinguishing qualities and characteristics that compose us - Ex: Temperament or eye color

Pathological Defense Mechanisms

- Distort reality by pretending something hasn't happened

Mania

- Distractibility, Insomnia, Grandiose, Fleeting Thoughts, Agitation, Speech, Thoughtlessness

Gender Dysphoria

- Distress/disability caused by person identifying as a different gender than society represents them as (must cause distress/disability)

Trauma and Stressor Related Disorders

- Distress/disability form occurs after stressful or traumatic events. Leads to mood, emotional, and behavioral abnormalities

Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders

- Distress/disability form the abnormal use of substances that affect mental health function - Include alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics, stimulants, tobacco, and can include gambling

Anxiety Disorders

- Distress/disability from abnormal worry or fear. Some are specific to certain stimuli like phobias, while others are not specific to certain stimuli, including generalized anxiety disorder - False cognition leads to fear of humiliation, embarrassment, rejection, negative evaluation, or rejection by others

Sexual Dysfunctions

- Distress/disability from abnormalities in or performance of sexual activity

Dissociative Disorders

- Distress/disability from abnormalities of identity or memory - Ex: Multiple personalities, people who have lost memories for part of their life

Depressive Disorder

- Distress/disability from abnormally negative mood. Mood refers to long-term emotional state.

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation

- Done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. This research focused on mother-child interactions - Experiment 1: Mother and child in room with stranger. Child allowed to explore and neither stranger nor mother interact with child - Experiment 2: Then mom leaves room and quietly leaves. Baby left with stranger. - Experiment 3: Then mother returns. Mother and stranger and baby in the room

Reward Pathway in the Brain

- Dopamine in the VTA travels to the Hippocampus, Amygdala, Prefrontal cortex, and the Nucleus accumbens. - It makes it HAPN! - Nuccleus accumbens, hippocampus, amygdala = mesolimbic pathway

Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)

- Dopamine is transmitted from VTA to the pre-frontal cortex via the mesocortical pathway. (associated with cognition, affect, and negative symptoms of schizophrenia) - Dopamine is transmitted from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, and hippocampus. (Associated with reward, motivation, and positive symptoms of schizophrenia) - VTA → CORT = Negative - VTA → Limbic (Nucleus Accumbens, Amygdala, Hippocampus) → Reward/Positive Symptoms

Substantia Nigra

- Dopamine is transmitted from neuron soma to axons projecting into the caudate nucleus and the putamen of the neostriatum via nogrostriatal pathway - Substantia nigra → Motor Planning

Arcuate Nucleus

- Dopamine is transmitted from the hypothalamus to pituitary gland via the tuberoinfundibulnar pathway

Cosmopolite Individuals

- Drawn to city due to cultural benefits and convenience - Ex: Students, artists, entertainment, and intellectuals

Sigmund Freud (Dreaming Theory)

- Dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted. (Little scientific support)

Death Instinct (Freud)

- Drives aggressive behaviors fueled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others

Neuroleptics

- Drugs that alleviate the symptoms of severe disorders such as schizophrenia, but can increase negative symptoms

Psychoactive Drugs

- Drugs that can alter our consciousness, and perceptions. Also increase mood, calm us down, make us feel more alert

Stimulants

- Drugs that excite your CNS, increase heart rate, blood pressure, alertness, more awake, more energetic. Effect is similar too stress, increased glucose metabolism in brain - Ex: Caffeine, Amphetamines, Methamphetamines, Cocaine, Nicotine, THC - Cocaine: Blocks dopamine reuptake. Amphetamines both block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release. - Caffeine inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP. Nicotine acts on acetylcholine. THC works on anandamide. - Stimulants and depressants work functioonally opposite but do not actually work on the same things at a neurochemical level

Depressants

- Drugs that lower your body's basic functions and neural activity, lower CNS activity. (Alcohols, Barbiturates, and Benzodiazepines) - Ex: Decrease Heart Rate, Decrease BP

Damaging Effects of Stress on Metabolism

- During stress, our body secretes cortisol and glucagon, which converts glycogen to glucose. - Glucose increases in our blood which remains floating around ini blood vessels

Labelled-Line Model

- Each taste bud receptor has 5 axons, all which separate taste information to different parts of the gustatory (taste) cortex

Ecological Validity

- Ecological validity is a type of external validity which looks at the testing environment and determined how much it influences behavior

Germ Layer Derivatives

- Ectoderm: Tissues the contact the outside world, nervous system. - Endoderm: Epithelium - Mesoderm: Muscles, CT, Axial Skeleton, Dermis

ANS (No Conscious Involvement)

- Efferent neurons in the peripheral nervous system - Control smooth muscle cells, cardiac muscle, and gland cells - Divides into Sympathetic (SNS) and Parasympathetic (PNS) nervous system

Monozygotic Twins (Identical)

- Egg splits into 2 after fertilization and they share 100% of genes

What is Light?

- Electromagnetic wave. The electromagnetic spectrum contains everything from gamma rays to AM/FM waves (long wavelength) - Visible light is in the middle of the EM spectrum - Violet (400mn) to Red (700 nm). Highest to lowest wavelength (ROY G BIV) - Light enters pupils and goes to retina containing the rods and cones (120 million rods for night vision) - 6-7 million cones (red, green, blue)

Industry vs. Inferiority (6 - 12)

- Elementary school age children develop a sense of industry or competence and learn productive skills their culture requires; if not, they feel inferior. - Virtue is child will gain greater significance and greater self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. - Negative outcome is if initiative is restricted child feels inferior (don't have competence). Some failure is necessary/good though, so child has modesty

Neuroticism (Eysenck)

- Emotional stability, ranging from stable to anxious and irritable

Non-Dominant Hemisphere (usually right)

- Emotional tone of language, if peeople are happy/sad/anxious, creativity, music, special processing

Schizoid (Cluster A)

- Emotionally detached in relationships and shows little emotion (antisocial)

Behavioral

- Emotions produces different behavioral responses evident from body language or facial expression - Emotion are temporary (unlike mood) and can be positive or negative. Vary in intensity and can be involuntary

Thyroid Gland

- Endocrine gland that surrounds the trachea in the neck - Regulate body metabolism (T3/T4) - Affects the growth and development of the brain, and regulates growth rates

Lazarus Theory of Emotion

- Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised (labelled) - If we label emotion as good, it is positive - If we label emotion as bad, it is negative - Event → Label Event (Appraisal) → Emotion + Physiological Response

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

- Experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses - Ex: Holding Pet Cat → Increased Heart Rate (Physiological Response) → Interpretation of Physiological Response → Happiness (Emotion) - It isn't the cat making you happy, it's what the cat is doing to your body makes you happy

Shadowing Task

- Experiment that studies selective attention

Elaboration Likelihood Model

- Explains. how attitudes are formed and likely they are to be changed. - The target characteristics are the mist important in this model, but all play a factor - Determines when people will be influenced by the content of a speech vs. more superficial features

Haptic Perception

- Exploration of objects through touch, most often by the hand or fingers

Stereotype Threat

- Exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually cause decrease in the performance of an individual performing task - Ex: Blue and red students, both perform equally. Next time, implement negative stereotype about blue students, and now blue performs worse

Priming (Implicit)

- Exposure to one stimulus (perceptual pattern) influences the response to another stimulus

Humor (Mature)

- Expressing humor/jokes to be truthful and alleviate feelings but make them socially acceptable

Esteem Social Support

- Expressions of confidence/encouragement. Things people say to let you know they believe in you - Can come from family and friends but also therapists, teachers, coaches

Internal Validity

- Extent to which a casual conclusion based on a study is warranted. - Cofounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

- External, cannot tell us about activity of individual. Can only look at sum total and tell us about sleep state, seizures, and cognitive tasks - Brain function way of studying the brain

Stigma

- Extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person. - Typically, a culture will stigmatize a person based on overt physical disability, deviant personal traits, or deviation from accepted norms of the ethnic group

Simple Traits

- Eye color or hair color can be. linked to specific genes

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Stage

- Eyes move rapidly beneath your eyelids but most of your other muscles are paralyzed. (Dreaming occurs during REM sleep, so paralyzation inhibits actions)

Change Blindness

- Failing to notice changes in the environment (Don't notice when mom gets haircut)

Fairness

- Fairness of an exam refer to its freedom from any kind of bias. Exam should be appropriate for all qualified examinees irrespective of race, religion, gender or age

Important Agents of Socialization

- Family - School - Peers - Mass Media

Family (Stigma)

- Family can be shunned by society (if they have family member with stigmatizing condition), or family might shun individual themslves - Ex: Isolate the individual who is stigmatized against in the family and keep a secret within family

Alpha-Beta Fibers

- Fast ones are thick and covered in myelin (less resistance, high conductance)

3-Type of Nerve Fibers

- Fast, Medium, Slow - Slowest (A-B), A-D, Fastest (C)

Social Phobias

- Fear of different social situations, not as easy to avoid - Ex: Shyness, or intense fear of being scrutinized by other

Agoraphobia

- Fear of open spaces, crowds

6 Main Universal Emotions

- Fear, Anger, Happiness, Disgust, Sadness, Surprise

Self-Esteem (Maslow)

- Feel confident and sense of achievement, recognition, competence of skill. Respect

Daydreaming

- Feel more relaxed, not as focused as alertness. Can also be light meditation (self-induced)

Culture Shock

- Feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, or even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices - Ex: Moving countries, move social environments, or travels to another type of life

XO Turner Syndrome

- Female phenotype, short with slightly altered body form and small breasts. Most are not mentally retarded but are sterile and have shortened lives.

Tonic Neck Reflex (Neonatal)

- Fencing posture. How when a baby's head is turned, the arm on the side straightens while the arm on the side that is opposite bends. Disappears at 6 months of age

Constructive Pyramid

- Fewer young people than old people in developed countries - Mortality rate of country with lots of old people does not compare well with a country

Long-term Memory

- Final Stage and capacity is unlimited. 2 main categories: explicit and implicitty

Tangible/Instrumental Social Support

- Financial assistance/support, material goods, or services. Taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems. Can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you're sick, or lend you money between jobs.

Primacy Bias

- First impressions are more important. they are long-lasting, strong (tough to overcome) and easily built upon, and no info that doesn't - More important to developing memory - Ex: You are a messy person, people will look at your messy room instead of your tidy desk

Identity and Expression

- First main factor. Possible combinations (someone biological male and identify as male) - Cis-Gender: Same biological sex and gender - Trans-Gender: Biological sex and gender identity do not match

Hierarchial Semantic Network

- First semantic network theory suggested that we stored information in a hierarchal way

Groupthink (Conformity)

- First suggestion proposed by leader is adopted only if there is little hope of finding a better solution - Ex: Neighborhood people decide to meet to discuss a dog exhibiting bad behavior. Leader says dog should be put down to avoid damage to the neighborhood.

Alfred-Binet

- First to develop an intelligence test, but wasn't intending too. Developed a test tin order to establish a child's mental age and measure a child's intellectual development and predict how well they will do in school latter one

Complex Innate Behaviors

- Fixed action patterns (mating dance), migration (birds flying south in winter), circadian rhythms (biological clock ,waking up early to sing)

Innate Learning

- Fixed action patterns that are "hand wired"

Wernicke's Aphasia

- Fluent aphasia/receptive aphasia. Different patten of behavior - words they make don't make any sense. (Temporal lobe region damaged) - Person will be able to produce language, however words will come out as fluent speech that lacks meaning

Central Processing (Stage 2)

- Focus on deep processing of the information

Peripheral Processing

- Focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing) such attractiveness of speaker, their PowerPoint attractiveness, or even how many points speaker has made

Moral Development Theory (Kohlberg)

- Focused on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong. - Develops through 3 stages of development (each with 2 levels)

Problems of Functionalism

- Focuses entirely on institutions without regard for individual. Also largely unable to explain social change and conflict, so focused on equilibrium (between social facts and institutions) - Little change and conflict is modeled and no conflict can occur. More to society than just stable state of its part, but functionalism is still useful in examining the functions of its integral parts

Biomedical Model

- Focuses on biological, physical abnormalities - Ex: Abnormalities of cell of the brain that might cause disorders or having abnormal pattern of connections between cells of brain

Drive-Reduction Theory (Motivation)

- Focuses on drives and needs. Need is a lack of deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state. Drive is the aroused state and fulfilling the drive will reduce the ned - Ex: You are at the gym and need for water. Trainer says you need to do more exercise. In this example, need: water, drive: thirst. Doing push ups is means to fulfill drive for water.

Humanistic Theory

- Focuses on healthy personality development, and humans are seen as inherently good. - Developed by Carl Rogers

Conflict Perspective

- Focuses on how the media portrays and reflects and exacerbate divisions that exist in society - Ex: Race/ethnicity/gender/social class

Conflict Theory

- Focuses on inequalities of different groups in society, based on ideas of Karl Marx that believed society evolved through several stages - Feudalism --> Capitalism --> Socialism - Rich upper class called bourgeoisie (minority) and poor lower class called the proletariat (majority) - Upper class had more power and lower class depended on upper class

Humanistic Theory Cont.

- Focuses on the conscious and says people are inherently good, and we are self-motivated to improve

Ethology

- Focuses on the observation of animal behaviors, call these overt behaviors (not necessarily obvious, just beans observable)

Evolutionary Game Theory vs. General Game Theory

- Game theory involves intention, where participants reasoning about behaviors of others - Evolutionary game theory is different because decisions might not have a conscious intention on part of players

Attraction (Examining Sexual Orientation)

- Gender they are romantically attracted to

Gene-Environment Interaction

- Gene + environment affect our behavior, and the role of genes + environments on behavior is dependent on each other. - Ex: Attractive baby and hideous baby. As a result, attractive baby receives more attention and is more sociable and well adjusted. But say both have genes that predispose for depression, that are triggered/activated by environment (stressors). Beautiful baby's genes are not activated because it has reduced transmitters, while ugly baby's genes are making proteins all the time since his life is tougher. Both DNA/genes play a role in genetic disposition but also environments plays a role

Drugs (Biological Factors)

- Genetic (family history) then you have higher chance of abusing drug - Withdrawal and cravings, and biochemical factors (imbalance brains) - Marijuana and heroin mimic neurotransmitters of our brain. Cocaine causes abnormal release of dopamine and affects limbic system - Dopamine overstimulate activity of brain limbic system and is why we perceive and emotion and mood altering properties

Biological Factors (Depression)

- Genetic Component (from family): Depression is super complicated though - Decreased activation in prefrontal cortex. Lower levels of activity in reward circuit in the brain

Risk Factors of Parkinson's

- Genetic mutations have been found in some families with inherited form of disease, rural living with exposure to agricultural chemicals

Doctor - Patient Relationship (Symbolic Interactionism)

- Given meanings to lab coat/stethoscope can affect interaction. Important for doctor to realize meaning the patient has given to tools of medicine

Cost Signalling

- Giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. people have increased trust in those they know have helped other sin the past

Endocrine System

- Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. - Endocrine System (slow) and Nervous System (fast) are related

Ambient Stressors

- Global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Perceivable but hard to control. Can negatively impact us without being aware of them (pollution, noise, crowding)

Working Backwards (Heuristic)

- Goal State --> Current State - Start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to the current state

Societal Norms/Acceptance

- Good Boy and Good Girl. Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs - Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity "to gain acceptance and to avoid disapproval"

Method of Loci (Mnemonic Device)

- Good for remembering things in order, link information to locations (Bananas raining down on bus stop you get on, next stop there are oranges)

Monarchy

- Government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead

Ways to Help Social Inequality

- Government schemes (Food Stamps), improve access to education/healthcare, and figure out social interventions that allow integration to society

Population Pyrnamid

- Graphs the age and sex distribution of a population. Males and Females on x-axis and increasing age on y-axis

Gray and White Matter

- Gray matter contains most of the neuron somas - White matter contains myelinated axons - In spinal cord, gray is on inside and white is on outside - Brain: White on inside and gray on the outside (axons go down tracts of white matter)

Self Worth vs. Self-Esteem

- Greater than all of those things. It is a deep knowing that I am of value, that I am lovable, necessary to this life, and of incomprehensible worth - It is possible to feel "high self-esteem" or in other words, to think I am good at something, yet still not feel convinced that I am lovable and worthy

Factors that Influence Conformity and Obedience

- Group Size - Unanimity - Group Status - Group Cohesion - Observed Behavior - Public Response - Internal Factors (Prior Commitments and Feeling of Insecurity)

Confirmation Bias

- Group members seek out information that support the majority view - Ex: Majority of the group agrees that training the dog with treats is best way to go about it. Some people chastise those who say the collar is best way to train dog.

Atypical Antipsychotics (AAP)

- Group of antipsychotic drugs. Block serotonin as well. - Less likely to cause extrapyramidal motor control disability (negative symptoms increase) - Have increased risk of stroke, cardiac death, blood clot, and diabetes - Second Generation

Mob

- Group of individuals who are emotional and violent, but target specific individuals or categories of individuals

Scapegoats

- Group of people towards whom the aggression is directed (Jews during World War II)

Reference Groups

- Group to which people refer in evaluating themselves. People's beliefs, attitudes, behaviors. Constantly looking for external groups that align without beliefs, attitudes, behavior

Counterculture

- Group with expectations and values that strongly disagree with main values from larger society - Refers to subculture that rejects some of larger culture's norms and values, and usually develop own set of norms to live by - Ex: Mormons believe in polygamy (more than one spouse), polygyny (more than one wife), polyandry (multiple husbands)

Group-Produced Reduction of Individual Effort

- Groups experiencing social loafing are less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly. Perhaps to guard against being the person who is doing all the work, or because you know that your individual contributions are not evaluated - Ex: In a group project of a presentation, they put in less effort and perform poorly

Racial Segregation

- Groups of people separate into different neighborhoods. Can mean race or income. - Where we live affects our life chances, because it affects our politics, healthcare, and availability to education

2 Conditions to Reach Self-Acutalization

- Growth is nurtured when individual is genuine. One has to be open and revealing - Growth is nurtured through acceptance, unconditional positive regard from others.

Milgram Experiment on Obedience

- Had people come to the study and they told them that they were apart of a learning experiment and they were randomly assigned to be teacher as confederate is the learner - Was identical for all participants. Anytime the participant tried to quit, the white coat told him that experiment depends on them to continue...Very threatening from authority stand point - Participant was the teacher and a confederate was the learner - Give shock when learner got something wrong - Shock ranged from mild to XXX- they knew that this was not a light punishment - Word association 1) Experimenter always said to continue- unless they absolutely refused 2) 65% went all the way until the end! 3) Why was it so effective - Experimenter did not have any alarm, was very calm. So people may have thought that this was a norm - The other person was in another room, so they couldn't see the person which led to distancing and to go to the end - The experimenter's pressure to continue ** strong force for obedience inn a follow up experiment, experimenter said stop but learner said keep going - 100% stopped

Ethnic/Racial Minorities

- Have greater degrees of inequality as manifested by lower incomes, lower education, and reduced access to healthcare.

Co-Rumination/Empathy

- Having a friend/roommate/partner with depression can increase likelihood of individuals around you getting depression

Cued Recall (Recall Cues)

- Having extra clues to remember the words. Still have to produce an answer but still get more cues to help you. - The. added cues help you retrieve the information from your long term memory

Walter Cannon (Stress)

- He studied stress and its effects on brains and bodies; coined the term for the adaptive response, called fight-or-flight.

Hypnagonic Hallucinations

- Hearing or seeing things that aren't there

Small Societies

- Held together by similarities, but only works for small ones ... evolves into a large society - Population growth in a small space ... people become specialized

Early Developmental Trajectory

- Helping behaviors being early. Some newborns cry when other newborns cry. - Helping behavior begins around age 2, children share toys and play act helping/altruism

Meditation (Managing Stress)

- Helps us lower our heart rate, blood pressure, and cholesterol

Education (Social Institution)

- Hidden Curriculum: We learn how to stand in line, wait our turn, and treat our peers

Clinical Trial

- Highly controlled interventional studies

Employment based on Technical Qualifications

- Hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications of person has and not on favoritism or personal rivalries - Pro: Decrease discrimination - Con: Decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more). Leads to Peter Principle

Stepping Reflex (Neonatal)

- Hold an infant upright and their feet touch a flat surface, they will start to step as if they are trying to walk. Disappears in first two months

Testosterone (Biology)

- Hormone released by testes in men and ovaries in women. higher in men (more aggressive) and higher in younger males

Sucking Reflex (Neonatal)

- How a baby will suck on any object that is placed in its mouth. Disappears at 3-4 months

Binet's Idea of Mental Age

- How a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years

Babinski Reflex (Neonatal)

- How baby will turn/unturn toes when bottoom of the foot. Disappears before 12 months

Physiological Coping

- How does my body feel and how can I physically release tension?

Perceived Behavioral Control (Intensions)

- How easy or hard we think it is to control our behavior

Social Influences (Social Psychology)

- How imitation, roles, reference groups, and culture are all parts of social influence. Looks at individual thoughts, actions and feelings are influenced by social groups

Impersonality

- How individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner - Pro - Equal Treatment - Con - Alienation, Discourage loyalty to the group

Social Psychology

- How individuals think, feel, and behave in social interactions. People act differently in groups than individually

Demand Characteristics (Zimbardo)

- How much of behavior was influenced by how they thought experimenter wanted them to behave consciously or unconsciously

Unintentional Discrimination

- How policies can discriminate unintentionally - Ex: Somebody uses an offensive stereotype to describe somebody from another race or culture, without being aware of the offensive nature of the word.

Similarity (Social Behavior)

- How similar someone is to us is a huge predictor of attraction - Close friends and couples are more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, interests and values

Mood

- How someone feels such as sad. - Becomes affect (how mood is displayed to others - person crying). Hopelessness, loss of enjoyment in activities (high risk of suicide)

Behavioral (Attitude Component)

- How we act or behave towards objects/subjects - Ex: I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one. Influence attitude

Carl Rogers

- Humanistic theorist says qualities Maslow described are nurtured early in life, self-actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth-promoting climate

Galton's Idea of Hereditary Genius

- Humans ability is hereditary

Human Communication

- Humans communicate with each other through language (how we communicate ideas, thoughts, feelings), non-verbal cues (tell if someone is happy or sad), and visual cues (painting rooms pink vs. black)

Optimism (Stress Management)

- Humor and optimisms linked to decrease stress. Nurture an optimistic outlook

Upper Motor Signs

- Hyperreflexia, Clonus, Hypertonia, Extensor Plantar Response

Induced State of Consciousness

- Hypnosis + medication are examples. Does not occur naturally.

Dissociation Theory

- Hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness

Cyclothymic Disorder

- Hypomanic episodes with Dysthymia

Repressed Memories

- Hypothesized memories have been unconsciously blocked, due to memory being associated with high level of stress or trauma - Even though individual cannot recall memory, it may still be affecting them consciously - Can be "recovered" after years or decades after event (theory)

Confounding Variable

- Hypothetical or real third variable that is often not taken into account during analysis and can adversely affect the study - One which is not typically of interest to the researcher but is an extraneous variable which is related to both the dependent and independent variable

Effort Justification (Role-Playing)

- Idea and paradigm in social psychology stemming from Festinger's Theory of cognitive dissonance. - People tendency too attribute a greater value to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieving

Social Selection

- Idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility. Social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individual in a population

Central Processing (Stage 1)

- If listener interest, motivation, importance are high. Choose if interested in topic

Peripheral Processing (Stage 2)

- If listener interest, motivation, importance are low we process via this route. Chosen when listener doesn't care about topic

Cortical Reaction (Step 3)

- In egg there are enzymes that get ejected to zona pellucida and that digest the zona pellucida. Prevents other sperm from binding and if this doesn't happen the zygote fails

Swimming Reflex (Neonatal)

- Infants in water move legs/arms in swimming motion. Involuntarily hold breaths. Allows a small infant to swim/float for a short period of time. Disappears at 6 months of age

Neuropeptide Y

- Inhibit feeding circuit blocking satiety. May cause inhibition of other neurotransmitters such as cholecystokinin (CCK), which limits meal size by sensing distention of dueodenum - May cause eating without being sensitive to the signals that the individual is full

Avoidant (Cluster C)

- Inhibited, feel inadequate and try to avoid putting themselves in a situation where they can be criticized

Caffeine

- Inhibits an enzyme that breaks down cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) - Increase in cAMP increases glutamate production. Increase in cellular activity results in action potential that are briefer and released in bursts

Current Population

- Initial Population + Births - Deaths + Immigrating In - Emigrating Out - Negative means negative growth rate for country

Damaging Effects of Stress on Immune System

- Innate and adaptive system - Inflammation is over expressed and can attack good things in body such as arthritis. - Chronically we can stop activating immune system, more susceptible to illness because immune system suppressed

Organizations

- Institutions designed for a specific purpose, collective goal, and try to achieve maximum efficiency - Ex: Postal Service (deliver mail), McDonalds (food), Time Warner Cable (internet access)

Informative Influence

- Look to the group for guidance when you don't know what to do. Assume the group is always correct

Ethnographic Research

- Involves observing social interactions in real social settings - Ex: Studying the experience of role strain through observation can increase our understanding of how physicians cope with the challenging demands of extending life with interventions wile accepting the reality of death

Phobias

- Irrationally afraid of specific objects or specific situation. Focused anxiety - Can be debilitating (phobia of leaving home) or normal life (phobia of snakes) - Tends to form a pattern. People have phobias of specific subtypes of things

Consequences of Sleep Deprivation

- Irritability, poor memory/attention - Dangerous - More susceptible to obesity (body makes more cortisol) - Increased risk for depression

Culture is Adaptive

- It evolves over time and adaptive. Normal in hunter/gathers different than today's information technology age

Instinctual Drift

- It is the phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors. So the learned behavior " drifts" to the organism's species-specific (instinctual) behavior.

Subculture Example

- Jim grew up in Florida his whole life, but got into university in Washington DC. Notices a lot of differences between the two.

Xenocentrism

- Judging another culture as superior to one's own culture

Ethnocentric

- Judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture - Viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others. Can lead to prejudice and cultural bias

Weak Linguistic Determinism (Relativism)

- Language influences thought, makes it easier for us to think in certain ways based on how language is structured - Differences in language between cultures - Right to left or left to right depending on language, influences how you imagine the girl pushing the boy from which side

Mass Hysteria

- Large number of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at the same time. - Reactions spread rapidly and reach more people through rumors and fears. Often takes form of panic reactions and negative news or potential threat - Ex: Mild form of hysteria. Reaction due to news of severe weather warnings. Result is fear and anxiety induced in large numbers of people and the fear causes people to become crazed

Sensitization and Habituation (Non-Associative Learning)

- Learning where no punishment/rewarding is occurring with increase/decrease of response. - You are simply just noticing how response changes in relationship to the same stimuli over time

Contralateral Control

- Left braain controls right body and right brain controls left body. True for all senses (except smell which is same side)

Contralateral Organization

- Left hemisphere controls right side of body and vice versa - Ex: Showing colors on left side of visual field, information is sent to right hemisphere, which is responsible for perception/attention, but can't speak it, because left brain is needed for languages

Phallic Stage (3-6 years)

- Libido focused on the genitals. Oedipus Complex/Electra Complex arise here. Child begins to observe differences between males and females. - If fixation occurs, causes homosexuality and exhibitionism

Oral Stage (0-18 months)

- Libido/sense of interaction is centered around baby's mouth (rooting/sucking reflex) - Vital for sucking/eating. Infant derives pleasure via oral stimulation (tasting/sucking) - If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression

Socialization

- Life-long process where we learn how to interact with others. Everything we consider to be normal is actually learned through socialization (how we learn to walk/talk/feed ourselves)

C.Robert Cloninger

- Linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity

Task Similarity

- Listening to radio or listening to interview while writing a paper

Antisocial (Cluster B)

- Little or no regard for others. Commit crimes and show no remorse (inconsiderate of others)

Prosody

- Located on the right hemisphere. Concerned with larger units of speech like syllables. Contribute to linguistic functions such as intonation, tone, stress and rhythm

Cross-Sectional Study

- Look at a group of different people at one moment in time

Looking Glass Self (Charles Cooley)

- Looking Glass Self is the idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions - Self-concept is more than the product of self-reflection. Instead the way in which people see themselves is based on how they believe others perceive them during social interaction - Notion that we construct our identity out of interpersonal interactions and perception of others

Behavioral Genetics

- Looking at genetic component (heredity component) or hardwiring component to behavior

Single Individuals

- Looking for jobs, partners, and entertainment

Social Epidemiology

- Looks at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person's health - Focusses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations - Emphasized how social factors, such as class or race/ethnicity, affect distribution of health and disease

Population Dynamics

- Looks at how population of a country/region/world changes - factors that increase or decrease a population to create total growth rate - Rates used to measure the three factors (birth rate, migration rate, and death rate)

Interactionist Perspective

- Looks at mass-media on a micro-level to see how it shapes day to day behavior - Ex: Watching a movie (can be with other people but can't say who)

Resource Mobilization Theory

- Looks at social movements from different angle. Instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources. - Ex: MLK in Civil Rights movement

Racial Formation Theory

- Looks at social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities - Ex: In 1800s in US, people would be considered black even if they appeared white if they had black ancestor

Functionalism (Macro-Sociology)

- Looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning

Environmental Justice

- Looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups - Wealthier population society has much higher benefits.

3 Main Abnormalities for Alzheimer's Disease

- Loss of Neurons, Plaques (Amyloid) and Tangles (Clumps of Protein)

Neurocognitive Disorders (NCDs)

- Loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain after nervous system has developed - Ex: Dementia and Delirium

Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem

- Low self-esteem can have high self-efficacy - High self-esteem can have low self-efficacy

Depression

- Major depressive disorder. Major cause of distress/disability, and death from suicide - Symptoms: Feeling hopelessness, loss of interest

Basal ganglia

- Major role in motor functions, don't have UMNs but help motor areas to perform proper movements. Also cognition + emotion.

Rationalization (Neurotic)

- Making yourself believe you were not on fault - avoids blame to oneself. Can have false logic or false reasoning

XXY (Klinefelter Syndrome)

- Male phenotype, Long arms and legs, underdeveloped testes in boys, breast development.

Sperm

- Male sex cell. Transfer male genetic material to egg. Has a head, tail (flagellum), and a middle section. Head contains DNA material and the acrosome

Demographic Structure of Society (Race and Ethnicity)

- Many differences between racial and ethnic groups in healthcare, education, wealth, income, birth rates, life expectancy - Many Americans cannot support healthcare and minorities have shorter lifespan

Homogamy

- Marriage between individuals who are, in some culturally important way, similar to each other - Based on socioeconomic status, class, gender, ethnicity, or religion, or age in the case

Class Consciousness (Marx)

- Marx hypothesized that the workers could develop class consciousness with which they would come to truly understand capitalism, their collective role in it, and their relationship to one another as well as the capitalists.

Feminist Theory (Mass Media)

- Mass media stereotypes/misrepresents society towards the dominant ideology. Specifically, message about men and women are represented in media

Concurrent Validity

- Measures the test against a benchmark test and high correlation indicates that the test has strong criterion validity

Self-Serving Bias (Attribution Theory)

- Mechanism of preserving our self-esteem, more common in individualistic cultures. - If we succeed it is due to internal/personal qualities, but if we fail no hit on self-esteem because likely to do with things outside of our control

Utilitarian Organizations

- Members are paid/rewarded for their efforts - Ex: Business and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time)

Normative Organization

- Members come together through shared goals. Positive sense of unity and purpose - Ex: Religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving)

Coercive Organization

- Members don't have a choice about membership. Usually highly structured and have very strict rules - Ex: People in prison or military (you need to be discharged to leave)

Iconic (Sensory Memory)

- Memory for what you see, lasts half a second

Autobiographical Memory

- Memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences) and semantic (general knowledge) memory

Schema

- Mental blueprint contain common aspects of world - Sometimes information we retrieve is based on this instead of reality

Somatic Symptom Disorder

- Mental disorders manifesting in physical (somatic) symptoms - Can be any symptom (wrist pain or fatigue), may not be able to explain what we see. Must cause functional impairments

Heuristics

- Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always).

Message Characteristics (Persuasion)

- Message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought message it - Also includes how well written it was, does speaker have good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary and length of talk

Persuasion

- Method for attitude/behavior change.

Content Analysis

- Method for summarizing any form of content by counting various aspects of the content

Counterbalancing

- Method to control for any effect that the order of presenting stimuli might have on the dependent variable

Generativity vs. Stagnation (30 - 65)

- Middle-aged develop concern for establishing guiding and influencing the next generation; if not, they face stagnation (lifelessness). - Virtue is adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities - Negative outcome is they feel stagnate and unproductive

LGBT Community

- Might face discrimination, which can limit clinics they feel comfortable seeking help from

4 Ways to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance

- Modify Cognition (change alteration in cognition) - Trivialize (make less important/make trivial, change the importance of cognition - Add (adding more cognition, to make contradiction more comfortable) - Deny (deny the facts)

Cults

- More radical, reject values of outside society. Rise when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems, but usually short-lived because depend on inspirational leader who will only live so long.

Benzodiazepines (Depressant)

- Most commonly prescribed suppressant. Subscribed for same things as barbiturates - sleep aids (to treat insomnia) or anti-anxiety or seizures (anticonvulsant) - Short and Intermediate are usually for sleep, while long is for anxiety

Cranial Nerves

- Most of cranial nerves are attached to the brainstem, doing many things. 12 pairs all sorts of functions

Parenting Style

- Mothers who are sensitive to child and responsible had secure attachment, and those insensitive/unresponsible formed insecure attachments

Drive-Reduction Motivation

- Motivation based on the need to fulfill a certain drive, like hunger or thirst

Natural Desires

- Motivations associated with pleasure or release form displeasure. - These are not necessarily bad (desire to drink water to live)

Functions of the Nervous System

- Motor (control of skeletal muscle), sensory (the senses), automatic (reflexes) - Higher = Cognition (thinking), Emotion (feelings) , and Consciousness

Frontal Lobe

- Motor cortex (body movements), prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/direct other areas of brain), Broca's Area (speech production)

Procedural Memory (Implicit)

- Motor skills, habits, classically conditioned reflexes (riding a bicycle)

Vertical Movement

- Move up or down the social hierarchy (manager at restaurant becomes CEO of fast food restaurants)

Horizontal Mobility

- Move within the same class (accountant switches job to different accounting company)

Internal Migration

- Move within the same country. Does not change population of a country, but can effect economics/culture of country - Internal migration is a large factor in urbanization (movement from rural to urban areas)

Suburbanization

- Movement away from cities to get a larger home (American Dream), but commute for work and can be long and harder to get quick medical help - However, suburbs form their own economic centers and become independent to cities they border - Ex: Silicon Valley created on outskirts of San Jose by tech-companies

Immigration

- Movement of a person into a country - Number of people moving in/1000

Urbanization

- Movement of people from rural to urban areas

Gender Fluid

- Moving across genders

Problem-Solving

- Moving from the given state (problem) to a goal state (solution)

Dissociate Identity Disorder

- Multiple personality disorder. Two or more distinct personalities exist in a single body and both have influence on persons thoughts and behaviors - Each has mannerism, emotional responses, distinct "physical changes", denial - People under stress have this disorder, and it is extremely rare

Hypnic Jerks

- Muscle twitches you sometimes experience as you fall asleep

Conversion Disorder

- Must look like neurological symptoms only - like problems with speech, swallowing, seizures, paralysis - Sometimes has a level of psychological stress or traumatic event resulting in manifestation of neurological symptoms

Reticular Formation

- Neuron somas scattered throughout brainstem - Big role in autonomic functions, and controlling things like respiration digestion, and lower/higher functions

Primary Deviance

- No big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behave in same way without feeling immoral or wrong - Ex: All athletes of teams use steroids, so the act of player is not labeled as deviant and his actions go unnoticed

Free Recall

- No cues in recalling. Better recalling first items on a list (primary effect) as well as last few (recency effect). Harder to remember things in the middle of a list

Latency Stage (6-Puberty)

- No focus on libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions - Important in development of social and communication skills. Children concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. Play is between same gender children - Fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation

Brain Structure Impact (Biology)

- No one brain spot controls for aggression but there are circuits in brain can inhibit/facilitate aggression - The amygdala facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behavior - The frontal lobe is responsible for planning, decision making, and importantly impulse control

Authority (Personality and Mood)

- No one type of personality makes someone more susceptible, but people's mood can have effect. - Status and culture play a role, low socioeconomic status

Mores (Norms)

- Norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on group values of right and wrong). Generally produces strong feelings - Ex: Truthfulness (tell the truth as it is the right thing to do)

Laws (Norms)

- Norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences - Ex: Public figure lies under oath, done something morally wrong but also violate law of court

Hypoventillation Disorder

- Not able to ventilate lungs fully and remove all co2 high co2 can cause right sided heart failure

Non-Binary

- Not identifying with any specific gender

Inflexible (Innate Characteristic)

- Not modifiable by experience

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

- Not personality based, but more emotional - Ex: Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone is frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses and direct that towards employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up aggression and rechannel somewhere else

Acetylcholine

- Nuclei (basilis and septal nuclei) in frontal lobe that releases it to cerebral cortex. - Released for LMNs, and the autonomic nervous system

Death/Mortality Rate

- Number of Death/1000 People - High mortality rate does not mean lots of young or unnatural deaths - Age Specific mortality rate is the better indicator.

Migration

- Number of people moving permanently into our out of countries - Increase births and immigration - Decrease death and emigration. Calculate mortality rate by age group or country - Ex: Vacation is not migration

Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT)

- Objective: " to stimulate recovery of propositional speech skills of individuals who, despite relatively good auditory comprehension, are severely nonfluent in their ability to communicate even through single words - Works with nonfluent forms of aphasia

Distal Stimuli

- Objects and events out in the world about you. Aware of and respond to this (important)

Case-Control Study

- Observational study where 2 groups differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a casual factor - Ex: Comparing people with the disease with those who don't but are otherwise similar

Photopic Vision

- Occurs at levels of high light levels

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

- Occurs when a person assigns too much weight to internal (about them) than external (environment) when looking for causes of another person's behavior

Active Touch

- Occurs when a person uses haptic perception to actively inspect an object

Minority Influence

- Occurs when a smaller group over time is able to persuade the majority to join their side. - Ex: Suffragette and Civil Rights movements in the US. Originated within smaller group who over time were able to convince majority to sympathize and agree with their side

Opiates/Opiods

- Opiates are natural opioids are synthetic like depressants decrease CNS, decrease hr, cause relaxation, induce sleep. But it isn't a depressant. - Analgesic: Reduce perception of pain (Heroine, Codeine, Morphine, and Oxycodone) - Different class than depressants, even though overlapping for anxiety

Spatial Mismatch

- Opportunities for low-income people in segregated communities may be present but farther away, and harder to access - Gap between where people live and where opportunities are

Dis-assortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating)

- Opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating

Impression Management

- Our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. Do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way - Multiple social situations which require different scripts from you as an actor and hence there are multiple front stages, so you play new front stage role each time - Ex: A teenage girl might only share good things about her boyfriend with her parents. She does this because she wants their perception of him to be a good one. She knows that if they like him, they have a better chance of remaining together.

Language

- Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning - 90% of people, language is in left hemisphere.

Media (Stigma)

- Outer circle and is the major source of stigma because it can depict conditions as being dangerous, violent, moral-failings - Ex: Media representation of mental illness

Serial Position Curve/Effect

- Overall tendency to recall first few items well, last few items well, and middle items not so great

PNS

- PNS → Starts at the brain stem or bottom of spinal cord → 1st Neuron sends long axon → Synapse with ganglion of second neuron → sends short axon to target cell - PNS is long then short - "Rest or Digest" - blood flow to intestine increases; HR decreases; salivary glands activated

Sexual Sadism

- Paraphilia about inflicting humiliation, bondage, and suffering

Pedophilia

- Paraphilia about sexual focus towards children

Frotteurism

- Paraphilia about touching or rubbing genitals against a non-consenting individual

Solomon Asch (1907)

- Part of the group known as Gestalt Psychologist who believed not much possible to understand human behavior by breaking down into parts, people must be understood as whole

Fusiform Gyrus

- Part of the visual system in the brain, and plays a role in high level visual processing and recognition - Part of temporal and occipital lobe

Fixation (Social Psychology)

- Particular stage is what predicts adult personality - Ex: Someone fixated at oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics, such as smoking habits

Heredity

- Passing of traits from parents/ancestors to offspring through genes

Split-Brain Patieent

- Patient with two part of the brain not connected. This used to be done for a treatment for seizures, but the side defect was with language

Factitious Disorder

- Patients want to be sick. They will falsify or disease their signs or symptoms to get a diagnosis or treatment - Ex: Injure themselves, falsify test (Munchausen's Syndrome)

Permutable (Learned Characteristic)

- Pattern/sequence that is changeable

Proximal Stimuli

- Patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses. (Light that is falling on the retina)

Socio-Cultural (Psychology)

- People act more aggressively in groups. De-individuation you gain an anonymous status when you are with large group of people

Kin Selection

- People act more altruistically to close/kin than distant/non-kin people - Same as when people share last name. Morphing face as increase trust

Liking (Cialdini)

- People are easily persuaded by other people that they life. - Physical Attractiveness Stereotype

Reciprocal Altruism

- People are more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future - We feel more obligated to help someone else if they have helped us

Outpatient Treatments

- People can live at home and come in for treatment

Universal Ethical Principle

- People develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone - People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences/disapproval/imprisonment

Social Influence Theory

- People do and report what is expected of them (actors caught up in roles)

Rural Rebound

- People getting sick of cities and moving back to rural areas. People who can afford to leave city and looking for simpler or slower life

Rational Choice Theory

- People not only motivated by money, but do what is best to get better - Idea that everything people do is fundamentally rational - a person is acting as if they were weighing costs and benefits of each action - People act in self-interest, by personal desires. They calculate cost and benefit of each action

Yerkes-Dodson Law

- People perform best when they are moderately aroused (Bell Shaped Curve) - Relationship between long-term and fear follows a curve - This means that extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively - Moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall

Assumptions (Exchange Theory)

- People seek to rationally maximize their profits, behavior results in a reward is likely to be repeated - more often reward is available the less valueable it is

Differences in Culture around Globe

- People sleep in beds while others sleep on animal skin or mats. - Ex: America toothpaste/toothbrush and other cultures use twigs from trees - Ex: Ways of greeting differ (Japanese bows)

Randomized Controlled Trial

- People studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test side-effects of medical interventions like drugs - Gold standard for a clinical trial

Reciprocity (Cialdini)

- People tend to return a favor, thus the pervasiveness of free samples in marketing - Good Cop/Bad Cop Strategy

Continuity Theory

- People try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives. As they age, they make decision to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging - Older generations continue to age and adapt and society has to adapt with them

Optimum Arousal Theory

- People want to reach full arousal/alertness. Drive to get full arousal, and natural high - a state we enjoy - Ex: Why people go to amusement parks

Social Proof (Cialdini)

- People will do things that they see other people are doing. - Asch Conformity Experiments

Free Will

- People will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles

External Locus of Control

- Perceive outside forces that help to control your fate - Ex: If someone does bad on a test they attribute to hard test questions, and if they do well on a test they attribute it to the teacher being lenient/they were lucky

Devil Effect/Reverse Halo Effect

- Perceive people with an overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative (ex: a kid that often acts up in class and is considered a "bad kid" can never do right) - Ex: From being good at accounting we can perceive them as being mediocre, we can perceive someone as being awful at sales

Phantom Pain

- Perception of pain in an area of the body, which has been removed or lost due to injury

Displacement (Neurotic)

- Person's anger at someone but displaces it to someone else (a safer target) - Ex: A mother who is mad at her husband gets mad at her child

Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory (attention)

- Places Broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. this means that you do register and assign everything meaning bu then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness - Sensory register-> perceptual process -> selective filter -> conscious

Power

- Political Power, economics (unfair hiring policies to minorities), personal (laws can limit where someone lives)

Priming (Retrieval Cue)

- Prior activation of nodes and associations often without our awareness (hearing story about apple and asked to name word starting with A)

Written Rules and Regulations

- Pro: Clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment to all employees, and sense of unity - Con: Stiffens creativity, and if too much structure discourage employees from taking initiative.

Well-Defined Problems

- Problems in which the initial state, the goal, and the methods available for solving them are clearly laid out - Ex: How to turn light that is currently dark

Bureaucratization

- Process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy - Ex: Customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you

Stress

- Process by which we appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges. - Encompasses stressor and stress reaction

Sexual Response (Hormones)

- Prolactin is related to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal after orgasm - Endorphins produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure, released post-orgasm - Oxytocin released after orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners

Gender Role

- Proper behaviors, attitudes, activities of male and females on how they should behave and think - Boys (Masculine) and Girls (Feminine)

Convergent Intelligence

- Proposed by Guilford to describe IQ test related intelligence, such as puzzles, vocabulary words, and arithmetic.

Hans Eysenck

- Proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness)- introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation.

Psychosocial Development Theory (Erikson)

- Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan - Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning theory

Raymond Cattell Trait Theory

- Proposed we had 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality - Turned this into the 16 personality factor questionnaire

Endocrine System Hormones

- Protein/Polypeptide: Small → Large - Steroid: From cholesterol (lipid - not changed and passed freely thru mem) - Tyrosine Derivatives: From tyrosine. Thyroid hormones and catecholamine's (aternal medulla produces this)

Social Network

- Provide a valuable resource. Social capital is believed to result in various health benefits for the individual - Peer Network, Family Network, and Community Network

Opponent-Process Theory

- Psychological and neurological model that accounts for a wide range of behaviors, including color vision

Mere Exposure Effect

- Repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. More often we see something, more often we like it. - Applies to everything - music, nonsense syllabus, numbers, objects - Exception: You start hating orange juice, start to despise song you hear over and over on the radio. This is "burn-out"

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

- Required for consciousness - midbrain structures - Has diffuse projection of glutamate too the cerebral cortex

Development to Higher Mental Functions

- Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a more knowledgeable other (MKO) - a person with better understanding than learned - Zone of Proximal Development: Part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be give. (Ex: Between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something) - Language: Main means by which adults transmit information to children and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation

Endogenous/Internal Cues

- Requires internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it (mouse arrow)

Ethical Research

- Requires that all participants voluntarily participate in the study. At any point, participants should be able to freely withdraw their participation, and their data can then no longer be used.

Comparative Study

- Research methodology in the social sciences that aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures

Biological Constraints on Learning

- Researchers thought that classical condition and operant condition were all types of learning that applied across the board - Discovered that it was easy to learn associations that were part of their natural world but not easy to learn association that were not

Regressive/Reactionary Movements

- Resist change the aspects of society

Habituation (Learned)

- Response to alarm decreases over time - Ex: Curing phobia by repeated exposure to the fear until intensity of emotional response decreases

Variable-Interval

- Responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount - Ex: Bonus can come randomly on different days

Prefrontal Cortex (Change During Adolescence)

- Responsible for higher order cognition (thinking about future, planning, decision making, ability to inhibit certain behavior and focus on long-term goals) - Develop into early 20s

Neural/Synaptic Plasticity

- Retraining other parts of brain by creating new connections between neurons after injury

Urban Renewal

- Revamping old parts of cities to become better. Can lead to gentrification

Incentive Theory

- Reward, intangible or tangible is presented after the occurrence of an action with intention of causing the behavior to occur again - This causes a positive association and meaning toward a behavior. Focuses on conditioning/incentive to make a person happier - Argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives - Ex: Doing well at work and getting promotion (tangible) or job satisfaction (intangible)

Clonus

- Rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle - Ex: Foot goes involuntarily up and down. Cause is hyperreflexia, because if doctor pulls on foot it activates muscle stretch reflex, so trigger antagonistic muscle

68-95-99.7

- Rule of thumb for area under the Normal model, within 1, 2 or 3 SD of the mean

Goal Displacement (Written Rule and Regulation)

- Rules become more important than goals of organizations

Max Weber (Conflict Theory)

- Said he did not believe collapse of capitalism was inevitable, but argued that several factors moderate people's reaction to inequality

Accessory Olfactory Epithelium

- Sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb which then sends signals to the brain

Olfaction

- Sense of small. Area in the nostril is called the olfactory epithelium (olfactory sensory cells)

Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development

- Sensorimotor- 0-2, achieve: object permanence, stranger anxiety - Preoperational- 2-7, achieve: pretend play, egocentrism - Concrete operational- 7-11, achieve: conservation, logical reasoning - Formal operational- 11-17, achieve: hypothetical reasoning, moral reasoning

Reflexes (Innate Behavior)

- Sensory and motor nerve loop response without thinking (Knee-jerk response)

Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)

- Sensory information you actually process. Consists of what you are thinking about at the moment - Memory that is stored while it is held in attention

Broadbent's Early Selection Theory

- Sensory register-> selective filter -> perceptual process -> conscious

Thalamus

- Sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste. - Senses come through your nerves and end up in thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in cortex, and other areas of the brain - Emotion contingent on senses and smell is only one that bypasses the thalamus - goes to areas closer to amygdala

Information Processing Model

- Sensory, Working, and Long-term Memory - Proposes our brains are similar to computers. we get input from environment, process it, and output decisions (Input --> Process --> Output) - The information-processing model assumes serial processing; however, the human brain has the capacity for parallel processing.

Harlow Monkey Experiments

- Separated monkeys from mothers at young age (controversial today), then given choice between 2 substitute. mothers that were placed in cage with baby monkey - 1st Option: Wire mother - vaguely face like shape on top of it, and chicken wire wrapped in cylinder (this mother provides food) - 2nd Mother: Cloth mother and it can provide comfort. Acts as a secure base - eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own - Baby monkeys preferred cloth mother and spent large time clinging to her

Cribriform Plate

- Separates the olfactory epithelium from the brain and are bones with little holes that allow olfactory sensory to send projection to the brain)

Fixed Action Pattern (Innate Behavior)

- Sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. Similar to reflex, but more complicated - Ex: Praying mantis

LSD

- Serotonin neurotransmission

Brain Waves

- Set of neurons that fire rhythmically in your CNS, which lead to neural rhythms or oscillations and can be measured by EEG

Biological (Examining Sexual Orientation)

- Sex (male or female - biological characteristics) person is born. with

Paraphilia

- Sexual Sadism - Masochism - Transvestic - Voyeurism - Frotteurism - Pedophilia

Steric Theory of Olfaction

- Shape Theory - Asserts that odors fit into receptors similar to lock and key

Informational Social Social Support

- Sharing information with us or giving us advice. Can come from family and friends or even articles online

Globalization

- Sharing of culture, money and products between countries due to international trade and advancements in transportation and communication - Social process where people become more aware of cultures of people across geographical, political, and social borders

Test-Retest Reliability (External)

- Shown by high positive correlation between the first and second administration of a test

Avoidance (Operant Conditioning)

- Signal is given before aversive situation. Behavior is to avoid the situation, which results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/undesirable stimuli - Ex: Fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire and you are able to "Avoid" situation

4 Main Categories of Stressors

- Significant Life Changes, Catastrophic Events, Daily Hassles, Ambient Stressors

ANOVA

- Similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups.

Transitivity (Rational Choice Theory)

- Since A is preferable to B is preferable to C, therefore, A is also preferable to C

Compliance

- Situations where we do behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behavior without questioning why - Change in behavior that is requested by another person or group (individual acted in some way because others asked him to do so) - Ex: Paying taxes (punished if taxes not paid). TSA screenings (cannot go on plane if not TSA)

N3 (Stage 3)

- Slow wave sleep. Very difficult to awaken. Characterized by delta waves. Where sleep walking/talking in sleep happens. Declarative Memory consolidation. "regular breathing and regular slow brain waves"

C Fibers

- Small diameter, unmyelinated (lingering sense of pain)

Change vs. Compliance

- Small rewards change cognitions, and large rewards just change compliance

Alpha-Delta Fibers

- Smaller, diameter, and less myelin

Step 3 (Mental Process)

- Social Comparison. How we are comparing ourselves with other groups (or two different groups). We do this to maintain our self-esteem. - Critical to understanding of prejudice, because once two groups develop as rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self-esteem

Exogamy

- Social arrangement where marriage is allowed only outside a social group

Gender

- Social construction theory that states that gender is not a fixed or innate fact, but instead is varies across time and place

Social Mobility

- Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. It is a change in social status relative to others' social location within a given society.

Reciprocity

- Social rule that says we should repay, in kind, what another person has provided us - People give back the kind of treatment they have received from you. By reciprocity, we are obligated to repay favors, gifts in the future

Symbolic Interactionism (Micro-Sociology)

- Social theory thats a micro-perspective. Focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols

Avoidance

- Social withdrawal, Excessive autonomy: Copes through social isolation, disconnection, and withdrawal. May demonstrate an exaggerated focus on independence and self reliance, rather than involvement with others. - Compulsion Stimulation-Seeking: Seeks excitement or distraction through compulsive shopping, sex, gambling, risk-taking, physical activity - Addictive Self-Shooting: Avoids through addictions involving the body, such as alcohol, drugs, overeating, excessive masturbation - Psychological Withdrawal: Copes through dissociation, numbness, denial, fantasy, or other internal forms of psychological escape

Demographic Structure of Society

- Sociality looks at different age cohorts (groups), specifically at age groups/generations, because they all live through the same events in certain time - Gen Z: 1995-2003 - Millennials: 1980-2000 (Gen Y) - Gen x: 1965-1980 - Baby Boomers: 1946-1964 - Silent Generation: 1925-1945 - GI (Greatest) Generation: 1901-1924 - As we become older our body breaks down. Old age people will need healthcare professionals who specialize in old-age care. - Society to readjust expectations of old age. Elderly people are just as important to society/community as younger people

Gender Norms

- Socially acceptable ways of acting out gender. Learned from birth through childhood socialization. - We learn what is expected of our gender from what our parents teach us as well as what we pick up from school - Girls (soft, submissive) and Boys (aggressive, tough)

Gender Differences (Feminist Theory)

- Socially constructed via process of socialization. Society creates and passes down norms, customers, and expectations for gender from generation to generation - Creates a system that rewards/punishes the expectations created. Examines how women's position in social situations differ from men - different values with women

Ethnicity

- Socially defined, not defined by physical characteristics like race, but these groups are defined by shared language, religion, nationality, history, of some other cultural factor - Less statistically defined than racial groups and definitions can change over time - Statistically differences between different races and ethnicities

Symbolic Interactionism

- Society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals. Looking at how people behave in normal everyday situations and help us to better understand and define deviance - Examines small scale social interactions, focusing attention on how shared meaning is established among individuals or small groups

Insight Learning

- Solve a problem using past skills, the "aha" moment is insight learning - Ex: Use math skills previously learned to solve a problem

Parietal Lobe

- Somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain)

Democracy

- Some governments take into account will of people (law making, choosing officials)

Critiques (Exchange Theory)

- Some people choices are limited by gender/ethnicity/class, and make choice not in best interest.

Ascending Method of Limits

- Some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the stimulus could not be detected, then this level is gradually increased until the participant reports that they are aware of it

Positive Punishment

- Something is added to decrease tendency something will occur again. - Ex: Giving a speeding ticket (adding) to decrease behavior of speeding (behavior)

Positive Reinforcement

- Something is being added to increase tendency of behavior - Ex: Gas gift card for safe driving

Negative Punishment

- Something taken away in effort to decrease tendency that it will occur again - Ex: Taking away your drivers license

Proactive Interference

- Something you learning in part impairs learning in future. Earlier information interferes with later information - Ex: New password learning - prior password learning impairs ability to learn a new one

Tend and Befriend Response

- Sometimes better response to stress is to have support systems (oxytocin is important)

Interactionist Approach

- Sometimes called social interactionist approach. Believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. - Children's desire to communicate with others - such as adults in their life, makes them motivated to learn language. Associated with Vygotsky.

Sound (Animal Communication)

- Sound is useful because it is fast, and can reach many members at once, but not very private and exposes location - Ex: Dogs can bark, birds can sing. Mating calls, warming or alarm sounds

Temporal Lobe

- Sound, Wernicke's Area

Ion Channels

- Sour and salty cells rely on these

Conflict Theory of Cities

- Source of inequality that are entertainment centers for the wealthy. Political and economic elite run the city to increase personal resources while taking from the poor - Diversity of culture and social backgrounds increases conflict on beliefs/values

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

- Stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes - Ex: City dwellers are rule (cognition, stereotyping) --> I don't like them (affective component, prejudice) --> I will avoid them (behavioral component, discrimination)

Proximal Stimulus

- Stimulation that actually occurs when your sensory receptors are activated (neural activity)

Response (R)

- Stimuli can produce this

Sleep Apnea

- Stop breathing while sleeping - body realizes you are not getting enough oxygen so you wake up to gasp for air

Appraisal Theory of Stress (Richard Lazarus)

- Stress arises from less physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events - Primary and Secondary Appraisal

Skinner

- Strict behaviorist, associated with concept of operant conditioning. Uses rewards, punishment to increase to increase/decrease behavior

2 Types of Self-Efficacy

- Strong: RISE (Recover quickly, Interest is strong, Strong sense of Commitment, Enjoy challenging tasks) - Weak: FALL (Failures, Avoid challenging tasks, Lose confidence, Lack ability to take on complex tasks)

Society Opportunity in Life

- Structured so racial and economic subordination develops and is sustained - In order to get a higher paying job, you need a good education. So if education is not a priority, not available, jobs are low paying

Institutions

- Structures that meet the needs of society like education systems, financial institutions, marriage, laws

Synthesis (Conflict Theory)

- Struggle leads to compromise. Combination of the two to create a new state which becomes new thesis - Leads to members of the working class becoming managers. Creating new middle class that has more power than factory owner

Andrew Meltzoff (1977)

- Studied imitation and deferred imitation by infants; discovered that infant's imitative abilities involve flexibility and adaptability

Erving Goffman (1940)

- Studied nature of people interactions. He noticed people planned their conduct, people want to guide and control how they are seen, and act differently alone than in public

Max Weber (Sociologist)

- Studied structure of organizations (5 Main Characteristic of an Ideal Bureaucracy), regardless of goal of organization

Ethnography

- Study of particular people and places. More of an approach than a single research method in that it generally combines several research methods including interviews, observation, and physical trace measures - Good ethnography truly captures a sense of the place and peoples studied

Subcortical Cerebrum

- Subcortical cerebral nuclei that are located deep part of the cerebrum

Progressive (Learned Characteristic)

- Subject to improvement or refined through practice over time

Dependent (Cluster C)

- Submissive and clingy - Ex: Those who stay in physically abusive relationships

Teratogen

- Substance or environmental factor that can disrupt normative fetal development

Panic Disorder

- Sudden burst of sheer panic and intense fear. Response to any stimuli (heart palpitations, sweating, chest pain, shortness of breath) - Response to situations that typically do not warrant that level of stress - Ex: If you are being attacked from someone, someone breaks into your house

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

- Suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. - High empathy = high in altruistic behaviors

K-Complexes

- Suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also help sleep-based memory consolidation (some memories are transferred to long term memory during sleep, particularly declarative/explicit memories). Even though they occur naturally, you can also make them occur by gently touching someone sleeping. "that touch was not threatening, stay asleep brain"

5 Main Tastes

- Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami - Gustatory system consists of taste receptor cells in taste buds and these are contained in structures called papillae

Withdrawal Symptoms

- Symptoms that occur after chronic use of a drug is reduced or stopped

Intellectualization (Neurotic)

- Taking intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of the situation. Separating emotion from ideas

Negative Reinforcement

- Taking something away to increase tendency behavior will occur again - Ex: Taking loud buzzing noise away only once you put your seatbelt on.

Kinaesthesia

- Talking about movement of the body. It is more behavioral. You teach yourself how to move to successfully complete the task at hand - Ex: "If I move in this direction, I will hit the baseball"

Context (Retrieval Cue)

- The environment you encode and take the test is helpful.. Not always the case, so if you can't take test in same place, studying in different places give you different cues for retrieval

Side-Effect Discrimination

- Talks about how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively - Ex: A small town where African American always get unfair verdict of guilty because they didn't think they could get off on a fair verdict. While applying to job later, he gets rejected because of record.

Peers

- Teach us to develop our social behaviors. Peers values and behaviors contradict values of our families/parents at times, and influence us (Peer Pressure) - Ex: Peers pressure us to drink/do drugs as teenagers.

Maladaptive Coping

- Technique that will reduce symptoms while maintaining and strengthening the disorder. More effective in short term than long term

Negative Conformity

- Teenagers peer pressure can lead to negative behaviors. If friend jumped off bridge, would you too

Mass Media

- Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and other means of popular communication. When you are young, you learn things through mass media that parents would not approve of - Ex: Children's books and Older people get information from TV

Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon

- Tendency to agree to small action first. Eventually over time, we comply to large actions - Society behaviors strongly feed into your attitude

Heterophily

- Tendency to collect in diverse groups; it is the opposite of homophily

Social Loafing

- Tendency to put forth less effort in a group task if the individual contributions aren't evaluated.

Cognitive Bias

- Tendency to think in certain ways. Cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard to rationality or good judgement

Generalization (Classical Conditioning)

- Tendency/ability of a stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, and more similar the stimulus is to original conditioned stimulus

Dementia

- Term for decline in memory and other cognitive unctions to the point of interfering with normal daily life- results from excessive damage to brain tissue

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

- Terman's revision of Binet's original individual IQ test and incorporated teenagers and adults - Started being used to measure intelligence of immigrants

Convergent Validity

- Tests that constructs that are expected to be related are, in fact, related

Discriminant Validity

- Tests that constructs that should have no relationship do, in fact, not have any relationship.

Projective Identification

- That person targeted with projection can start believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that we projected to them

Zimbardo Prison Study

- The Stanford Prison Experiment is a strong example of the power that perceived authority can have over others. - This experiment was conducted to test social influence and compliance to authority through the utilization of a prison life situation. After answering a local newspaper ad (calling for volunteers for a study centered on the effects of prison life), 70 applications were checked for psychological problems, medical disabilities and crime/drug abuse history and reduced to 24 American and Canadian college students from the Stanford area. The all-male participant pool was divided into two groups (guards and prisoners) by flipping a coin. The prison was constructed by boarding up both sides of a corridor in the basement of Stanford's psychology department building. "The Yard" was the only place were prisoners were allowed to walk, eat or exercise—actions that were done blindfolded so they could not identify an exit. Prison cells were located in laboratory rooms where the doors had been removed and replaced with steel bars and cell numbers. - The incarcerated individuals believed they were being kept in the "Stanford County Jail" because before the experiment began, they did not know they would be labeled prisoners. On a random day, prisoners were subjected to an authentic police arrest. Cars arrived at the station and suspects were brought inside where they were booked, read their Miranda rights a second time, finger printed and taken to a holding cells where they were left blindfolded. Each prisoner received chains around their ankles and a stocking (to simulate a shaved head). Additionally, inmates lost their names and were subsequently referred to by their ID number. - As the experiment progressed, participants assigned to guard positions escalated their aggression. Although guards were instructed not to hit the prisoners, they found ways to humiliate/disrupt them via systematic searches, strip searches, spraying for lice, sexual harassment, denying them of basic rights (i.e., bathroom use) and waking inmates from their sleep for head counts. Social and moral values initially held by the guards were quickly abandoned as they became immersed in their role. - Due to the reality of psychological abuse, prisoners were released 6 days later, after exhibiting pathological behavior and nervous breakdowns.

Analytical Intelligence

- The ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving

Self-Control

- The ability to control our impulses and delay gratification. Influences how we behave

Creative Intelligence

- The ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems

Perceived Control (Stress Management)

- The belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes

Conjunction Fallacy

- The co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one.

Social Potency Trait

- The degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations

Pituitary Gland

- The endocrine system's master gland. - Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. - Anterior: Prolactin, Endorphins, Growth Hormone (GH), Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - Posterior: Oxytocin and Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Source Characteristics

- The environment around the message and the speaker's background. - What is their level of expertise of speakers around us - are they knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not - Where does information come from - internet poll, street poll, or psych journal

Foraging (Animal Behaviors)

- The search for food in animal's environment. Can't survive or reproduce without it - Driven strongly by genetics, but can also be gained through learning - Ex: Young primates copy adults and this is how they learn to forage. Teaches them how to hunt

Proprioception

- The sense of balance and position - Use this when you walk in a pitch black room

Self-Serving Bias

- The tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors - Ex: A student gets a good grade on a test and tells herself that she studied hard or is good at the material. She gets a bad grade on another test and says the teacher doesn't like her or the test was unfair. Athletes win a game and attribute their win to hard work and practice.

Gate Control Theory of Olfaction

- The theory of processes of nociception. This theory of pain asserts that non-painful input closes the "gates" to painful input

Companionship Social Support

- The type that gives someone sense of social belonging. While you engage in an activity - Can come from family, friends, pets, coworkers, partners

Independent Variable

- The variable that is manipulated

Social Identity Theory

- Theory in which the formation of a person's identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization, social identity, and social comparison

Social Cognitive Theory

- Theory of behavior change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment - Social Factors, Observational Learning, and Environmental Factors support this

Attribution Theory

- Theory on how we explain behaviors of others around us - Explain the behavior of other people by breaking down our understanding/explanation of their behaviors - Relates ways in which people attempt to explain behaviors and events

Gender Schema Theory

- Theory that explains how individuals should be gendered in society. What constitute men/female characteristic and condition regarding what constitute a sex identity - How sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture

Physical Attraction

- There are cultural differences, but some things are universally attractive (across cultural backgrounds).

Preferred- Mixing

- There are high levels of contact among people who share similar attributes. 1) Antecedent Predisposition 2) Social Subjectivity 3) Deviance Theory

Complex Traits

- There are more complicated traits that are controlled by characterized by group of genes - Ex: Happiness, Agressiveness, Intelligence

Concentration Segregation

- There is clustering of different groups

Neonatal Reflexes

- These disappear as a baby ages. Some are survival reflexes (help us live) while others might be evolutionary holdovers or precursors. Help doctors assess if something is not developing correctly.

Relative Height

- Things higher are perceived to be farther away than those that are lower

Personal Identity

- Things unique to each person like personality traits

Self-Referencing

- Think about new information and how it relates to you personally (learning something about history, and then learn information preparing to teach)

Descending Method of Limits

- This is reversed. In each case, the threshold is considered to be the level of the stimulus property at which the stimuli are just detected

Effects of Addiction

- This pathway takes over rational choices and negative consequences do not affect brain. - Has physiological components as well. Increased genetic risk and environment makes difference as well

Secondary Reinforcers

- Those learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli. - Requires a pairing or association with a primary reinforcer for it to have value - Ex: Money

Low Socioeconomic Status

- Those who lost a job/struggling to keep a job have a higher risk of developing depression

Universalism

- Thought determines language completely. Your thought dictates language - Ex: The New Guinea people only think about dark and light. If they had other thoughts, they would develop words for them

Cognitive (Motivation)

- Thought process drive behavior (rational and decision making ability) - Ex: Light bulb going off in one's head

Obsessions

- Thoughts that occur involuntarility, often unwelcome and occur repeatedly

Evolutionary Biology (Dreaming Theory)

- Threat simulation to prepare for real world. Problem solving and has no purpose

Stressor

- Threatening/challenging event (Dog is stressor to rabbit)

Aversion Box

- Top Left (Aversion): If you get physically sick, you probably ate something bad and you avoid food again - Bottom Left (No Aversion): You do not pair the beep and light with getting sick, only the sweet water. In this case the water is normal so no aversion to it - Top Right (No Aversion): Getting shocked was due to environment that is now removed so the sweet water is not what caused harm and no aversion to sweet water - Bottom Right (Aversion): You show aversion because the environment is still present to cause harm. You show aversion to even tap water

Conscious Mind

- Top of the iceberg and these are the mental functions you are aware of

Meditation

- Training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness. Can be guided and focused on something in particular, like breathing, but meditation cab also be unfocussed

Encoding

- Transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory

Adolescence

- Transition period between childhood and adulthood - Begins with puberty: a 2 year long of sexual maturation (end of which you can still reproduce). Males start at 13, Females at 11 - Men first ejaculation at 14 and Females first menstrual cycle at 12-13

Cornea

- Transparent thick sheet of fibrous tissue, anterior 1/6th, starts to bend light, first part of eye light hits

Positive Control

- Treatment with known response

Methods of Problem Solving

- Trial and Error, Algorithms, Heuristics

Gastrulation

- Trilaminar disk (germ layers formed). Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

Perceptual Error

- Truly believed answer is given by others were correct. They were never consciously aware of any dissonance of the judgements

Retrieval

- Trying to remember or call up a memory of something you learned before

Averageness is Attractive

- Turns out unique traits are not most attractive. Attractiveness is related to averageness

Pegword + Method of Loci (Mnemonic Device)

- Two methods that re good for remembering things in order that you already know

Approach-Approach Conflicts

- Two options that are both appealing

Social Group

- Two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity

Types of Error

- Type I and Type II, Power, Alpha, Null Hypothesis, Alternative Hypothesis, Confidence Interval, Variance, Beta

Social Desirability Bias

- Type of bias related to how people respond to research questions

Reconstructive Bias

- Type of bias related to memory. Most research on memories suggests that our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress

Population Validity

- Type of external validity which describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole. Generalizability

Imitation

- Type of individual social influence, one of most basic forms of social behavior. Begins with understanding there's difference between others and self

Beck's Cognitive Therapy (CT)

- Type of psychotherapy developed by American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. - Within the larger group of cognitive behavioral therapies and was first expounded by Beck in the 1960s - Based on cognitive model, which states that thoughts, feelings and behaviors are all connected, and that individuals can move toward overcoming difficulties - Meeting their goals by changing and identifying unhelpful or inaccurate thinking, problematic behavior, and distressing emotional responses

Reaction Formation (Neurotic)

- Unconscious feelings that make a person the complete opposite - Ex: A mother who bears an unwanted child, for example, may react to her feelings of guilt for not wanting the child by becoming extremely solicitous and overprotective to convince both the child and herself that she is a good mother.

Repression (Neurotic)

- Unconscious process where thoughts pushed down to unconscious

False Consciousness

- Unlike class consciousness, instead of seeing they have solidarity with one another, they are unable to see their oppression - Owners can promote this false consciousness by controlling classes, making it more difficult for workers to see oppression

Personality

- Unlike psychological characteristics/abnormalities is believed to be constant over a person's lifetime

Informal Sanction

- Unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishment

Borderline (Cluster B)

- Unstable relationships, emotions are unstable, variable self-image and compulsive - People at borderline are at brink of emotional/relationship issue - Ex: Displays characteristics of a stereotypical teenager

Amplification

- Up-regulation and is the opposite of sensory adaptation - Ex: Light hits photoreceptor in eye and can cause cell to fire. When cell fires AP, can be connected to 2 cells, which also fire AP and so on. By the time gets to the brain, it is amplified.

Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation

- Upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to

Theory of General Intelligence (Charles Spearman)

- Used factor analysis to identify cluster of related abilities and 1 general intelligence (g-factor can predict intelligence) - Ex: Scoring high in verbal intelligence correlated to high special reasoning

Visual Cues (Animal Communication)

- Used to find a mate. visual communication through color. - Mimicry, Camouflage, and Bioluminescent Communication

Barbiturates (Depressants)

- Used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety (calm them down) and depress your CNS. Anesthesia or anticonvulsant (drugs that reduce seizures) - Not often prescribed due to negative side effects such as reduced memory, judgement and concentration, with alcohol can lead to death

Typical Antipsychotics

- Used to treat psychiatric conditions - First Generation

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

- Uses radio waves and they are exposed to a magnetic field. Radio waves then added to magnetic field and disrupt orientation of atoms - Brain structure way of studying the brain

Availability Heuristic

- Using examples that come to mind. Helpful, but our easily memorable experiences don't match real state of the world - Ex: Shark attacks on news so you think a shark attack = more fatal

Hypnotism

- Usually involves getting person to relax and focus on a breathing, and they become more susceptible to suggestion in this state - but only if they want to. More alpha waves in this stage - an awake but relaxed state.

Aversive Conditioning

- Usually used to stop a particular behavior. Process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting

Heritability

- Variability of traits can be attributed to difference in genes - Percentage of variation of traits due to genes - Ex: Fraternal quadruplets, with way more different phenotypes

Reciprocal Relationship

- Variable A influences variable B but and vice versa (A to B and B to A)

Unidirectional Relationship

- Variable A influences variable B but not vice versa (A to B)

Dependent Variable

- Variable expected to change baed on the manipulation of the independent variable

Sexual Response (Sociocultural Factors)

- Varied sexual response due to age, cultural background (certain practices acceptable), stimulus (how responsive we are to stimuli), emotions (psychological influence), and desires (to procreate or not)

Cognitive

- Vary person to person, they're mental assessments that can include appraisal of what is happening, thoughts and expectation about situation - Result from emotions and can cause emotions - Someone might enjoy surprise party because of your previous cognition, or someone might hate surprise party

Pegword System (Mnemonic Device)

- Verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number (1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree) and then pair list to each of the words you are trying to remember

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder

- Very focused on life being ordered and things being perfect and for them being in control to an extent where it annoys other people

Caste System

- Very little social mobility, because your role is determined entirely by background you are born to and who you are married to - Ex: Hindu Caste System

Authoritarian Parenting

- Very strict, break will of child. Punishment

Social-Cognitive Theory

- View behaviors as being influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context - Cognition → Environment → Behavior (Order can change) - Ex: Meg is interested in soccer (cognition), joins a soccer team (environment), and spends time with soccer players (behavior)

Occipital Lobe

- Vision, "striate cortex"

Social Cue

- Vocal or non-vocal suggestion, which can be positive or negative. - These cues guide conversation and other social interactions (facial expression, tone of voice and body language)

Social Facts

- Ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead - Unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual only noticed when we resist - Ex: The law

Resource Model of Attention

- We have a limited pool of resource son which to draw when performing tasks. Practicing a task diminishes task resource demand

Roles

- We have many different roles that define what we do and who we are. We adopt social norms and these norms provide order in society and we use them to conform to expectations of that role/expectation of others

3x2 Factorial Design (read "three by two")

- We have three levels of the first variable crossed with two levels of the second variable - Such design gives us 3x2 = 6 treatment conditions in experiment

Affective (Attitude Component)

- We may feel or have emotions about a certain object, subject, topic - Ex: I am scared of spiders is an emotional attitude and shapes our attitude about spider

Reinforcing Effect

- We want to constantly stimulate the brain by using drugs

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs (Motivation)

- We want to satisfy needs in particular order. Why we use a pyramid

Secularization

- Weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines

Institutional Authority

- Well respected university. Expectation that these places won't give you a harmful command. Can also be physical or symbolic (government/police)

Core Countries

- Western Europe and US. Strong central government with enough tax to support it - Economically diversified, industrialized, and independent of outside control - Strong middle and working class. Focus on higher scope production of material goods

Vehicular Control

- What experimental group does without the directly desired impact

Collective Behavior

- What happens when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not inline with societal norms (not the same as group behavior) - Can be open while groups are exclusive. Collective also have loose norms, while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms

Gender Script Theory

- What we expect men and females to do. Organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to familiar situation

"Me" Message

- What we learn through interactions with others. How individual believes the generalized other perceives us, the social self, and learned through interactions with others - Ex: Me thinks about people go from high school to college in US

Subjective Norms (Intensions)

- What we think others think about our behavior (my friends think studying is a waste of time)

Echoic (Sensory Memory)

- What you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

- When a conditioned stimulus does not elicit a conditioned response - Both in operant conditioning and classical conditioning - Ex: If you are afraid of heights, the therapist would expose you to various heights and stimuli would not elicit same response anymore

Social Movements

- When a group of people come together with shared idea, can create lasting effects by encouraging/resisting change in society which both play a role in shaping future of society

Deviance

- When a norm is violated. Not negative, just individuals behaving differently from what society feels is normal. Deviance is relative and depends on context - Ex: Most Americans eat meat, but someone who is vegetarian is deviant in the US

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

- When a person have lingering memories and nightmares about a past event that it impact them in daily life. Includes insomnia - Has a trigger that leads to the disorder - Traumatic Event, Re-experience, Avoidance, Unable to Function, Month or more of symptoms, Arousal Increased (TRAUMA)

Tokenism

- When a single member of a minority group is present in an office, workplace, or classroom and is seen as a representative of that minority group rather than as an individual

Obstructive Sleep Apnea

- When airways are obstructed. Soft tissues around our neck can relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for a short period of time - Gets worse as people get older (causes snoring and gasping)

Chi-Square

- When al variables are categorical, looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other - Null Hypothesis vs. Alternative Hypothesis

Extinctive Burst

- When an individual no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behavior will sometimes spike (increase dramatically)

Role Exit

- When an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity - Ex: When an individual retires from a long career and must transition from the role of worker with deadlines and responsibilities to a leisurely life or when an individual becomes parent

Non-Associative Learning

- When an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus (habituation and sensitization)

Social Isolation

- When community voluntarily isolates itself from mainstream, based on their own religious/cultural/other beliefs

Consistency (Time)

- When consistency is high = attribution to internal factors - Take flaky friend, friend forever cancels on us. Consistent behavior over time. High level of consistent behavior over time, we are more likely related to them as a person to the world working against them in this situation

Genetic Transfer (Step 4)

- When sperm binds to plasma membrane and acrosome is gone, cortical granules are released, the plasma membranes fuse and all the genetic material gets released into egg. Fusion of genetic material is fertilization. - Nuclear DNA comes in but also mitochondrial DNA (but the egg has WAYY more mitochondrial DNA that the sperm cell doesn't have much effect)

Sperm Binding (Step 1)

- When sperm comes in contact with zona pellucida. Sperm binds to zona pellucida

Physiological

- When surprised, Heart rate might increase, muscles tense, temperature increase

Learned Helplessness (Personal Control)

- When tone is sounded dogs receive electric shock, but could press button to stop shock

False Consensus

- When we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not

Projection Bias

- When we assume others share the same beliefs as we do

Reality Principle (Freud)

- When we become mature, you need to sacrifice short term reward and replace it with long-term gratification. Not always going to get what you want and you have to play by the roles of real world. Fill task of gratification but you may have to wait - Ex: Taking candy may get you in trouble

Taste Aversion

- When you eat something because you like it, but then stop eating it because you become sick. - Aversions are strong, and they do not always make sense - Body connects the fact that the sickness was a result of food - not other attributes of the environment when you ate - Ex: You are eating cilantro and really like it but get sick and now hate cilantro. Could have been chicken but you only hate the cilantro

Discrimination (Classical Conditioning)

- When you learn to make a response to some stimuli but not others - Ex: You wouldn't want to respond to all loud sounds in the same way. You probably want to respond differently to a loud bang of drum vs. loud bang of gunshot

Gender Oppression (Feminist Theory)

- Women are not only unequal as men, but they are oppressed, subordinated, and abused. - Positive state of being a women not acknowledged in patriarchal society - Family split into domestic labor (no pay) and labor/industry (men)

Structural Oppression (Feminist Theory)

- Women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism. Direct parallel to conflict theory - Women like working class are exploited because of capital mode, but not all women express oppression in the same way - Linked to race, class, sexual orientation, age, and disability. Men associated with mind and women with body

Negatives of Incentive

- Workers abroad are exploited (wages are cut, prohibited from unionizing, longer hours and poor working conditions)

Experimental Study

- Would involve manipulation of variables, which was not present in this study - Would have independent and dependent variables

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)

- X-rays to create image of the brain (tumor/abnormal swelling/bleeding - but cannot tell us anything about what areas oof brain are active - Brain structure way of studying the brain

Western World (Gender)

- You are born male or female and from moment you are born society gives them messages (gender-roles)

Learned Helplessness

- You learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control, so lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because taking less control of outcome of your life

Alertness

- You're awake, aware of who you are, what's going on in the environment, focus your attention, engage in conformation, code info to your memory.

Sleep Stages

- Your brain goes through distinct brain patterns during sleep and occur in 90 min cycles - First three stages are categorized in non-rapid eye movement sleep (non-REM) - N1, N2, N3

Arousal (Social Facilitation)

- Your general physiological or psychological excitement (increased heart rate, faster breathing, activation of autonomic nervous system) - Presence of others improves performance or simple tasks - Increased arousal occurs only when person's efforts are evaluated.

Ideal Self

- we cannot live up to that is bounded by conditions

Overconfidence

-Ex: Going into a test without knowing a lot of information.

4 Elementary Mental Functions (Vygotsky)

1) Attention 2) Sensation 3) Perception 4) Memory - Developed into higher mental functions: Independent learning and thinking - Ex: Solving puzzle as a kid. You have hard time as a kid, but a parent gives tips and strategies to solve the puzzle and second time you can internalize these ideas and do it on your own

3 Types of Hormone Effects (Endocrine)

1) Autocrine: Effects the cell that makes it 2) Paracrine: Regional Effect 3) Endocrine Signals: Response that is far away

Looking Glass Self Steps

1) How do I appear to others 2) What must others think of me? 3) Revise how we think about ourselves - Ex: Person trying on clothes before going out with friends. Some people may not think much about how others will think about clothing choices, but others can spend quite a bit of time considering what they are going to wear

Social Movement Stages

1) Idea 2) Incipient Stage: Public takes notice of problem 3) Organize in group and raise up 4) Succeed in changing society or be forced to adapt (become part of bureaucracy)

4 Sources to Determine Self-Efficacy

1) Mastery of Experience: Strengthens self-efficacy 2) Social Modeling: Seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy 3) Social Persuasion: When someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt 4) Psychological Responses: Learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations can improve self-efficacy

3 Levels of Moral Reasoning

1) Pre-Conventional (Obedience vs. Punishment and Individualism and Exchange) 2) Conventional (Societal Norms/Acceptance and Law and Order/Law Abidance) 3) Post-Conventional (Social Contract and Universal Ethical Principle)

Cialdini's 6 Key Principles of Influence

1) Reciprocity 2) Commitment and Consistency 3) Social Proof 4) Authority 5) Liking 6) Scarcity

3 Things Needed for Social Movement

1) Relative Deprivation: Those who join social movement are not worst off. 2) Feeling of Deserving Better 3) Conventional Means are Useless: A belief conventional methods are useless to get help

Carl Rogers (Humanistic Theory)

1) Self Image 2) Self-Esteem and Self-Worth 3) Ideal-Self - Results in incongruity: When ideal self and real self are similar

4 Principles of Social Stratification

1) Social stratification is socially defined as a property of society rather than individuals 2) Social stratification is reproduced from generation to generation 3) Social stratification is universal but variable 4) Social stratification involves not just quantitative inequality but qualitative beliefs and attitudes about social status

Lesion Studies

1) Tissue Removal, surgical aspiration (sucking out brain tissue), or severing nerve with scalpel 2) Radio-frequency lesions - used to destroy tissue on surface of brain and deep inside brain. Wire inserted and then high frequency 3) Neurochemical Lesions (more precise) - ecitotoxic lesions causes so much excitement that it kills the neuron/excites it to death 4) Cortical Cooling: Involves cooling down neurons until they stop firing (Cryoloop - surgically implanted between skull and brain) 5) Temporary Lesions can be created via neurochemical means. (Muscimol bind to GABA and inhibit those neurons)

8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Theory (Erikson)

1) Trust vs. Mistrust 2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 3) Initiative vs. Guilt 4) Competence vs. Inferiority 5) Identity vs. Role Confusion 6) Intimacy vs. Isolation 7) Generativity vs. Stagnation 8) Integrity vs. Despair

Cross's Nigrescence Model

1. Pre-encounter: African-Americans tend to view the majority Caucasian culture as being more desirable and would view a doctor of this race as being more skilled 2. Immersion-Emmersion: Someone in this stage would view the majority Caucasian culture with resentment and distrust and prefer to be treated by someone of his or her own race. 3. Internalization Stage: integrated aspects of his own culture with that of the majority culture and is working to rectify past racial injustices.

Conversion Disorder (DSM-5(

1. Presence of one more symptoms that affect voluntary or sensory function 2. Symptoms are found to be inconsistent with know medical or neurological 3. Signicant distress

Positive/Negative Feedback in Females

Hypothalamus (releases GnRH) → Pituitary (posterior- back, anterior- front) → Ovaries (releases estrogen, progesterone)

Visual Cues

- Allows us to perceptually organize by taking into account the following cues: depth, form, motion, constancy

Auditory Processing

- Brain relies on cochlea to differentiate between 2 different sounds

Relative Size

- Can infer with one eye and the closer the object, it is perceived as being bigger. Gives us an idea of FORM

3 Things of Feature Detection

- Color: Trichromatic Theory of color vision has 3 cones (Red-60, Blue-10, Green-10). - Form: We need to figure out boundaries of the object and shape of the object. Parvocellular pathway is good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape - high levels of detail) and color.) - Motion: Magnocellular pathway has high temporal resolution (time, motion) resolution.

Visual Sensory Information - Perception:

- Conscious sensory experience of neural processing

c: Strategy

- Conservative Strategy: Always say no unless 100% sure signal is present - Liberal Strategy: Always say yes - The strategy C can be expressed via choice of threshold - what threshold individual deems as necessary for them to say Yes vs. No. Ex. B, D, C, beta, just diff variables.

Up Regulation

- Dark regulation. Pupils dilate, and the rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules.

General Classification of the Ear

- External/outer Ear: From pinna to tympanic membrane - Middle Ear: From malleus to stapes (three ossicles) - Inner Ear: Cochlea and semicircular canals

Vitreous Chamber

- Filled with vitreous humour, jelly-like substance to provide pressure to eyeball and gives nutrients to inside the eyeball

Timing

- Neuron encodes 3 ways for timing - Non-Adapting: Neuron consistency fires at a constant rate - Slow-Adapting: Neuron fires in beginning of stimulus and calms down after a while - Fast-Adapting: Neuron fires as soon as stimulus start then stops firing

Proximity

- Objects that are close are grouped together, we naturally group the closer things together rather than things that are farther apart. Ex: We group things close to one another together.

Mesopic Vision

- Occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones

Scotopic Vision

- Occurs at levels of very low light

Constancy

- Our perception of object doesn't change even if the image cast on the retina is different.

Audition

- Our sense of sound. For us to hear we need two things (pressurized sound wave [stimuli] and hair cell [receptor]

Sensory Adaptation

- Our senses are adaptable and they can change their sensitivity to stimuli - Change over time of receptor to a constant stimulus - down regulation of a sensory receptor in the body - Ex: As you push down with hand, receptors experience constant pressure. But after few seconds receptors no longer fire.

Gestalt Principles (Gestalt Laws of Grouping)

- Tries to explain how we perceive the things we do - Imagine watching a basketball game on TV. Why don't we tell ourselves that we're looking at bunch of still pictures rather influence ourselves that it's some fluid realistic representation of basketball game?

Top-Down Processing

- Uses background knowledge influences perception (Where's Waldo) - Theory driven and perception influenced by our expectation. - Deductive reasoning

Shading and Contour

- Using light and shadows to perceive for depth/contours - Ex: Crater or Mountain

Sclera

- Usually absorbs by the time the light gets to this. The whites of the eye, thick fibrous tissue that covers posterior 5/6th of eyeball. Extra layer of protection and structure of eyeball and is lined up with the conjunctiva.

Otolithic Organs

- Utricle and saccule. Detect linear acceleration and head positioning

Monocular Cues

- Visual cues that humans receive which they only need one eye for. These give humans sense of FORM of an object - Also give a sense of MOTION - Also a cue of Constancy

Optic Nerve

- Visual signals after having been picked up by the rods and cones and transferred to bipolar cells to the ganglion cells, finally leave the eye through the optic nerve, which is really just the axons of the ganglion cells.

Phototransduction Cascade

- What happens when light hits rods/cone - Light hits rod (turns off) → Bipolar Cell (turns on) → Retinal ganglion cell (turns on) → optic nerve → BRAIN - The phototransduction cascade is the process of turning the rod from on to off

Feature Detection

- When looking at an object, you need to break it down into its component features to make sense of what you are looking at. There are 3 things to consider when looking at any object: color, form, and motion

d': Strength

- hit>miss (when there is a strong signal) - miss>hit (weak signal) - So if signal shifted to right, d' would be big and easy to detect. If left, d' very small and more difficult to detect.

Sound (Auditory Waves) Path

- First hit outer part of ear, known as the pinna - Then the sound gets funneled from the pinna to the auditory canal (also known as external auditory meatus). - Then from the auditory canal they hit the tympanic membrane (also called the eardrum). - As pressurized wave hits eardrum, it vibrates back and forth, causing 3 bones to vibrate in this order: (malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), stapes (stirrup) ). Three smallest bones in the body. *These bones combined are also referred to as the ossicles. - Stapes is attached to oval window (aka elliptical window). The oval window then vibrates back and forth. - As it gets vibrated, it pushes fluid and causes it to go in/around cochlea (a round structure lined with hair cells). - At tip of cochlea (inner most part of circle), where can the fluid now go? It can only go back, but goes back to the round window (circular window) and pushes it out. - The reason doesn't go back to oval window, is because in middle of cochlea is a membrane - the organ of Corti (includes the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane). - As hair cells (cilia) move back and forth in the cochlea - electric impulse is transported by auditory nerve to the brain. o Place theory is a theory of hearing which states that our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane. By this theory, the pitch of a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of the primary auditory neurons. Place theory posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane. - The above process of fluid going around the cochlea keeps occurring till the energy of the sound wave dissipates and stops moving. Occurs more = more hair cells vibrate.

Endolymph

- Fluid that the canal is filled with. Allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in, and because we can detect how quickly the endolymph is moving we can determine the strength of rotation.

Auditory Structure 2

- Focuses on the cochlea and inner ear

Convergence

- Gives humans an idea of depth as well based on how much eyeballs are turned. Gives humans a sense of DEPTH - Things far away: muscles of eyes relaxed - Things close to us: Muscles of eyes contract

Iris

- Gives the eye color. Muscle that constrict/relaxes to change the size of pupil

5 Types of Sensory Adaptation

- Hearing Adaptation: Inner hear muscle (higher noise = muscle contract) - Touch: Temperature receptors desensitized over time - Smell: Desensitized receptors in your nose to molecule sensory information over time - Proprioception: The sense of the position of the body in space (sense of balance where you are in space) - Sight: Down and up regulation to light intensity.

Wavelength

- How close peaks are. Smaller wavelength is greater frequency and higher wavelength travels further and penetrate deeper into cochlea

Visual Field Processing

- How our brain makes sense of what we are looking at. Right side of the body controlled by the left side and vice versa - All right visual field goes to left side of brain; all left visual field goes to right side of the brain - Ray of light from the left visual field hits the NASAL side of the left eye and hits the TEMPORAL side of the right eye (vice versa)

Intensity

- How quickly neurons fire for us too notice. (Slow = low intensity, High = intensity)

Binocular Cues

- Humans have two eyes which allow them to receive visual cues from their environment with these. These cues give a sense of DEPTH.

Weber's Law

- I = Initial Intensity (2 or 5) - Delta I = JND (0.2 or 0.5) - Delta I / I = k (Constant) - It predicts a linear relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity - Delta I = I * k

Visual Sensory Information - Transmission:

- Is the electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron

Visual Sensory Information - Processing:

- Is the neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception

Similarity

- Items similar to one another grouped together by brain. Ex: The brain automatically organizes these squares and circles in columns, and not in rows

Down Regulation

- Light adaptation. When it is bright out, pupils constrict (less light enters back of eye) and the desensitization of of rods and cones become desensitized to light

Location

- Location-specific stimuli by nerves are sent to brain (relies of dermatomes)

Signal Detection Theory

- Looks at how we make decision under conditions of uncertainty - discerning between important stimuli and unimportant "noise"

Photopsin

- Protein found on the optic disks in cones - Multimeric protein with 7 discs, which contains a small particle called retinal (11-cis retinal) - When light hits, some comes through the pupil and hits the retinal; causing it to change conformation from bent to straight conformation (11-cis retinal to trans-retinal) - When the retinal changes shape, it causes the rhodopsin itself to change shape as well - Once the rhodopsin changes shape, transducin breaks away from rhodopsin, and the alpha subunit goes over to another part of the disc and binds to a protein called "cGMP Phosphodieesterase (PDE)"

Rhodopsin

- Protein found on the optic disks in rods

Visual Sensory Information - Sensation:

- Requires a physical stimulus to be converted into a neural impulse

Rods and Cones

- Rods are found in the periphery and cones are found primarily in the fovea and few dispersed through the rest of eye

Anterior Chamber

- Space filled with aqueous humour, which provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball; allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea/iris.

Subliminal Stimuli

- Stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation

cGMP PDE

- Takes the cGMP (floating all around the cell), and converts it into regular GMP - This reduces the concentration of cGMP, and increases concentration of regular GMP - There are cGMP-dependent sodium channels, that allow for influx sodium into the cell. But since the decrease of cGMP due to PDE, these channels are closed-- and the cell becomes hyperpolarized

Contextual Effects

- The context in which stimuli are presented and the processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli (and also that the context can establish the way in which stimuli are organized)

Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision

- The eye has 3 types of color receptors (red, green, and blue) Cones work in 3's

Law of Past Experiences

- The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together.

Symmetry

- The mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point.

Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision

- The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Basilar Tuning

- There are varying hair cells in cochlea and allows brain to distinguish between high and low frequency sounds

Vestibular System

- Three semicircular canals that provide the sense of balance, located in the inner ear and connected to the brain by a nerve - Posterior, Lateral, and Anterior canals are all orthogonal to each other