Psy-201 Chapter 7

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

neutral stimuli (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally— naturally and automatically— triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

discrimination

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced. (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

What do punishment studies imply for parenting?

-Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents' punishing behavior. -Physical punishment does not replace the unwanted behavior. -Punishment teaches discrimination among situations. -Punishment can teach fear. -Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling violence as a way to cope with problems.

To reinforce your own desired behaviors (perhaps to improve your study habits) and extinguish the undesired ones (to stop smoking, for example), psychologists suggest taking these steps

-State a realistic goal in measurable terms and announce it. -Decide how, when, and where you will work toward your goal. -Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior. -Reinforce the desired behavior. -Reduce the rewards gradually.

Justina wishes to make a 10-minute meditation session part of her morning routine. Based on research described in the textbook, Justina should meditate every day for just over _____ days to ensure that meditation becomes a habit.

60

The idea that an animal's natural behavior patterns did not matter and had little or no effect on the effectiveness of operant conditioning principles was challenged by research conducted by:

Keller and Marian Breland.

Which statement is evidence for the environmental, rather than the genetic, transmission of aggression?

Monkeys who were reared apart from their mothers and exposed to high levels of aggression showed greater aggression as adults.

Which statement is false with respect to operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning involves respondent behavior.

_____ refers to a biological predisposition to learn particular associations.

Preparedness

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.

reinforcement schedules

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Conditioned reinforcers

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

operant behaviors

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence.

Evolved tendencies for species to learn some behaviors more easily than others are called _____ constraints on learning.

biological

John Garcia

challenged the prevailing idea that all associations can be learned equally well. While researching the effects of radiation on laboratory animals, Garcia and Robert Koelling (1966) noticed that rats began to avoid drinking water from the plastic bottles in radiation chambers.

The textbook states that "by watching models, we experience vicarious reinforcement . . . and learn to anticipate a behavior's consequences in situations like those we are observing." The term vicarious links observational learning MOST directly to:

cognitive learning.

Kate has a kind of picture in her head of her hometown, a mental representation of its layout and the location of key landmarks such as rivers, buildings, freeways, and parks. This representation is called a(n):

cognitive map.

In a replication of Bandura's Bobo doll study, children observe an adult model behave aggressively toward a doll. The children then observe another adult tell the model, "Good job!" The model received _____ reinforcement for behaving aggressively.

conditioned

Edward L. Thorndike's research with cats demonstrated that behavior changes because of its consequences. Favorable consequences lead to the behavior being repeated, while unfavorable consequences make the behavior less likely. Thorndike referred to this as the law of _____.

effect

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

In classical conditioning _____ is the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus, while in operant conditioning the organism's response to similar stimuli is also reinforced.

generalization

conditioned stimulus (CS).

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

Acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box ) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Variable-ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. ( Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

An experimenter visits a preschool with a big box of markers and paper. The children are told that they can draw as many pictures as they want. The children enjoy the task very much. On another visit, the children are told that, for every picture they draw, they would earn a prize. Two weeks later when the experimenter returned, he offered up the markers and paper for play but said that no prizes would be given. The children played very little with the markers because extrinsic rewards can undermine _____ motivation.

intrinsic

Behavior driven by rewards, rules, and responsibilities is to extrinsic motivation as behavior motivated by enjoyment, satisfaction, or challenge is to _____ motivation.

intrinsic

Ty's mother is frustrated that he will not spend the time on his schoolwork that he does practicing and playing baseball. Ty will spend hours practicing in the hot sun every summer day without a coach telling him to do so. Ty's dedication to baseball can be explained by:

intrinsic motivation.

Learning that occurs internally and is expressed behaviorally only when there is sufficient incentive to do so is called _____ learning.

latent

observational learning

learning by observing others.

associate learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

now psychology's most famous research—are classics, and the phenomenon he explored we justly call classical conditioning

Both Watson and Pavlov believed that psychology should study only _____ and _____ psychological phenomena.

objective; observable

Learning by imitating the behavior of others is called _____ learning. The researcher BEST known for studying this type of learning is _____.

observational; Bandura

Connecting events is to _____ as acquiring mental information is to _____

operant conditioning; cognitive learning

behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

prosocial

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Findings from Garcia's research on taste aversion in rats indicate that:

rats are more likely to develop aversions to taste than they are to sights or sounds.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedules

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Classical conditioning focuses on _____ behavior, whereas operant conditioning focuses on _____ behavior.

respondent; operant

Which idea is NOT one of Pavlov's major contributions to the field of psychology?

that his methods demonstrated the importance of subjective judgments

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

According to Bandura's theory of observational learning, portrayals of violence on television are more likely to be imitated when:

violent behavior is performed by the hero or another attractive, high-status individual.

Which list contains an item that does NOT fit?

voluntary, respondent behavior, classical conditioning