PSY 379 - CH 5: STRESS
within each neuron....
electrically charged ions hold the potential for an electrical discharge. The discharge of the potential produces a small electrical current that travels the length of the neuron (across the synaptic cleft)
neurons function _________________
electrochemically
Nervous System "route"
eurotransmitters are released by the stimulation of neural impulses, flow across the synaptic cleft, and are immediately either reabsorbed or inactivated.
Daily Hassles
events of everyday life - arguing with a spouse, traffic, balancing work/family/life physical environment: - noise, pollution, crowding Psychosocial environment: - discrimination, type of job, balance of work/family
what do the glands of the endocrine and neuro-endocrine system secrete
hormones
Endocrine system "route"
hormones are synthesized by the endocrine cells, and released into the blood, reach their targets in minutes or even hours, and exert prolonged effects.
the flight or fight stress response may be more representative of what
how males react to stress compared to females. - females behavioral responses may be more "tend and befriend" - meaning women release the hormone Oxycontin, which is linked to social activities such as bonding affiliation. (seeking and giving social support rather than fighting of fleeing. and women seek out comfort when stressed more than men)
personal control =
individuals who are confident they have some control over their lives are better able to cope with stress
social support =
individuals with a strong social network are better able to cope with stress - may encourage adaption of healthier habits and increase confidence in ability to handle stressful situations
alarm stage
initial response to stressor; - the body defenses againts a stressor are mobilized through activation of the sympathetic nervous system. adrenaline (epinephrine) is released, heart rate and blood pressure increase, respiratoin becomes faster, blood is diverted away from the internal organs toward the skeletal muscles, sweat glands are activated and the gastroningestinal system decreases its activity.
Lazarus Psychological Factors:
the effect that stress has on a person is based more on that persons feelings of threat, vulnerability, and ability to cope than on the stressful event itself. - a life even is not what produces stress; rather it is one's view of the situation that causes and even to become stressful.
each physiological reactions to stress begins with what
the perception of stress
emotional disclosure
therapeutic technique in which people express their strong emotions by talking or writing about negative events that precipitated those emotions. -self-reflection and focusing on positive aspects of experience -effective in helping people with physical problems
emotional disclosure
therapuetic technique in which people express their strong emotions by talking or writing about negative events that precipiated thsoe emotions.
true or false; the nervous system and endocrine system work closely together
true
cognitive behavior therapy
type of therapy that aims to develop beliefs, attitudes, thoughts, and skills to make positive changes in behavior -With help of therapist, the individual would identify and clarify problems, learn new cognitive and behavioral skills to help cope with the problem, and practice these new skills -An effective treatment for both prevention and management of stress and stress-related disorders
Cataclysmic Events
unique and powerful events that could be intentional (tetroist attacks) or unintentional (natural disaters) -these events can cause people to experience depression and post traumatic stress disorder.
Endocrine system
consists of ductless glands distributed throughout the body
2 index of stress
cortisol and epinephrine
Harm =
damage that has already been done (illness or injury)
what do most of the physiological reactions/changes of the somatic nervous system serve for (what does it do to/for the body)
direct flow to of blood and oxygen to the skeletal muscles, enabling the organism to mount a quick motor response to a potentially threatening event.
diseases of adaptation:
diseases related to continued, persistent stress
3 different ways to define stress
stimulus response interaction
coping =
strategies that individuals use to manage the distressing problems and emotions in their life
stessor = stress =
stressor = stimulus stress = response
neurotransmitters are diffused across the _______________
synaptic cleft
allostatic load =
the "wear and tear" that occurs due t prolonged activation of the psysiological stress responses. - may be responsible for health problems such as high blood pressure and insulin resistance
the perception of stress results in
the activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (fight or flight)
fight or flight response
the body is readying to either attack or escape.
General Adaptation Syndrome:
the body's generalized attempt to defend against a stressor
Central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
disadvantages of using self report measures
people may over-report some events and under report other events.
Lazarus View of stress
- 1984 - conceptualized stress as being determined by the person - its not the enviromental event (stressor) nor the persons response (stress), but rather the persons PERCEPTION of the situation that determines what is stressful
why is high internal locus control good in coping with stress
- feelings of not being in control may increase cortisol production - however control may be more important for people in western societies
Evaluation of Selye's view of stress
- led to much research on how people experience stress - however, his view may be too simplistic (we many not respond to all stressors the same way - his view also ignores situational and psychological factors.
Cortisol:
- most important hormones released from the adrenocortical response (adrenal cortex) - so closely related to stress that the level of cortisol in the blood can be used as an index of stress. - assessed in the saliva and urine
epinephrine
- refered to as adrenaline - produced exclusively in adrenal medulla - index of stress. - assessed in urine
Behavioral interventions for managing stress
- relaxation training - cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) - emotional disclosure
nervous system and endocrine system similarities
- share, synthesize and release chemicals. * nervous: neurotransmitters * endocrine: hormones - have communication and control functions both work toward integrated, adaptive behaviors. - interact in neuro-endocrine responses
key points of Lazarus view of stress
- sress is interactional or "transactional" = between a person and the environment - person's appraisal is key in determining what is stressful - stress arises when the situation is threatening, challenging, or harmful.
questions that one askes oneself during secondary appraisal
- what options are available to me - what is the likelihood that i can successfully apply the necessary strategies to reduce this stress - will this procedure work - that is - will it alleviate stress.
Hans Selye
-1956 - first conceptualized stress as a stimulus and focused his attention on the environmental conditions that produce stress - he shifted his focus to stress as a response that organisms makes. -
Reactions of the sympathic nervous system (6)
-increase in the rate and strength of heart contractions -increase in rate of breathing -constriction of blood vessels in skin -decrease in gastrointestinal activity -stimulation of the sweat glands -dilation of the pupils in the eyes.
how do researchers measure stress
-physiological measures -self report measures
General Adaptation Syndrome: - 3 stages that represent response to stressors
1. Alarm stage 2. Resistance Stage 3.Exhaustion stage
Lazarus view on Coping with a stressful situation.
1. Coping is a process, - as it constantly changes and adapts to the situation 2. Coping is not automatic; - it is a learned pattern of responses to stressful situations 3. Coping requires effort 4. Coping is an effort to manage the situation -you need not master the situation
2 major divisons of the nervous system
1. central nervous system (CNS) 2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (5)
1. perception of stress (threatening situation) 2. prompts action ion the hypothalamus 3.hypothalamic response; releases cortictropin-releasing hormone, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete adrenocoricotropic hormone. 4. the adrenocoricotropic hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids, including corisol. 5. the secretion of corisol mobilizes the bodies energy resources, raising the level of blood sugar to provide energy for the cells. It also has an antiflammatory effect, giving the body a natural defense against swelling from injuries that might be sustained during a fight or flight.
2 parts of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
1. somatic nervous system 2. autonomic nervous system (ANS)
What 2 ways (divisions) does the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) respond to the enviroment
1. sympathetic nervous system 2. parasympathetic nervous system (differ anatomically as well as functionally)
the ANS can be activated through 2 routes:
1.direct acivatoni of the sympathetic divisoin which activates the adrenal medulla (adrenomedulary) and 2. indirect direct activation through the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis
Secretion of Cortisol does what
1.mobilizes the bodies energy resources, raising the level of blood sugar to provide energy for the cells. 2. It also has an antiflammatory effect, giving the body a natural defense against swelling from injuries that might be sustained during a fight or flight.
threat=
anticipation of harm
"nonspecific response" =
any stressor (stimulus) would prompt the same stress response
stress-buffering hypothesis
social support lessens harmful effects of stress and protects against disease
nervous system and endocrine system differences
Nervous: - activation of neurons is usually rapid, and the effect is short term 2. neurotransmitters are released by the stimulation of neural impulses, flow across the synaptic cleft, and are immediately either reabsorbed or inactivated. Endocrine: - responds more slowly and its action persists longer. 2. hormones are synthesized by the endocrine cells, and released into the blood, reach their targets in minutes or even hours, and exert prolonged effects.
synaptic cleft:
space between the neurons
2 theories of stress
The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) - Hans Selye Appraisal and perception - Richard Lazarus
challenge =
a persons confidence in overcoming difficult demands.
what neurotransmitters activate the neurons in the Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
acetlycholine and norepinephrine. (each have different effects in different organ systems because organs contain different neurochemical receptors)
Adrenomedulary system:
activates the adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine - the effects occur throughout the body and has effects on the cardiovascular, digestive, and respiratory systems
Prolonged activation creates
allostatic load
what makes up the nervous system
billions of neurons.
psysiological measures of stress include measurements of - advantages: - disadvantages:
blood pressure, heart rate, galvvanic skin response, respiration rate advantage - reliable and direct disadvantage - process may produce stress itself, expensive
resistance stage
body mobilizes to defend against stressor; - organisms adapts to stressor - how long this stage lasts depends on the severity of the stressor and the adaptive capacity of the organism. - if organism can adapt, the resistance stage can continue for a long time - the outward apearance of normal but the bodys internal functioning is not normal. - continue stress will cause continued neurological and hormonal changes which take a tole on the person
Allostasis =
bodys maintenance of an appropriae level of activation under changing circumstances
norephinephrine:
both a hormone and neurotransmitter and is produced in many places in the body besides the adrenal medulla.
sources of stress
cataclysmic events -changes in a persons life history -hassles from everyday life
problem focused coping
changing the source of the stress, such as making a plan to help you solve a problem - overall contributes to good health, especially when dealing with chronic stress
Life Events Scale
checklist of life events - marriage, death, traffic violations
hormones:
chemicals secreted by the endocrine and neuro-endocrine glands into the bloodstream to be carried to different parts of the body. - specialized receptors on target tissues or organs allow hormones to have specific effects, even though the hormones circulate throughout the body. - at the target, hormones may have a direct effect, or they may causes the secretion of another hormone.
neurotransmitters
chemicals that are manufactured in each neuron that are stored in vesicles at the ends of the neurons. the chemicals released from the neurons electrical charge
Catecholomines:
class of chemicals containing norepinephrine and epinephrine.
Neuro-endocrine system
consist of the endocrine glands that are controlled by and interact with the nervous system. - pituitary* -thyroid -adrenal* -pancreas -gonads
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
consists of all other neurons that extend from the spinal cord (and brain) to all other parts of the body.
when is the parasympathetic nervous system active?
its active under normal, non stressful situations. Therefore, the parasympathic and sympathetic nervous systems serve the same target organs but they tend to function reciprocally (or opposite). * as one increase, the other decreases.
2 categories of self report
life event scale and everday hassles scale
Pituitary Gland - location - function
location - in the brain - connected to hypothalamus (structure in the forebrain) Function - master gland; -when stimulated by the hypothalamus, the pituitary glad produces a number (7) of hormones that affect other glands and prompt the production of yet other hormones. - Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
adrenal gland - location - composition - function
location - on top of each kidney composition - adrenal cortex: outer covering - adrenal medulla: inner part function: secrete hormones that are important in the response to stress
Life events
major life events (dealth, divorce, moving,) can be major sources of stress but even minor life events can also be stressful - when people are required to make a change, this can cause feelings of stress
emotion-focused coping
managing emotions that come from stress, such as venting about a problem - can be useful when problem-focused coping is not a viable coping strategy
Everyday Hassle Scale -
measures daily hassles (experienced of every day living that might be threatening to a persons well -being) - traffic, concerns of weight, household chores.
The function of the Sympathetic nervous system
mobilizes the body's resources in emergency, stressful, and emotional situations.
the effects of stress on the body result from our ______________
nervous system
the human nervous systems contains billions of individual cells called
neurons
how to neurons communicate with one another?
neurotransmitters!!! by diffusing across the synaptic cleft (which is the space between each neuron)
according to selys model, stress was a _____________
nonspecific response; a wide variety of stressors could prompt the stress response, but the response would always be the same.
adrenocortical response
occurs when ACTH from the pituitary stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids and cortisol.
Adrenomedullary reponse
occurs when the sympathetic nervous system activates the adrenal medulla. - prompts secretion of catecholamines
exhaustion stage
ongoing response to stressor can lead to depleted resources for the body. - parasympathetic system functions abnormally, causing a person to become exhausted; which results in depression and sometimes even death.
internal locus of control and external locus control
people who believe that they control their lives have high internal locus control people who believe that luck, fate, or the acts of others determine their lives score high on external locus control
Primary aprpraisal
person determines whether the event is irrelevant, bening-positive (good) or stressful (harmful, threatening, or challenging)
Secondary Appraisal
person determines whether they can successfully apply coping strategies to alleviate stress
reappraisal =
person incorporates any new information; can either decreases stress, or increase it
how individuals successfully cope may be determined by what 2 things
personal resources (social support and personal control) and the specific personal coping strategies chosen
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
plays an essential role in the stress response; released form the pituitary gland, and acts on the adrenal gland
the activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system does what
prepares the body for intense motor activity, the sort necessary for attack, defense, or escape.
Autonomic nervous system
primarily serves internal organs and is therefore important in understanding responses to stress
somatic nervous system
primarily serves the skin and voluntary muscles
Lazarus 3 appraisals
primary secondary reappraisal
2 personal coping strategies
problem focused coping and emotion focused coping
function of the Parasympathetic nervous system
promotes relaxation, digestion, and normal growth functions. - its active under normal, non stressful situations.
The direct and indirect routes prepares the body to do what
respond to a variety of stressful situations
Advantage of Self Report
scales can predict occurrence of stress-related symptoms (good predictive validity)
why is stress measured
so researchers can understand how stress affects disease