PSY 420 Chapter 6

Short-term memory is usually encoded ____ and long-term memory is usually encoded ____. a. semantically; acoustically b. acoustically; semantically c. visually; acoustically d. visually; semantically

b. acoustically; semantically

Retroactive interference is caused by new learning occurring ____ we learned the target information and ____ we are asked to recall the target information. a. after; after b. after; before c. after; while d. before; after

b. after; before

_____ of a stimulus and before recall of the stimulus is an example of a task designed to prevent participants from rehearsing. a. Counting backwards immediately after the last presentation b. Counting forwards during the presentation c. Counting backwards after waiting for a minute after the last presentation d. Repeating stimulus list aloud in backwards order after the last presentation

a. Counting backwards immediately after the last presentation

____ occurs when simply the passage of time results in our forgetting. a. Decay b. Interference c. Reconstructive interference d. Unlearning

a. Decay

____ refers to how you transform a physical, sensory input into a kind of representation that can be placed into memory. a. Encoding b. Storage c. Retrieval d. Transfer

a. Encoding

In an effort to remember some grocery items, Andrew visualizes a huge loaf of bread, with a bottle of soda balanced on one side of the bread and a can of soup on the other. Andrew is using ____. a. a mnemonic device b. forced metamemory c. constructive memory d. massed learning

a. a mnemonic device

A typical serial position curve shows that recall of words in a list is best for items ____ of the list and poorest for items ____. a. at and near the end; in the middle b. at and near the end; near the beginning c. near the beginning; in the middle d. near the beginning; at and near the end

a. at and near the end; in the middle

Words at the ____ of a list in a free-recall task are most subject to retroactive interference. a. beginning b. middle c. end d. beginning and end

a. beginning

In ____, we use the physical constraints of our environment to help us remember things (e.g., putting an important document on your alarm clock so you remember to take it to work). a. forcing functions b. physical mnemonics c. prospective memory d. physical persistence

a. forcing functions

Animal research has revealed that cells in the ____ that are activated during initial learning are reactivated during sleep. a. hippocampus b. amygdala c. prefrontal cortex d. cerebral cortex

a. hippocampus

The processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval ____ with each other and are ____. a. interact; interdependent b. interact; not interdependent c. do not interact; interdependent d. do not interact; not interdependent

a. interact; interdependent

An individual can reflect on and use his/her awareness or knowledge to influence thinking. This use of your knowledge about cognitive processes is called ____. a. metacognition b. reflex activation c. persistence d. distributed learning

a. metacognition

Under laboratory conditions, participants seem to ____ recall items that have pleasant associations in comparison to items that have unpleasant associations. a. more accurately b. less accurately c. as accurately d. more or less accurately, depending on context

a. more accurately

When the perpetrator (person who committed a crime) is not present in a line-up, eyewitnesses tend to ____. a. pick an individual who looks most like the perpetrator b. not pick anyone from the line-up c. pick the least attractive individual in the line-up d. pick an individual from the line-up at random

a. pick an individual who looks most like the perpetrator

Seth participated in a memory experiment. He has been instructed to count backwards between the last presentation of a stimulus and recall of the stimulus. This procedure was probably designed to ____. a. prevent participants from rehearsing b. disorient participants about the experiment' purpose c. allow some decay to occur d. increase depth of processing

a. prevent participants from rehearsing

After being given directions to get to the theater, Kurt can remember only the first part of where to turn. This illustrates the ____ effect. a. primacy b. recency c. initial d. availability

a. primacy

Superior recall of words at and near the beginning of a list is referred to as a(n) ____ effect. a. primacy b. primary c. recency d. availability

a. primacy

Tying a string around your finger, keeping a list of things to do, and asking someone to remind you of something are all examples of strategies to improve ____. a. prospective memory b. introspective memory c. retrospective memory d. retroactive memory

a. prospective memory

At a party, Hoshiko was introduced to Steve just as she arrived. Hoshiko then went off to speak with a different group and was introduced to each of them as well. After hearing the new names, Hoshiko could not remember Steve's name. This description best illustrates ____. a. retroactive interference b. proactive interference c. decay d. repression

a. retroactive interference

Encoding of information in the long-term store is primarily ____, but there is also is evidence for ____ encoding. a. semantic; visual b. visual; acoustic c. acoustic; semantic d. visual, semantic

a. semantic; visual

When memory processes are said to occur in order, one after the other, the processing is best described as ____. a. serial b. compound c. parallel d. linear

a. serial

Keppel and Underwood (1962) showed that proactive interference can operate in the forgetting of material stored in the ____. a. short-term store b. long-term store, in general c. long-term store, but only with semantic information d. both short- and long-term stores

a. short-term store

When a person has a difficult time in remembering the context in which they heard the information and erroneously attribute it to a different context, ____ has occurred. a. source-monitoring error b. accessibility error c. encoding specificity error d. context dependent memory error

a. source-monitoring error

Your friend insists that you both saw your cognitive psychology professor dancing, rather laughably, at a local club. Because of ____, you may believe that you actually saw the spectacle when, in fact, you did not. a. suggestibility b. bias c. blocking d. transience

a. suggestibility

In which group is the validity of eyewitness testimony particularly suspect? a. young children b. people with dyslexia c. people with quadriplegia d. adolescent males

a. young children

____ practice refers to learning in which various sessions are spaced over time. a. Paced b. Distributed c. Massed d. Elaborative

b. Distributed

____ is an aspect of cognition that involves thinking about how to remember more effectively, such as by using various mental strategies. a. Consolidation b. Metamemory c. Construction d. Interference

b. Metamemory

____ interference occurs when the interfering material was learned before, rather than after, learning of the to-be-remembered material. a. Retroactive b. Proactive c. Decay d. Reconstructive

b. Proactive

____ refers to how you retain encoded information in memory. a. Encoding b. Storage c. Retrieval d. Transfer

b. Storage

Several recommendations have been made to improve eyewitness testimony. Which of the following is one of those recommendations? a. Present suspects together in a large group in the line-up. b. Tell eyewitnesses that the perpetrator may not be in the line-up. c. Construct line-ups with individuals who look distinctively different. d. Place more trust in confident eyewitness testimony.

b. Tell eyewitnesses that the perpetrator may not be in the line-up.

Enhanced vividness and perceptual detail of our recollections has been associated with ____. a. the person's metacognitive skills b. a memory's emotional intensity c. cognitive maturity d. activation of information in working memory

b. a memory's emotional intensity

The process of taking new information and integrating it with stored information in long term memory is called ____. a. metacognition b. consolidation c. constructive memory d. reality monitoring

b. consolidation

According to ____, the way of representing information as it is placed into memory affects the way in which the information may be recalled later. a. distributed learning b. encoding specificity c. metacognitive strategy d. reconstructive memory

b. encoding specificity

Stephanie has been studying for two exams scheduled on the same day, one for her Spanish class and the other for French. While taking the Spanish exam, she remembers more French than Spanish. Stephanie is most likely to be experiencing ____. a. decay b. interference c. reconstruction d. biasing

b. interference

Whereas ____ theory views one piece of information as knocking out another, ____ theory views the original piece of information as gradually disappearing unless something is done to keep it intact. a. decay; interference b. interference; decay c. availability; interference d. interference; availability

b. interference; decay

Roediger and McDermott have shown that ____. a. it is impossible to create false memories b. it is easy to create false memories c. it is difficult to create false memories d. false memories are more common than true ones

b. it is easy to create false memories

Linton's self-study of autobiographical memory found that her rate of forgetting events was ____. a. circular b. linear c. curvilinear d. exponential

b. linear

The hippocampus shows increased activation during sleep after one has learned new declarative information. This increased activation is correlated with extremely ____ levels of acetylcholine. If patients are given acetylcholine while sleeping, they demonstrate ____ memory for the new information. a. low; better b. low; worse c. high; better d. high; worse

b. low; worse

Words at the ____of a list in a free-recall task are subject to both proactive and retroactive interference. a. beginning b. middle c. end d. beginning and end

b. middle

Jennifer cannot remember where she heard that pigs were very intelligent animals. Roger thinks he read in The Sunday Herald that Death Valley is the warmest spot in the United States; however, he really read about Death Valley in Outside Magazine. These memory lapses are examples of ____. a. suggestibility b. misattribution c. absent-mindedness d. persistence

b. misattribution

After being given directions to get to the park, Galvin can remember only the last part of where he is to turn. This illustrates the ____ effect. a. primacy b. recency c. finality d. availability

b. recency

Superior recall of words at and near the end of a list is referred to as a(n) ____ effect. a. primacy b. recency c. finality d. availability

b. recency

Memory for events that occurred in the past is most accurately termed ____ memory. a. repressed b. retrospective c. anterograde d. retrograde

b. retrospective

The greater recall associated with distributed practice is called the ____ effect. a. distributed b. spacing c. mnemonic d. time-delay

b. spacing

In an exhaustive serial processing search of short-term memory, people generally take ____ amount(s) of time to find a target ____. a. different; depending on where in the list it is located. b. the same; regardless of where in the list it is located. c. the same; as long as the target is one of the first 3 items. d. the same; as long as the target is one of the last 3 items.

b. the same; regardless of where in the list it is located.

____ refers to the idea that particular information has been permanently stored in long-term memory and, hence, can be retrieved. a. Constancy b. Retroactivity c. Availability d. Accessibility

c. Availability

____ memory refers to a memory of an event that is so emotionally powerful that the person remembers the event as vividly as if it were indelibly preserved on film. a. Traumatic b. Photographic c. Flashbulb d. Iconic

c. Flashbulb

____ practice refers to learning in which sessions are crammed together all at once. a. Bulk b. Distributed c. Massed d. Motivated

c. Massed

___ refers to how you gain access to information stored in memory. a. Encoding b. Storage c. Retrieval d. Transfer

c. Retrieval

___ interference occurs when newly acquired knowledge impedes the recall of older material. a. Decay b. Proactive c. Retroactive d. Reconstructive

c. Retroactive

The serial-position curve represents the probability of recall of ____. a. a given word, given its semantic relationship to other words in a list b. groups of words, given their relative order of presentation in a list c. a given word, given its order of presentation in a list d. groups of words, given their semantic relationship

c. a given word, given its order of presentation in a list

Sometimes we know that we know something, like the name of a neighbor from many years ago, but we just cannot bring it to mind. In this situation, we are experiencing difficulty with ____. a. availability b. persistence c. accessibility d. transience

c. accessibility

Research shows that encoding in short-term memory is primarily ____. a. visual b. semantic c. acoustic d. iconic

c. acoustic

In memory studies, the retention interval refers to the time ____. a. the participant needs to encode sensory input into the short-term store b. the participant needs to retain new information in the long-term store c. between the presentation of the last stimulus and the start of the recall phase d. between the presentation of the first and last stimuli within a trial

c. between the presentation of the last stimulus and the start of the recall phase

In which type of rehearsal does the learner try to make the information more meaningful and/or connects the information to other information already learned? a. distributed learning b. consolidation c. elaborative rehearsal d. maintenance rehearsal

c. elaborative rehearsal

Words at the ____ of a list in a free-recall task are most subject to proactive interference. a. beginning b. middle c. end d. beginning and end

c. end

Many people believe that they remember with great detail and vividness the context in which they heard the news that the Challenger space shuttle had exploded. This is an example of a(n) ____ memory. a. constructive b. photographic c. flashbulb d. iconic

c. flashbulb

Reyna won an Olympic gold medal many years ago. Yet, she can still recall with great detail and vividness standing on the podium, medal in hand. This is an example of a(n) ____ memory. a. constructive b. photographic c. flashbulb d. iconic

c. flashbulb

During sleep, the ____ is more active after learning new spatial information. a. prefrontal cortex b. amygdala c. hippocampus d. nucleus acumbens

c. hippocampus

In general, as the amount of learning prior to recall increases, ____ increases. a. availability b. decay c. interference d. construction

c. interference

Results from many studies suggest that the forgetting of information from short-term memory can largely be accounted for by ____. a. decay b. distortion c. interference d. transience

c. interference

Manuela, a college student, has a clear awareness of what she knows and does not know about a particular topic, such that when she needs to study for an exam, she knows exactly what to study to enhance her understanding. This description illustrates ____. a. construction b. clustering c. metacognition d. massing

c. metacognition

You are imagining taking a walk around an area with distinctive landmarks, matching up a landmark with a specific item you need to remember. Which memory technique are you using? a. acronym b. interactive images c. method of loci d. keyword system

c. method of loci

When multiple memory processes are said to occur simultaneously, the processing is best described as ____. a. serial b. compound c. parallel d. linear

c. parallel

Tony keeps mentally reliving the time that he was hit in the head with a Frisbee. This reoccurrence of this memory is an example of ____. a. transience b. misattribution c. persistence d. bias

c. persistence

The notion that some types of memories (e.g., due to trauma) have been "pushed deep into the unconscious" and therefore may be difficult to retrieve is known as ____. a. persistence of trauma b. motivated suggestibility c. repressed memories d. intrapsychic transience

c. repressed memories

On his way to the supermarket, Marcelo remembers that he needs tomatoes and cucumbers. He then remembers that he also needs cheese, eggs, and milk. The order in which he remembered the grocery items illustrates that information stored in long-term memory seems to be primarily encoded ____. a. visually b. acoustically c. semantically d. by relevance

c. semantically

Information stored in long-term memory seems to be primarily ____. a. visually encoded b. acoustically encoded c. semantically encoded d. encoded by relevance

c. semantically encoded

In R. Conrad's (1964) landmark experiment on encoding in short-term memory, Conrad found that despite the fact that letters were presented ____ to participants, errors tended to be based on ____ confusability. a. acoustically; visual b. acoustically; semantic c. visually; acoustic d. visually; semantic

c. visually; acoustic

___ theory asserts that information is forgotten because of the gradual disappearance of the memory trace. a. Availability b. Accessibility c. Interference d. Decay

d. Decay

____ occurs when competing information causes us to forget something. a. Decay b. Reconstructive interference c. Unlearning d. Interference

d. Interference

Which stage of sleep seems to be important for the process of consolidating memories? a. reconstructive stage of sleep b. constructive stage of sleep c. Stage 4 d. REM sleep

d. REM sleep

It appears that although encoding in short-term memory is primarily ____, there may be some secondary ____ encoding, and perhaps even fleeting ____ encoding. a. semantic; acoustic; visual b. semantic; visual; acoustic c. acoustic; visual; semantic d. acoustic; semantic; visual

d. acoustic; semantic; visual

Proactive interference occurs when the interfering material is learned ____ rather than ____ the to-be-remembered material. a. after; before b. after; during c. before; during d. before; after

d. before; after

The difficulty in recalling information that one knows they should know is called ____. a. transience b. misattribution c. persistence d. blocking

d. blocking

When someone has information "on the tip of their tongue," but is unable to retrieve it, ____ is occurring. a. transience b. bias c. persistence d. blocking

d. blocking

Frank is organizing his grocery list into a set of categories in order to remember what he needs to buy at the store. Frank is using what type of memory technique? a. acrostics b. keyword system c. pegword system d. categorical clustering

d. categorical clustering

Marianne took a chemistry course three years ago in high school and has not studied any chemistry since. She believes that the reason why she barely remembers any chemistry is because she has not used it. This illustrates the ____ theory of forgetting. a. interference b. availability c. interactive d. decay

d. decay

Shantell has a cumulative final exam in physics coming up. To ensure a good grade, she has been studying throughout the semester, at least one hour each day. Shantell's studying schedule illustrates ____ practice. a. paced b. massed c. motivated d. distributed

d. distributed

eople tend to learn better when they acquire knowledge via ____ learning. a. paced b. motivated c. massed d. distributed

d. distributed

According to the ____ theory of forgetting, forgetting occurs because new information ultimately displaces old information in the short-term store. a. decay b. availability c. accessibility d. interference

d. interference

The serial-position curve can be well explained in terms of the ____ theory of forgetting. a. availability b. decay c. interaction d. interference

d. interference

By making connections or associations between new information and what we already know we facilitate transfer of information from short-term memory to ____ memory. a. sensory b. working c. semantic d. long-term

d. long-term

In which type of rehearsal does the individual simply repeat the information to be learned over and over again? a. distributed learning b. consolidation c. elaborative rehearsal d. maintenance rehearsal

d. maintenance rehearsal

Even when presented with a seemingly random list of words to recall, people spontaneously cluster the words into categories. For example, when presented with a list like "milk, dog, cat, juice," they might cluster milk and juice together as beverages and cat and dog together as animals. This spontaneous ____ reflects the way memory is structured. a. reality monitoring b. distributed learning c. retrospective memory d. organization of information

d. organization of information

Sandra has just come from studying with some classmates to whom she has just been introduced. She then runs into a good friend who introduces her to David. As Sandra walks away, she realizes that she can't remember David's name. This description illustrates ____. a. decay b. repression c. retroactive interference d. proactive interference

d. proactive interference

Studies show that memory is not just ____, such that we use only what we have encountered to help us rebuild original remembered experience; it is also ____, in that our schemas for prior experience affect how we recall things. a. retroactive; proactive b. proactive; retroactive c. constructive; reconstructive d. reconstructive; constructive

d. reconstructive; constructive

Mnemonic devices are best described as ____. a. experimental devices used in cognitive studies b. strategies for efficient problem solving c. artificial-intelligence algorithms that mimic human reasoning d. specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words

d. specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words

. Joanne is studying for a psychology test. Based on the results of studies examining context effects, Joanne should get the best test results if she ____. a. studies in the library by herself b. studies on her bed in her bedroom c. studies while intoxicated d. studies in the testing room

d. studies in the testing room