PSY 1010 Exam 2 (Ch. 6,7)
Encoding
"if we intend to file it away" refers to the process of acquiring information and transferring it to memory.
Storage
"information kept in our memory until we need it" The retention of information.
Retrieval
"some time later we pull that information out of memory" The recovery of stored information.
Out of all cases in which an innocent person has been cleared of a crime due to DNA evidence, how many involved mistaken identification of the perpetrator by an eyewitness?
75%
Out of all cases in which an innocent person has been cleared of a crime due to DNA evidence, how many involved mistaken identification of the perpetrator by an eyewitness? a. 25% c. 75% b. 50% d. 100%
75%
Priming
A change in a response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to a previous stimulus
Both brains and computers have the ability to store memories, with one critical difference. What is this difference? a. A brain stores exact copies of data, whereas a computer stores bits of data that are reconstructed later for use. b. A computer's stored information is always retrievable, whereas a brain's stored information is frequently irretrievable. c. A brain's stored information is always retrievable, whereas a computer's stored information is occasionally irretrievable. d. A computer stores exact copies of data, whereas a brain stores bits of data that are reconstructed later for use.
A computer stores exact copies of data, whereas a brain stores bits of data that are reconstructed later for use.
Spreading activation model
A connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences.
Explicit memory
A conscious memory; also known as a declarative memory.
Information processing
A continuum including attention sensation, perception, learn, memory, and cognition
Forgetting
A decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory.
Conditioned response (CR)
A response learned through classical conditioning.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
A response to an unconditioned stimulus that requires no previous experience.
Fixed ratio (FR) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following a set number of behaviors (ex. getting paid "by the piece")
Cue
A stimulus that aids retrieval.
Token economy
An application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors.
Flashbulb memory
An especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event.
Working memory
An extension of the concept of short-term memory that includes the active manipulation of multiple types of information simultaneously.
Procedural memory
An implicit memory for how to carry out skilled movement (ex. how to ride a bike, tie a shoe, etc)
George Miller
Argued that we can process somewhere between five and nine items or bits (digits, letters, words) in STM simultaneously. "magic number 7 plus of minus 2" Recent psychologists have set the limit to 4 items
Which of the following statements describes a belief of the early behaviorists?
Behavior follows the same general rules across species.
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the definition of the term "forgetting"? a. Chris is finding it increasingly difficult to remember the Latin vocabulary he learned in high school. b. Mary daydreams about the young man who sits in front of her in Latin class; later, she does not recognize many of the vocabulary words on the exam. c. Irina knew her Latin vocabulary very well but was too stressed during the exam to complete the questions in time. d. Barry was in an automobile accident that impaired his ability to access certain memories, including the Latin vocabulary he had learned prior to the accident.
Chris is finding it increasingly difficult to remember the Latin vocabulary he learned in high school.
Addiction
Classical conditioning can contribute to dependence on a drug or behavior. Stimuli that is associated with drug use often become conditioned stimuli for the effects of a drug. Ex. Peak caffeine levels don't occur until 45 min after use, yet most coffee drinkers say they experience the awake right away.
What is a key distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; operant conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence.
Interference
Competition between newer and older information in memory.
Which of the following statements regarding semantic memories is true? a. Different patterns of activity in the cerebral cortex are correlated with various types of semantic memories. b. A tool labeling task is associated with activity in the visual cortex of the occipital lobe, suggesting that we think about what a tool looks like in order to name it. c. Damage to the prefrontal cortex can produce a condition known as source amnesia of certain semantic memories. d. An animal naming task activates areas associated with hand movements, suggesting that we think about touching an animal in order to name one.
Different patterns of activity in the cerebral cortex are correlated with various types of semantic memories.
Spontaneous recovery
During extinction, the reappearance of conditioned responses after periods of rest.
In which of the following scenarios is Roxie the dog most likely to rapidly learn to associate a conditioned stimulus with food?
Each morning, Roxie's owner opens the squeaky kitchen cupboard, pours dog food into a bowl, and immediately puts the bowl of food on the floor for Roxie to eat
Eduardo, a psychologist, uses counterconditioning to help his client, Catherine, address her extreme fear of heights. What technique is Eduardo likely to use?
Eduardo and Catherine repeatedly visit a scenic viewpoint at the top of a hill. They have a pleasant picnic there, gradually moving to picnic tables that are closer to the top of the hill.
Motivated forgetting
Failure to retrieve negative memories.
Sam is participating in a study regarding retrieval from short-term memory. He memorizes a list of five items. What is most likely to happen? a. He is able to retrieve the items simultaneously. b. He can identify any of the five items in the same amount of time. c. He remembers the middle item the most quickly. d. He searches through his short-term memory one item at a time.
He searches through his short-term memory one item at a time.
Lillian is cramming for her Latin exam. She must memorize vocabulary for Chapters 3 through 7 in her textbook by tomorrow morning. Which of the following best describes her recall of Chapter 5's vocabulary compared to her friend Deb, who studied each chapter on the individual night assigned? a. Her recall of Chapter 5 will be essentially the same as Deb's if their total amount of study time is similar. b. Her recall of Chapter 5 will be worse than Deb's because of proactive and retroactive interference. c. Her recall of Chapter 5 will be better than Deb's because of proactive interference. d. Her recall of Chapter 5 will be worse than Deb's because of retroactive interference only.
Her recall of Chapter 5 will be worse than Deb's because of proactive and retroactive interference.
Proactive and Retroactive interference
If we measure recall of a target list of words, we find that it is worse both when preceded by learning another list "proactive interference" and when followed by another list "retroactive interference"
Reflex
Inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory
Information flows through a series of stages, if memory is not transferred to the next stage it is permanently lost. Memories can be stored for very different periods of time and that control processes influence the system.
Why is the process of sensitization advantageous
It improves reaction time.
Nonassociative learning
Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to a stimulus.
Observational learning
Learning that occurs when an organism watches the actions of another. Also known as social learning or modeling.
Rehearsal
Repetition of information
Schema
Set of expectations about objects and situations.
What three conditions must be met for punishment to be effective?
Significance, immediacy, and consistency
Habituation
Simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease.
Which of the following approaches does B.F. Skinner recommend to alter an undesirable behavior?
Standing by but ignoring a child who is having a tantrum in the grocery store
Acquisition
The development of a learned response.
Encoding
The transformation of information from one form to another.
Reliability of eyewitnesses and line-up procedures
Witnesses view photos of suspects simultaneously, less likely of the real suspect to show up, witnesses chose most similar. Giving yes/no answer to photos at one time reduces the risk of mistaken identification
phonological loop
Working memory responsible for verbal and auditory information. Ex. repeating a friends phone number while reaching for your phone
forgetting
a decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory
Anita and Bev decide to verbally exchange e-mails before running off to their next class so that they can get in touch with each other via computer. They will likely be able to retain this information in sensory memory for ____.
a second or less
In Zyzak, Otto, Eichenbaum, & Gallagher (1995), elderly rats that performed well in a maze had higher levels of ____ synthesis than their less capable peers. a. glutamate c. acetylcholine b. dopamine d. serotonin
acetylcholine
flashbulb memories
an especially wild and detailed memory of an emotional event. 9/11 terrorist attacks
implicit memory
an unconscious memory/ non declarative
The reduction in ability to retrieve rarely used information over time is called ____. a. forgetting c. motivated forgetting b. decay d. interference
decay
Dr. Graham exposes rats to a vanilla scent prior to receiving a food pellet in the left corner of their cage, but provides no food after exposure to a lemon scent. After several trials, upon smelling a vanilla scent, the rats wait at the far left corner of the cage regardless of whether a food pellet is present. However, they do not wait in the far left corner when exposed to the lemon scent. What is the unconditioned stimulus in the experiment?
food pettlet
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus is called ____.
generalization
The NMDA receptor, a prime candidate for learning-related changes such as those observed in long-term potentiation, is a type of ____. a. glutamate receptor c. dopamine receptor b. serotonin receptor d. acetylcholine receptor
glutamate receptor
Jenna tickles her five-year old son. This sensory input is first translated into ____. a. echoic memory c. iconic memory b. acoustic code d. haptic code
haptic code
Extremes in memory retrieval, such as the complete failure to recall an emotional event or an intrusive, overly vivid amount of recall, start to occur when an event ____. a. involves a family member b. has been encoded during severe levels of depression c. has been encoded during unusually high levels of stress d. triggers the release of high levels of serotonin
has been encoded during unusually high levels of stress
Learning in which stimuli associated with a conditioned stimulus also elicit conditioned responding is called ____
higher order conditioning
Copying a behavior that is unlikely to occur naturally and spontaneously is referred to as ____.
imitation
Which process best illustrates the effect of development stages on the interaction between instinct and learning?
imprinting
State-dependent memory means that a person has better recall of material that is learned ____. a. in a similar physical environment or body position b. in a similar location c. in a similar physiological state or mood d. at a similar time of day
in a similar physiological state or mood
The spreading activation model proposes that people organize general knowledge based on ____. a. individual experiences c. semantic similarities b. predetermined hierarchies d. cultural norms
individual experiences
subliminal messages
information can enter the memory system below the threshold of conscious awareness and influence the behavior of the unsuspecting recipient of the message. "threshold for conscious awareness of s a stimulus
Peter's father normally arrives home from work in a terrible mood, causing Peter extreme anxiety. However, when Peter sees that his father is wearing sweat pants, Peter feels at ease, knowing that his father has been home from work for awhile. Peter's distinct responses towards his father illustrates ____.
inhibition
Jim and his father are watching the ball game on TV. Jim's father starts to yawn and Jim soon follows. This is an example of ____
instinct
Experienced whale trainer Dawn Brancheau was killed by one of her favorite killer whales during a 2010 show at Sea World in Orlando, Florida. Animal experts believed that the whale had simply reverted to normal whale behavior; illustrating ____.
instinctive drift
The Brelands concluded that animals' strong instinctive behaviors predominated over behaviors that had been conditioned, which they described as ____
instinctive drift
On what aspect of behavior did Garcia and Koelling's taste aversion experiments shed light?
internal influences
Which process explains why children exposed to news reports about crime tend to form stronger associations between criminal acts and people of unfamiliar races rather than between criminal acts and people of their own race?
latent inhibition
Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement is referred to as ____.
latent learning
Which process below is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience?
learning
Based on the work of Richard Dawkins, the basic unit of cultural transmission is known as a(n) ____.
meme
Which of the following is an example of a fixed ratio schedule?
mikeSam earns extra money by mowing his neighbors' lawns in the summer and shoveling their driveways and sidewalks in the winter. He charges $20 per job.
Memory aids that link new information to well-known information are called ____. a. mnemonics c. chunks b. elaborative rehearsal d. recitations
mnemonics
Compared with classical conditioning, the role of the learner for operant conditioning is ____.
more active
Richard, who is sixteen years old, misses his curfew and as a result is grounded by his parents. His parent's actions illustrate ____
negative punishment
Lucia, who experiences extreme anxiety when taking an exam, practices meditation breathing to reduce her anxiety prior to taking a test. Her meditation breathing is an example of a ____.
negative reinforcer
Anna is called on by her professor to share the definition of long-term potentiation with the class. She states that it is the enhancement of communication between two neurotransmitters resulting from their synchronous activation. Her definition is inaccurate with regard to the use of the term ____. a. synchronous activation c. communication b. enhancement d. neurotransmitter
neurotransmitter
Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to a specific stimulus is referred to as ____.
nonassociative learning
An implicit memory is also known as a(n) ____. a. nondeclarative memory c. autobiographical memory b. episodic memory d. declarative memory
nondeclarative memory
What type of learning is most influential in developing and maintaining culture?
observational learning
Chunking
organizing/grouping meaningful bits of information together.
The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions but not others is called ____.
partial reinforcement
What delays the process of extinction?
partial reinforcement
episodic memory
personal account of past experiences, timeline
The four components of working memory proposed by Baddeley et al. are called the central executive, the episodic buffer, the visuospatial sketch pad, and the ____. a. phonological loop c. semantic loop b. schematic loop d. maintenance loop
phonological loop
Ways to improve memory
practice, tests, sleep, recite, mnemonics"memory aids that link new info to well known info"
According to the levels of processing theory, the depth (shallow to deep) of processing ____. a. enhances long-term memory capacity b. predicts the duration of information in long-term memory c. predicts the ease of retrieval d. exemplifies the power of maintenance rehearsal
predicts the ease of retrieval
episodic buffer
provides a mechanism for combining info stored in LTM Ex. explains chunking easier then string of letters
In most cases, information moves from short-term or working memory to long-term memory through ____. a. chunking c. the method of loci b. mnemonics d. rehearsal
rehearsal
Stephen has just finished composing his first poem, entitled Clouded Memories, for his poetry slam class. He is slated to recite the first ten lines during class tonight, and repeats them over and over to himself as he is walking there. This is called ____. a. rehearsal c. chunking b. a mnemonic device d. consolidation
rehearsal
Rehearsal
repetition of information. maintenance rehearsal: simple repetition of behavior elaborative rehearsal: linking new material to things we already know. MOST effective way to move info to permanent storage
Marietta has memorized the capital cities of all fifty states. This is an example of ____. a. episodic memory c. autobiographical memory b. procedural memory d. semantic memory
semantic memory
The rats involved in Skinner's research boxes learned to press levers for food through the process of ____.
shaping
What is an effective method for teaching a new behavior that involves balancing too much versus too little reinforcement?
shaping
cues
stimulus that aids retrieval
The hippocampus plays an essential role in ____. a. assessing emotional situations b. the formation of new declarative memories c. the formation of new implicit memories d. assessing analytical situations
the formation of new declarative memories
Manuel is teaching his three-year-old son Joey the alphabet song. Joey sings "A B C D H K G." This is an example of ____. a. the recency effect c. mnemonics b. elaborative rehearsal d. the primacy effect
the primacy effect
memory reconstruction
the rebuilding of a memory out of stored elements
Which of the following is one of the most important schemas we have for organizing and remembering what we study? a. hierarchies from most important to least important b. the self c. alphabetization d. categorization by purpose and properties
the self
How is memory transferred to LTM?
through rehearsal
Haptic codes
used to process touch and other body senses
As Harry walks out of the supermarket, he sees his parked car get hit by another car. He tries to memorize the make, model, and license plate number of the other car. According to Baddeley's model, he is using the ____.
visuospatial sketch pad
Types of LTM?
• Declarative / Explicit (same thing) • Semantic • Episodic Memory • Autobiographical memories (combine elements of semantic and episodic memories) • Implicit memory (not conscious) • Procedural memories are a type of implicit memory
Fred drives a delivery truck in a large metropolitan area. He enjoys the challenge of finding new routes and short cuts to his destinations. This spatial activity uses his ____. a. hippocampus c. basal ganglia b. prefrontal cortex d. amygdala
hippocampus
The type of declarative memory problems experienced by Henry Molaison are frequently produced by damage to the ____. a. cerebral cortex b. hippocampus or the pathways connecting it to the cerebral cortex c. occipital lobe or motor cortex d. basal ganglia
hippocampus or the pathways connecting it to the cerebral cortex
Professor Sevilla asks one of his graduate students, Leland, to finish his class lecture on memory. Leland begins by explaining that nondeclarative memories 1) are unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved memories; 2) are easy to verbalize; 3) include memories for classical conditioning, procedural learning, and priming; and 4) are also known as implicit memories. Which part of his definition is inaccurate? a. Nondeclarative memories are unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved. b. Nondeclarative memories are easy to verbalize. c. Nondeclarative memories include memories for classical conditioning, procedural learning, and priming. d. Nondeclarative memories are also known as implicit memories.
Nondeclarative memories are easy to verbalize.
As a gate creaks open, Oscar the puppy notices a cat heading into his yard. The cat hisses and scratches Oscar on the nose, causing Oscar to yelp in pain. Which outcome to this scenario portrays higher order conditioning?
Now when Oscar hears a gate creak, regardless of who is coming through it, he runs away.
As a gate creaks open, Oscar the puppy notices a cat heading into his yard. The cat hisses and scratches Oscar on the nose, causing Oscar to yelp in pain. Which outcome to this scenario portrays discrimination?
Now when Oscar sees the cat who scratched his nose he runs away, but he feels comfortable with the cat with whom he shares a home.
In her research, Brenda Milner found that Molaison could learn a new procedural task, mirror tracing, as well as typical control participants did. However, he could not remember the details of the task. This outcome suggests that ____. a. his declarative memories were intact but not his procedural memories b. his procedural memories were intact but not his nondeclarative memories c. his procedural memories were intact but not his declarative memories d. his declarative memories were intact but not his nondeclarative memories
his procedural memories were intact but not his declarative memories
visuospatial sketchpad
holds visual and spatial info. Ex. when you explain the route from your friend's dorm to your favorite coffee shop, where you plan to hold a study session, you use visuospatial to describe the way
The effect of negative emotions on memory ____. a. is variable c. is distortion b. is consistently to enhance memory d. is consistently to inhibit memory
is variable
Long-term memory is characterized by ____. a. long duration and large capacity c. limited duration and large capacity b. limited capacity and long duration d. limited capacity and limited duration
long duration and large capacity
Long-term potentiation shares many features with memory, such as being ____. a. slow to form and subject to forgetting and decay b. long-lasting and formed after a very brief exposure to stimuli c. malleable and subject to persuasion d. organized in accordance with the spreading activation model
long-lasting and formed after a very brief exposure to stimuli
The final stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model refers to the location of permanent memories. This is called ____. a. maintenance memory c. long-term memory b. procedural memory d. working memory
long-term memory
Fred is studying vocabulary for his biomedical class while lying on his bed. At the same time, his roommates and their friends are enthusiastically watching the basketball game on TV in the living room. Fred's recall of the material will likely be best while ____. a. seated at a desk in a quiet room c. outdoors in fresh air and sunshine b. lying down with background noise d. lying down in a silent setting
lying down with background noise
Professor Giles asks his students to write down the first word that come to mind when they see the word "fish." Bob writes down "sea." James writes down "chips." Angela writes down "net." According to the spreading activation theory, this result ____. a. is impossible c. is highly unusual b. is exactly correct d. makes sense
makes sense
central executive
manages the work of other components by directing attention to particular tasks Ex. Providing you w/ the right amount of attention to do both tasks at once.
The process of forgetting ____. a. has no adaptive benefit b. is due to encoding failure c. may help prioritize the things we should remember d. is related to insufficient dopamine
may help prioritize the things we should remember
encoding specificity
memories incorporate unique combinations of information when encoded. they explain why cues are helpful and successful
Kevin is legally required to send a quarterly check to his former wife, whom he divorced twenty years ago. It annoys him greatly and he finds he often forgets until several days after the due date. This is likely an example of ____. a. retroactive interference c. repressed memory b. suppressed memory d. motivated forgetting
motivated forgetting
According to the levels of processing theory, who will be able to remember the most definitions of the vocabulary words in a given chapter? a. James, who reads through each term and its definition b. Pat, who takes turns with her roommate defining and explaining each term c. Phil, who memorizes the definitions by chunking d. Renee, who repeats each term and its definition multiple times out loud
Pat, who takes turns with her roommate defining and explaining each term
Positive reinforcement
Perform a behavior, get a pleasant reward (ex. answer a question right, get a candy bar). Increases frequency of that behavior.
Which of the following scenarios exemplifies the type of coding that plays a dominant role in long-term memory but a relatively minor role in short-term and working memory? a. Mara loves piano music. She can play several Beethoven's piano sonatas by heart. b. Phil is not very good at telling jokes. He finds that he can remember the gist of the joke but cannot find the best words to share it. c. Luke is very artistic. He enjoys duplicating his favorite Impressionist paintings by hand. d. Eric plays blues guitar. He knows the works of Robert Johnson inside and out.
Phil is not very good at telling jokes. He finds that he can remember the gist of the joke but cannot find the best words to share it.
A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior by applying an aversive stimulus is referred to as ____.
Positive punishment
serial positioning effect & primacy+recency
Primacy effect The tendency to remember the first items in a list These items probably get transferred to LTM through rehearsal Recency effect The last items also get remembered These items are probably still in Working Memory
The method for increasing behaviors that allow an organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence is referred to as
negative reinforcement
Learning is traditionally divided into three categories: associative, nonassociative, and ____.
observational
Decay
Reduction in ability to retrieve rarely used information over time.
Variable ratio (VR) schedule
Reinforcement occurs following some variable number of behaviors (ex. slot machines)
context- dependent memory
Relevant to retrieving declarative memories. Explains advantages of simulation in learning new procedures, producing realistic training experience possible, the more similar the more transfer of learning. Scuba divers who learned words either on land, or underwater retrieved the most words when their encoding and testing circumstances were the same. not only based on location and body position, physiological states/ state-dependent whether off drugs or moods (biploar, depression)
Michael has a flashbulb memory of when his mother told him the terrible news that his father had died in an automobile accident. What is most likely to be true about this memory? a. This memory will not fade over time. b. This memory is comparable in accuracy to less emotional memories at the same time. c. He will likely lack confidence in the accuracy of this memory. d. Retrieval of this memory will be more accurate than of everyday events around the same time.
Retrieval of this memory will be more accurate than of everyday events around the same time.
Short term memory
Second stage of the AS model that holds a small amount of information for a limited time " 30 seconds"
Autobiographical memory
Semantic or episodic memories that reference the self.
The hippocampus ____. a. serves as a storage location for long-term memories b. participates in the consolidation of information into long-term memory c. plays a role in procedural memory d. is unrelated to the formation of spatial memories
participates in the consolidation of information into long-term memory
Scientists have discovered correlations between activity in parts of the human brain and specific components of long-term memory through the observation of ____. a. patients with brain damage and brain imaging studies in healthy participants b. London cab drivers c. infants d. pigeons and rats
patients with brain damage and brain imaging studies in healthy participants
Henry must study for three finals and write a term paper in six days. He has decided to devote 15 hours of preparation time to his History of Modern China exam. What would be the best allocation of his time? a. Study throughout the night before the exam for 15 hours. b. Study three hours a day for five days. c. Study the two days before the exam, about eight hours a day. d. Study 15 hours during the day before the exam.
Study three hours a day for five days.
Tom was knocked unconscious briefly during a game while playing on his high school's football team. He does not remember much about the immediate circumstances leading to the injury. Why? a. There was insufficient time for memory storage in the cerebral cortex. b. He was motivated to forget the event because of its unpleasant nature. c. Synaptic consolidation of memories was interrupted by the head injury. d. There was insufficient time for memory storage in the hippocampus.
Synaptic consolidation of memories was interrupted by the head injury.
When Gina was ten, she swam in the ocean for the first time. She remembers the feeling of kicking her feet, slicing her arms through the water, tasting the tangy salt water, floating her on her back, and learning from her father that salt water is more dense than fresh water, which makes floating easier. Which element is a semantic memory? a. The familiar feel of kicking her feet and slicing her arms through the water b. How tangy the salt water was c. That salt water is more dense than fresh water d. The feeling of floating on her back
That salt water is more dense than fresh water
Allan and Bob are debating the true meaning of the term memory. How does your textbook define this process? a. The acquisition of knowledge through experience b. The ability to detect and learn from environmental stimuli c. The ability to retain knowledge d. The acquisition and retention of sensory information
The ability to retain knowledge
Memory
The ability to retain knowledge
Jeremy is typing a term paper on his computer and saves it every five minutes or so for good measure. Which of the following best illustrates the computer's encoding system with regard to this file? a. The computer receives the information and translates it in discrete chunks. b. The computer receives the information and translates it into zeros and ones. c. The computer receives and translates the information as a composite image. d. The computer receives the information and decides what to translate based on the current state of the file.
The computer receives the information and translates it into zeros and ones.
Imitation
The copying of behavior that is unlikely to occur naturally and spontaneously (ex. Bobo the doll experiment - YouTube it).
Levels of processing
The depth of processing applied to information that predicts its ease of retrieval.
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
The enhancement of communication between two neurons resulting from their synchronous activation.
Long-term memory
The final stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that is the location of permanent memories.
Variable interval (VI) schedule
The first response following a varying period of time is reinforced (ex. pop quizzes - never know when they are going to happen)
Sensory memory
The first stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds large amounts of incoming data for very brief amounts of time.
Associative learning
The formation of associations or connections among stimuli and behaviors.
Serial position effect
The position of a bit of information determines how likely you are to recall it. People tend to forget the stuff in the middle.
Chunking
The process of grouping similar or meaningful information together
In Garcia and Koelling's taste aversion study, why were the rats unable to associate a bright-noisy stimulus with feeling ill?
The rats relied more on taste and smell rather than vision and hearing for identifying food.
What is reconstruction? a. The rebuilding of a memory out of stored elements b. A set of expectations about objects and situations c. The incorporation of unique combinations of information in memory d. Competition between newer and older information in memory
The rebuilding of a memory out of stored elements
Reconstruction
The rebuilding of a memory out of stored elements.
Retrieval
The recovery of stored information.
Extinction
The reduction of a learned response. In classical conditioning, UCS no longer follows CS. In operant conditioning, when consequence no longer follows the learned behavior.
Partial reinforcement
The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions but not others.
Storage
The retention of information
Short-term memory
The second stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds a small amount of information for a limited time.
Which of the following would decrease the likelihood of acquisition?
The unconditioned stimulus is presented long after the conditioned stimulus.
Episodic memories are affected by damage to the ____. a. basal ganglia c. prefrontal cortex b. hippocampus d. amygdala
prefrontal cortex
Jake, a 24-year-old Caucasian man, was caught in a stolen car and taken into the police station for identification. Which of the following lineups would be the fairest for Jake?
The witness is shown six photos of suspects sequentially.
Jake, a 24-year-old Caucasian man, was caught in a stolen car and taken into the police station for identification. Which of the following lineups would be the fairest for Jake? a. The witness is shown six photos of suspects simultaneously. b. The witness is shown six photos of suspects sequentially. c. In a physical lineup, the police officer asks the witness "Is that the guy?" while pointing to Jake. d. Jake is the only Caucasian man in a physical lineup.
The witness is shown six photos of suspects sequentially.
Generalization
Then tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original CS.
Mary is visiting the beach close to her childhood home. Which of the following best describes her memories of childhood summers? a. They are detailed and static images. b. They blend childhood memories with new content in working memory. c. They are unreliable. d. They are similar to re-opening an old computer file.
They blend childhood memories with new content in working memory.
Former members of a Girl Scout troop have gotten back in touch on Facebook. Verda reminds the others of their camping trip, where it rained for three days. Others share their memories of that weekend as well. What is most likely to happen to Verda's memories? a. They remain essentially the same. b. They are stored in a separate section of long-term memory from the memories of others. c. They are over-written by the memories shared by others. d. They interact with others' memories and are re-encoded as new long-term memories.
They interact with others' memories and are re-encoded as new long-term memories.
In a study by Loftus and Palmer, participants viewed a short video of an automobile accident. One group was asked "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" A second group was asked "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed each other?" One week later, both groups were asked if they recalled seeing glass on the road after the accident (there was no glass on the road in the video). Which of the following statements is true? a. There was no difference in responses among those that heard smashed, those that heard hit, and the control group. b. Those that heard smashed were almost three times more likely than those that heard hit to report seeing glass. c. Those that heard smashed were about as likely as the control group to report seeing glass. d. Those that heard hit were almost three times more likely than those that heard smashed to report seeing glass.
Those that heard smashed were almost three times more likely than those that heard hit to report seeing glass.
Paolo is studying for his doctoral qualifying exams in neuropsychology. According to fuzzy trace theory, what would be the best way to study for these exams? a. To develop verbatim traces by actively engaging with the material b. To develop as many gist traces as possible c. To allocate about 25% of his time to verbatim traces and 75% to gist traces d. To focus on the most essential gist traces of the subject matter
To develop verbatim traces by actively engaging with the material
Nadine's nine-month-old son now knows to look for his teddy bear when she hides it behind the pillow. This appearance of object permanence in infants after the age of eight months or so provides support for the importance of the ____ to working memory. a. cerebellum c. cerebrum b. hypothalamus d. prefrontal cortex
prefrontal cortex
Priming is a change in a response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to a ____. a. subliminal message c. stimulus below the objective threshold b. stimulus above the subjective threshold d. previous stimulus
previous stimulus
Flooding
Treating phobias by exposing people to fear-producing stimuli in a matter that is safe until they no longer respond. Can be traumatic.
T/F Contingency predicts conditioning
True
T/F what you retrieve is essentially identical to what you store?
True
Operant conditioning
Type of learning in which associations are formed between behaviors and their outcomes.
Classical conditioning
Type of learning in which associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time.
A graph of the serial position effect, where the likelihood of recall of an item is plotted as a function of the item's position in a list during presentation, takes the shape of a(n) ____. a. J-shaped curve b. line that begins at a low level and slopes upward to the right c. line that begins at a high level and slopes downward to the right d. U-shaped curve
U-shaped curve
Nondeclarative memory
Unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved memories that are difficult to verbalize, including memories for classical conditioning, procedural learning, and priming; also known as implicit memories.
Dinesh takes a quick call from his wife and then returns to a conversation with his co-worker. His wife asked him to pick up six items at the grocery store on his way home from work, and while walking to his car, he realizes that he can only remember the first three items. This illustrates the ____. a. spreading activation model c. recency effect b. primacy effect d. maintenance model
primacy effect
Which of the following is believed to result from the storage of a list of items in long-term memory through rehearsal? a. levels of processing effect c. serial position effect b. primacy effect d. recency effect
primacy effect
An implicit memory for how to carry out a skilled movement is called ____. a. procedural memory c. classical conditioning b. priming d. subliminal messaging
procedural memory
Gregory was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, which produces degeneration in the basal ganglia. He likely will experience increasing difficulty with his ____. a. declarative memory c. episodic memory b. procedural memory d. semantic memory
procedural memory
Chunking is the ____. a. recovery of stored information b. process of grouping similar or meaningful information together c. repetition of information d. transformation of information from one form to another
process of grouping similar or meaningful information together
Ways sensory memory can be translated?
Visual codes, Haptic codes, Acoustic codes
Brian cannot remember whether he told his parents that he would be bringing his three roommates over for dinner on Sunday, or if he had just reminded himself to tell them. Which of the following statements best describes processing in this type of scenario? a. False memories regarding external sources account for the discrepancy. b. False memories regarding internal sources account for the discrepancy. c. Source monitoring can serve as a checkpoint. d. We are largely unable to distinguish between internal and external sources of information.
We are largely unable to distinguish between internal and external sources of information.
What is the basis for the effectiveness of the method of loci? a. The method provides mnemonics to store memories. b. Explaining material to someone else points out our gaps in understanding. c. We form excellent representations of visual images in memory. d. Distributing practice over time consolidates memories.
We form excellent representations of visual images in memory.
Proactive interference
When NEW information blocks the ability to recall OLD information
Retroactive interference
When OLD information blocks the ability to store NEW information.
Jerome's prefrontal cortex was damaged as a result of a skiing accident. He retained his semantic and procedural knowledge of how to drive a standard shift automobile. Jerome would most likely have problems recalling which of the following? a. How to parallel park b. How to find his way about in his home town c. How to check the oil level d. Who taught him to drive a standard shift or how old he was when he learned
Who taught him to drive a standard shift or how old he was when he learned
What type of partial reinforcement depends on the number of times a behavior occurs?
ratio
Based on his experiments with rats in mazes, Edward Tolman believed that ____.
rats developed a cognitive map for where they could find food
Benicio is studying for his Sensation and Perception exam by explaining terms and concepts to his friend Catherine in his own words and by providing self-referential examples. This is called ____. a. mnemonics c. distributive practice b. recitation d. the method of loci
recitation
recognition vs. recall tasks
recognition task: T/F or matching exam questions. Providing very complete cues being the information is right in front of you. recall tasks: essay exams, info must be retrieved from memory than recognized as correct given less cues more difficult to answer.
decay
reduction in ability to retrieve rarely used information over time
Sara allows her dog, Isabel, to run freely at a local park. As Isabel is chased by several other dogs, Sara notices that Isabel's hair rises up along her spine. Isabel's response illustrates ____.
reflex
Mr. Langley's former high school Latin students are holding a reunion twenty-five years later. He surprises them with a vocabulary game show quiz. His students most likely ____. a. retained much of the vocabulary they knew in high school b. forgot much of what they knew due to the passage of time c. could remember about 35% of the vocabulary d. found that they could not remember a thing
retained much of the vocabulary they knew in high school
A set of expectations about objects and situations is called a(n) ____. a. template c. mindset b. episodic memory d. schema
schema
The process of storing autobiographical information ____. a. requires maintenance rehearsal c. results from focused attention b. seems effortless d. benefits from the use of mnemonics
seems effortless
Marcus, a psychology major, is participating in his professor's research study. The study requires Marcus to repeat back word lists, which, in his short-term memory, are translated into ____. a. acoustic codes c. auditory codes b. visual codes d. semantic codes
semantic codes
Regarding organization in long-term memory, what area has been most researched? a. procedural memory c. semantic memory b. episodic memory d. implicit memory
semantic memory
autobiographical memory
semantic of episodic memories that reference the self. viewed as if reliving or watching on film cognitive psychologists are curious about, bc we don't store them intentionally, effortless, provides a sense of consistency of the self, helps build social bonds with others throughout lifespan
Declarative memories are consciously retrieved memories that are easy to verbalize and include ____. a. semantic, episodic, and autobiographical information b. explicit and implicit memories c. semantic, procedural, and autobiographical memories d. non-declarative and implicit aspects
semantic, episodic, and autobiographical information
The first stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model involved the retention of large amounts of incoming data for very brief amounts of time. This is called ____. a. iconic memory c. sensory memory b. short-term memory d. echoic memory
sensory memory
According to the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory, information flows through three stages. What illustrates the correct flow of information in this model? a. sensory input, short-term memory, and long-term rehearsal b. sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory c. short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory d. sensory memory, short-term rehearsal, and long-term memory
sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
Schemas
set of expectations about objects and situations. Details that are consistent with our schemas are more likely to be retained. Appear to be very important in the process of memory storage . SELF is one of the most important schemas
Elizabeth Loftus eyewitness memory
set out to evaluate the reliability of eyewitness testimony in courtroom settings and discovered that memories are rather flexible. Ex. Car crash/glass we may overwrite old memories with new effectively erasing the original OR we simply form new memory that coexists with the old og. memory
The second stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model holds a small amount of information for a limited time. This is called ____. a. sensory memory c. working memory b. short-term memory d. iconic memory
short-term memory
Three conditions must be met for punishment to have any observable effects on behavior: ____.
significance, immediacy, and consistency
As Ronnie hears a song on the radio, she feels stressed: her heart races, her hands became clammy, and her breathing became rapid. The song is familiar because it was very popular at a time when her parents were going through a divorce. During this time, they fought bitterly with one another, causing Ronnie intense anxiety. In this scenario, identify the following in the same respective order: the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response, and the unconditioned response.
song; parents fighting; anxiety towards song; anxiety towards parents fighting
Acoustic codes
sounds and words "echoic/iconic memories" last somewhat longer than visual codes
Greg, who mainly smoked cigarettes when out with friends, recently quit smoking. However, each time he visits a bar or restaurant with his friends, he has the strong urge to light up a cigarette. This is an example of ____.
spontaneous recovery
Tom often smokes while studying in his apartment. Of course, he cannot smoke during his exams. This may make retrieval of the material more difficult because of ____. a. state-dependent memory c. context-dependent memory b. episodic memory d. short-term memory
state-dependent memory
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon reflects that retrieval is a(n) ____. a. all-or-none process b. erratic step-by-step process c. step-by-step process that moves closer to the target d. completely unpredictable process
step-by-step process that moves closer to the target
According to Rescorla and Wagner, the association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is strongest when the association is ____.
surpriseing
semantic memory
a general knowledge memory in the form of word meanings or facts. Ex. which NFL team won the last superbowl?
Which of the following techniques would be most helpful to Hannah while studying for her Gender and Society exam? a. massed practice b. pulling an all-nighter c. reading her notes quickly and repetitively d. taking practice tests
taking practice tests
Visual codes
temporary storage of visual images
A cue is ____. a. the transformation of information from one form to another b. the process of grouping similar or meaningful information together c. a memory aid that links new information to well-known information d. a stimulus that aids retrieval of information
a stimulus that aids retrieval of information
levels of processing
the depth of processing applied to information that predicts its ease of retrieval, explains elaborative rehearsal
Acquisition
the development of a learned response, requires close proximity between the CS and the UCS
The spreading activation model accounts for the results of the lexical decision experiments that demonstrate priming by explaining ____. a. our unconscious daily responses to non-real words b. the quicker decision time with related words c. the strong connections between unrelated words d. the organization of related words in short-term memory
the quicker decision time with related words
Your text discusses recovered memories of childhood abuse. In the absence of proof, the authors recommend ____. a. assuming the memories are confabulations b. encouraging the detailed recovery of repressed memories c. reliving the experience to reduce the traumatic effect d. therapy aimed at relieving distressing symptoms without reference to their source
therapy aimed at relieving distressing symptoms without reference to their source
Recognition tasks are easier than recall tasks because ____. a. they provide cues based on personal experience b. they provide fewer cues c. they provide more cues d. they provide widely accepted cues
they provide more cues
procedural memory
type of implicit memory
What type of stimulus elicits a response without prior experience
unconditioned
Ways STM can be translated?
acoustic codes, representing sounds, visual codes, representing images, semantic codes
The development of a learned response is called ____.
acquisition
From the bottom up, the gateway to information processing is attention, which prioritizes ____. a. encoding, storage, and retrieval b. thinking, problem solving, and language c. sensory adaptation, survival, and consistency d. unfamiliar, changing, or high-intensity stimuli
unfamiliar, changing, or high-intensity stimuli
A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response after a varying period of time is reinforced is called a(n) ____.
variable interval schedule
Based on the findings of Garcia and Koelling, which type of stimuli would be most effective for training birds?
visual stimuli
When Frederic Bartlett's study participants recalled the story he had read to them twenty hours earlier, they ____. a. recalled it nearly verbatim b. added random details to the story c. added details that fit with the meaning of the story d. added details that were in jarring contrast to the story
added details that fit with the meaning of the story
A flashbulb memory is ____. a. the detailed memory of a milestone event based on photographs b. the limited memory of a negative event, as though blinded by the light c. the intrusive memory of a traumatic event experienced by someone with PTSD d. an especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event
an especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event
Jenna, a recovering drug addict, attends counseling sessions so that she will no longer associate the sight of a needle and syringe with an expected drug effect. During the counseling sessions, Jenna handles a syringe without receiving any drugs as her counselor pairs a new signal with the sight of the syringe: a favorite song of Jenna's. The method used here illustrates the use of ____.
an inhibitory conditioned stimulus
Vicarious reinforcement
witnessing somebody else getting reinforced for a behavior raises the likelihood that we will imitate the behavior. At the same time witnessing that other person getting punished for the behavior should reduce the likelihood that you will copy it.
4 necessary cognitive processes in the modeling of others' behaviors
attention (more likely to elicit imitation), retention (retain memory of what the model did), reproduction (reproduce the behavior), and motivation
The information processing continuum flows both from the bottom up and the top down. What is the correct order of steps in this process, starting from the bottom up? a. cognition, memory, learning, perception, sensation, attention b. attention, sensation, perception, learning, memory, cognition c. attention, perception, sensation, cognition, memory, learning d. cognition, learning, memory, attention, sensation, perception
attention, sensation, perception, learning, memory, cognition
Under the spreading activation model, which of the following concepts or properties would have the weakest connection with the word "rose" for most people? a. aunt c. red b. flower d. fragrant
aunt
Which condition is characterized by a lack of gesture and facial expression imitation during infancy and deficits in empathy and social skills later in life?
autisim
What is an adaptation of the short-term memory model that involves the active manipulation of multiple types of information simultaneously? a. chunking c. the central executive b. rehearsal d. working memory
working memory
Semantic or episodic memories that reference the self are called ____. a. autobiographical memories c. self-reflective memories b. procedural memories d. nondeclarative memories
autobiographical memories
Ella is a participant in a study using the lexical decision task technique. To which pair of real or non-real words would she likely have the fastest response time? a. table - resk c. building - house b. dup - loor d. egg - tree
building - house
Carlos asks Laura to write down her phone number and e-mail address. He promptly loses the slip of paper. However, he finds that he stills remembers them both. This is possible because ____. a. of the nature of rehearsal within working memory b. of the passive nature of storage involved with working memory c. working memory can manage more than one type of information at a time d. working memory processes information as visuospatial memories
working memory can manage more than one type of information at a time
The effect of our motivations on our retrieval of memories ____. a. can be one of distortion such that the original information is hardly recognizable b. can exist but is unlikely to affect current attitudes or actions c. has not been substantiated by research studies d. is primarily one of mild distortion, like a ripple in a pond
can be one of distortion such that the original information is hardly recognizable
The "magic number 7 plus or minus 2" refers to the ____. a. capacity of short-term memory c. duration of semantic memory b. duration of short-term memory d. capacity of semantic memory
capacity of short-term memory
Will is ten years old and preparing for a spelling contest. He is starting to memorize the spelling of the word antidisestablishmentarianism. He realizes that he can group the letters into anti, dis, establish, and so forth. This process is called ____. a. rehearsal c. consolidation b. chunking d. encoding
chunking
Based on a patient's prior experience with medicine, which mode of learning is likely responsible for the efficacy of the placebo effect?
classical conditioning
When he was nine years old, Mike tried shrimp for the first time; but felt ill shortly after. To this day, he cannot bring himself to eat shrimp. This is an example of ____.
classical conditioning
Sonia first trains her new dog by saying "good dog!" before giving him a food treat. She then trains her dog to sit and stay, saying "good dog!" when he provides the correct behavior; while continuing to periodically provide a food treat. Sonia is using which method(s)
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
A classic method of measuring the retention of material in long-term memory over time is to ____. a. conduct MRI scans of the brain at annual or biennial intervals b. measure levels of cortisol and other hormones c. test and re-test regarding the same material at regular intervals d. compare the rate of learning material the first time to the rate of learning the same material a second time
compare the rate of learning material the first time to the rate of learning the same material a second time
interference
competition between newer and older info in memory
Interference is ____. a. a decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory b. the reduction in ability to retrieve rarely used information over time c. a failure to retrieve negative memories d. competition between newer and older information in memory
competition between newer and older information in memory
A reaction that is learned through classical conditioning is referred to as a(n) ____.
conditioned response
Jean has an intense fear of bears, including large teddy bears, and often discusses the topic. She thinks that a bear attacked her in the family's living room when she was young, and that there was a party going on at the same time. Her mother recently found a video of her daughter's fourth birthday party in which her uncle held his gift, a large teddy bear, in front of his face and growled ferociously. This indicates that Jean's memory of the bear attack is likely ____. a. repression c. suppression b. confabulation d. truth
confabulation
What theory views the mind as an interconnected network made up of simpler units? a. constructivist theory c. connectionist theory b. computational theory d. correlational theory
connectionist theory
Declarative/Explicit memory
consciously retrieved memories that are easy to verbalize. Reffered to as explicit bc they are typically assesed in a very conscious direct and effortful manner. which include: semantic, episodic, and autobiographical info
Contiguity
contiguity + contingency = better learning. contiguity + less contingency = reduced learning
Contingency
correlation between CS and UCS
Ashley is studying a list of vocabulary words for her psychology exam. Which of the following would be most effective for recalling definitions during the exam? a. cues based on her own experiences c. cues suggested by her study partner b. cues provided by the textbook d. cues recommended by her professor
cues based on her own experiences
Anita and Bev change their mind and agree that it is easiest simply to meet at Bev's dorm. Bev gives Anita her room number and passcode. Anita likely will be able to retain this information in short-term memory, without additional processing, for ____. a. a second or less c. about two minutes b. 30 seconds or less d. a maximum of five minutes
30 seconds or less
According to Miller, what is the magic number of bits of info we can hold in our short-term memory?
7 +/- 2
Inhibition
A feature of classical conditioning in which a CS actually predicts the nonoccurrence of an UCS.
Semantic memory
A general knowledge memory (ex. Columbus sailed the blue in 1492)
Discrimination
A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli.
Episodic memory
A memory for personal experience (ex. think of it like "episodes" of your life)
Shaping
A method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur.
Research suggests that children over-imitate adults ____.
A modified cage containing levers or buttons that can be pressed or pecked by animals and is used to investigate operant conditioning is referred to as a ____.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits a response without any prior experience.
Systematic desensitization
A type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear.
Systematic Desensitization and overcoming fear
A type of counterconditioning in which ppl relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear.
Primacy effect
Able to recall the first part of information in a list item
Recency effect
Able to recall the last part of information in a list of items
Punishment
Always decreases the frequency of a behavior
Reinforcer
Always increases the frequency of a behavior
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An environmental event whose significance is learned through classical conditioning.
Instinct
An inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli. Also known as fixed action pattern.
Sensitization
An increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one very strong stimulus.
What distinguishes a reflex from an instinct?
An instinct is a more complex behavior than a reflex.
Implicit memory
An unconscious memory; also known as a nondeclarative memory.
Which of the following is an example of nonassociative learning?
Andrea recently learned how to drive a car. At first she found merging into highway traffic very stressful, but now can do it with ease.
Law of Effect
behaviors followed by unpleasant and harmful outcomes would be less likely to occur in the future whereas behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes would be more likely to occur in the future Cat escaping maze box become quicker as it has more successive trials. repeated effective behaviors and abandoned ineffective ones.
Keller and Marion Breland, two of B. F. Skinner's former students who used operant conditioning to train animals for entertainment, encountered ____.
biological boundaries
Garcia and Koelling's findings prompted a renewed interest in ____.
biological influences in learning
Brian watches the Boston Celtics games on TV. According to Bandura, what would motivate Brian to try to imitate the Boston Celtics?
Brian's friend improved his three point shot after mimicking the shooting style of one of the Boston Celtics.
Declarative memory
Consciously retrieved memories that are easy to verbalize, which include semantic, episodic, and autobiographical information; also known as explicit memories
Positive punishment
Consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior by applying an aversive stimulus (ex. hit your sibling, get spanked).
How can extinction be avoided with operant conditioning?
Continuously reinforce a behavior, even after it is learned.
non declarative memory/ implicit
difficult to discuss, unconscious Classical Conditioning, Procedural memories, Priming
The current state of scientific evidence indicates that subliminal messages ____. a. influence behavior when they occur below the objective threshold of awareness b. do not influence behavior unless they involve backmasking c. influence behavior when they occur between the subjective threshold and the threshold of conscious awareness d. do not influence behavior
do not influence behavior
Derek is frustrated that his one-and-a-half year old dog does not let him know when he needs to go outside to urinate. Sometimes he comes home to find a mess near the door. Which training method is most likely to be successful?
Derek takes his dog outside on a fixed schedule and promptly gives him a treat for urinating outside.
Five ways to improve memory
Distribute practice over time (spacing effect), take tests (seriously though), sleep (don't pull an all-nighter), recite, and use mnemonics.
Which of the following statements about semantic and episodic memories is true? a. Semantic memories can result from a single, personal experience. b. Episodic memories provide us with an objective understanding of the world. c. Semantic memory contains specific information about events, objects, and people. d. Episodic memory is organized as a timeline.
Episodic memory is organized as a timeline.
Who was part of a team that demonstrated persistent changes in the strength of synapses responsible for several types of learning in the sea slug? a. Frederic Bartlett c. Eric Kandel b. Elizabeth Loftus d. Henry Molaison
Eric Kandel
Albert
Fears could result from classical conditioning. Albert associated fear not only with the furry rat (#1) but later with furry santa mask, fur coat, dogs
In one of Elizabeth Loftus's research experiments, she superimposed real family photos of her study participants onto a picture of a hot air balloon. What was the result? a. Very few participants thought they had taken a balloon ride. b. Fifty per cent of participants "remembered" having taken the balloon ride in childhood. c. Almost all of the participants remembered the details of the day including their age at the time. d. Most of the participants were confused as to whether they had taken a balloon ride.
Fifty per cent of participants "remembered" having taken the balloon ride in childhood.
Long term memory
Final stage of the AS model that is the location of permanent memories
Fixed interval (FI) schedule
First response following a specified interval will be reinforced.
Sensory memory
First stage of the AS Model that holds large amounts of incoming data for very brief amounts of time "1 second or less"
Doris is memorizing some chapter definitions for an economics quiz. For each defined term, she repeats the definition and uses the term in a sentence. She is engaging in ____. a. elaborative rehearsal c. explicit learning b. chunking d. maintenance rehearsal
elaborative rehearsal
Alex is starting his day. Which of the following represents a procedural memory? a. He grimaces at the sound of the alarm clock. b. He brushes his teeth. c. He reads the morning newspaper. d. He forgets his keys.
He brushes his teeth.
Bandura/Modeling/Aggression
Identified 4 necessary cognitive processes in the modeling of other's behavior: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
How is STM useful?
If STM were capable of holding dozens of pieces of info versus nine or less this search process would be difficult. The brief duration of STM ensures that room will be freed up regularly for incoming information. Use info then discard, use info w/ out overburdening our storage capacities.
What indicates that imitation provides adaptive advantages?
Imitation is frequently used in the animal world.
Which of the following is a nondeclarative memory? a. Mike remembers learning how to ski as a teenager. b. In a spelling contest, Larry misremembers the spelling of the word mnemonic. c. Juan feels happy when he smells the scent of the perfume that his mother wore. d. Ryan remembers how to play chess the way that his grandfather taught him.
In a spelling contest, Larry misremembers the spelling of the word mnemonic.
Ron is about to leave his apartment. His keys are not where he usually tries to leaves them - on his bureau. He starts to retrace his steps from the night before and realizes that he should look in the bathroom, as this was his first stop upon arrival. This reflects the process of ____. a. reconstruction c. flashbulb memory b. encoding specificity d. decay
encoding specificity
What is the correct ordering of the processes of memory? a. storage, encoding, and retrieval c. encoding, storage, and retrieval b. retrieval, storage, and encoding d. encoding, retrieval, and storage
encoding, storage, and retrieval
Matt remembers visiting Disney World and SeaWorld in Florida with his family when he was eight years old. This is an example of ____. a. procedural memory c. episodic memory b. autobiographical memory d. semantic memory
episodic memory
Roger is preparing for his final exam in Bioethics. The most difficult type of question for him on the exam, in terms of memory retrieval, will most likely be ____. a. essay c. matching b. true-false d. multiple choice
essay
Baddely's model of Working Memory
Information in working memory can be actively manipulated, + can manage multiple types of information simultaneously
Which of the following most accurately describes eyewitness testimony in the courtroom setting? a. It is considered to be uniformly precise and reliable. b. Errors in testimony are usually due to the witness's premeditated intent. c. It can be affected by the words attorneys use when framing questions. d. Preliminary testimony is considered unreliable; therefore, follow-up questioning is essential.
It can be affected by the words attorneys use when framing questions.
How does the presence of other people alter performance?
It enhances the performance of a simple task but hinders that of a complex task.
Jen and Ed first met while sitting in adjacent seats in the psychology lecture hall. Three years later they were married. What role does autobiographical memory play in this type of scenario? a. It reduces reaction time to respond to predators. b. It changes our response to a stimulus after pre-exposure to related stimuli. c. It provides general knowledge about the world. d. It helps us build social bonds with others throughout the lifespan.
It helps us build social bonds with others throughout the lifespan.
What is a disadvantage of continuous reinforcement?
It is not convenient.
A conscious memory, also known as a declarative memory, is called a(n) ____. a. implicit memory c. procedural memory b. personal history memory d. explicit memory
explicit memory
When Roxie the dog was a puppy, she would jump excitedly on anyone who entered the house; receiving praise for her actions. Now that Roxie weighs 65 pounds, Roxie's owner has asked everyone who enters the house to ignore the dog until she settles down. This scenario illustrates the use of ____
extinction
Mrs. Collora teaches social studies to junior high school students. Two boys in her class often loudly make jokes about the material being discussed. She has tried several techniques without success: 1) ignoring them; 2) encouraging and rewarding them for contributing to the class discussion; 3) removing their opportunities to participate in field trips; and 4) sending them to detention. In the order presented, list the operant conditioning principles she has applied to the situation.
extinction, positive reinforcement, negative punishment, positive punishment
Sarah is having a tip-of-the tongue experience with the name of an Indian restaurant that recently received a great review. She suspects that it may start with a K and consist of two syllables, but all that comes to mind is Canton or Colorado. Which of the following choices would be the most likely name of the restaurant? a. Curry Palace c. Chaudhury's b. Kebab Express d. Kashmir
Kashmir
Encoding specificty
Memories incorporate unique combinations of information when encoded.
Negative reinforcement
Method for increasing behaviors that allow an organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence (ex. open an umbrella, don't get wet and cold from rain).
A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response after a specified period of time will be reinforced is called a ____.
fixed interval schedule
Negative punishment
Method for reducing behavior by removing something desirable whenever the target behavior occurs (ex. stay out past curfew, grounded for a week).
Which of the following describes how learning changes neural structure? a. Neurons have larger numbers of axon terminals following sensitization. b. Neurons have smaller numbers of axon terminals following sensitization. c. Neurons have larger numbers of axon terminals following habituation. d. Neurons have larger numbers of axon terminals following habituation and sensitization.
Neurons have larger numbers of axon terminals following sensitization.
Mirror neurons
Neurons in our brain that aid imitation.
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs after a set number of behaviors is called a ____.
fixed ratio schedule
