Psy 4325 Exam 3
THC physiological effects
#1 study!!!!! THC increases heart rate in a dose-dependent fashion. Time course differs depending on route of administration. Reddening of the eyes. Dryness if the mouth and throat. Pulmonary effects: Acute: - few effects on breathing Chronic - heavy marijuana smoking over a long period could lead to clinically significant impairment of pulmonary function.
Cannabis Withdrawal
-DSM-5: No lifting cannabis withdrawal -withdrawal symptoms does not exist? -not life threatening but unpleasant -begins 1 day after the last dose. -lasts 4 to 12 days. Characterized by three or more: irritability or aggression, nervousness or anxiety, sleep difficulty, decreased appetite or weight loss, restlessness, depressed mood or physical symptoms.
PCP: Mechanism of Action
-Selectively blocks the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptors. -uncompetitive antagonist of glutamate.
Amanita Muscatia (GABA)
-fly agaric -found throughout USA -Muscimol is the primary psychoactive substance. -Dissociative Eating 5-10 results in sever effects of intoxication -muscular twitching -agitation -vivid hallucinations Effects of amanita ingestion are not similar to those of other psychedelics.
Psilocybin
-small brown mushroom that stain blue to touch -illicit cultivation, but also foraged from temperate climates.
Marijuana History: U.S. Regulation
1920s -series of new articles linked marijuana and crime -public interest increased Most early regulation efforts -based on concerns about use and criminal behavior. -concerns were not based on direct evidence
MDMA
A compound drug related to both amphetamines and hallucinogens, especially mescaline; commonly called "ecstasy." Prior to 1985 Some psychiatrists used it as a therapeutic aid. Effects Increased pulse and blood pressure, increased euphoria and sociability, decreased appetite and sleep. Research raised concerns In animals, large doses of MDMA destroy serotonin neurons. Human recreational use is unclear.
Amphetamine Derivatives/Synthetic Catechols
A large group of synthetic psychedelics is chemically related to amphetamines Effects produced by amphetamine derivatives are similar to those produced by mescaline. Ex: MDMA or Ecstacy or Molly
Mescaline (peyote)
A psychedelic drug derived from the peyote psychedelic cactus. The Native American church incorporates peyote into its ceremonies Legal issues In 1990, the Supreme Court ruled that Oregon could prosecute its citizens for using peyote. In 1994, the United States congress passed a law stating that no Indian shall be penalized for peyote use for legitimate traditional purposes.
Peyote Cactus
A small, spineless, carrot-shaped cactus - more than 39 psychoactive compounds have been identified in peyote. Mescaline- primary ingredient in peyote -3mg/kg potent intoxication -Up to 8 to 10 hour duration -Synthesized in 1918 -Agent responsible for the vivid colors and other visual effects -continued religious use in North America -other cacti used in South America
Datura stramoniums
A species of the datura family of plants with hallucinogenic properties. In the United States, the plant is called jimsonweed. Leaves typically cut and unsmoked. Death by ingestion of root.
THC pharmacology
Absorbed rapidly by the blood and travels to the brain and then to the rest of the body. -peak mood-altering and cardiovascular effects occur within 5-10 min. After oral administration -THC is absorbed more slowly -peak effects over about 60-90 min following investion Metabolism -THC has a half-life of 19hours -complete elimination of THC and it's metabolites May take 2-3weeks.
Ketamine (special K)
Acts as NMDA receptor antagonist, but effects at the NMDA receptor are less selective than PCP's. Treat major depressive disorders and produces anti depressive effects at a much more rapid rate than traditional antidepressant drugs. Anesthetic developed to replace PCP, manufactured by Pfizer. Used in human and veterinary medicine. Injected or died and snorted. Feeling of floating or something terrifying bad tip called k hole.
Cannabis: Toxicity potential
Acute physiological effects - increased heart rate - harmful for someone with predicting cardiovascular disease. - no human overdose deaths have been reported. Chronic lung exposure: - most recent research says marijuana is not associated with respiratory symptoms/lung disease. - marijuana smoke contains carcinogens found in tobacco smoke. Similar. Immune system effects - mixed - mortality data do not show a relationship between marijuana and overall death rate. Reproductive effects - reduces testosterone levels in men. - diminishes sperm counts and abnormal sperm in men. - marijuana use by pregnant women does not appear to be associated with negative birth outcomes. Anxiety - fear of loss of control - seek medical treatment. - talking down is best treatment. Driving ability - significant impairment found in users Amotivational syndrome - the hypothesis that users of marijuana exhibit diminished motivation. Marijuana madness - Some studies have found a correlation between marijuana use and psychotic symptoms. Causation - psychotic symptoms prior to using marijuana - influence of other drug use on the psychotic symptoms.
Toxicity Potential
Acute toxicity • Opioids depress the respiratory centers in the brain • Respiratory depression is additive with the effects of alcohol or other sedative-hypnotics • Opioid agonists stimulate the brain area controlling nausea and vomiting • Can be counteracted with naloxone Chronic toxicity • Associated with injection • Sharing needles can result in the spread of blood-borne diseases
Cannabinoid Chemicals
Are only found in cannabis plant
Anticholinergic Hallucinagens (Acetylcholine)
Atropa belladonna: deadly nightshade -Poinson used in Middle Ages -Dwale = cocktail of belladonna and opium -Used to beautify women by dilating pupils Used by plains Indians Active ingredients -atropine -scopolamine -block acetylcholine receptors
THC mechanism of action
Binds to 2 receptors CB1 receptors -found throughout the body(peripheral tissues like liver, lung, kidney) but primarily in the brain. -high density is found in specific brain regions •basil ganglia and cerebellum, involves in movement coordination. • Hippocampus, memory storage • Cerebral Cortex, regulates higher cognitive function. • Nucleus accumbens, involves in reward. CB2 receptors - found mainly outside the brain in immune cells(B cells and natural killer cells • suggests that the cannabinoid play a role in the modulation of the immune system • probably contribute to immunosuppressant and anti-inflammatory effets of cannabinoid a. Existence of other receptors postulated (CBn)
Dronabinol
Brands name: marinol An oral THC used as an antiemetic - approved by FDA in 1985 for sale to cancer patients experiencing nausea from chemo. Used to stimulate appetite - approved by FDA in 1993 for sale to AIDS patients.
Name the one plant from which hundreds of varieties of tea are produced.
Camellia sinensis: An evergreen tea tree The first report of tea that seems reliable is in a Chinese manuscript from around AD 350, when it was primarily seen as a medicinal plant. The nonmedical use of tea is suggested by an AD 780 book on the cultivation of tea, but the real proof that it was in wide use in China is that a tax was levied on it in the same year.
3 types of cannabis
Cannabis Sativa -tall, w/think-woody stem -indigenous to Asia -moderate THC content Cannabis Indica -shorter plant -from India -high THC content Cannabis Ruberalis -short plant, quick growing -Europe, Asia -low THC content
Psychedelics
Capable of altering perceptions while allowing the person to remain in communication with the present world ▪ Provide awareness of both the "fantasy" world and the real world at the same time ▪ Grouped according to their chemical structures: indoles and catechols
Psychedelics can be classified by:
Chemical structure • Their known pharmacological properties • How much loss of awareness they cause • How dangerous they Two major groups • Those that alter perceptions while allowing the user to remain in communication with the present world • Those that produce mental confusion and loss of memory, clouding of consciousness, and absence of vivid sensory effects
Coffee consumption in the US
Coffee use increased following the British Act that taxed tea • To drink tea was to be a Tory ▪ The widespread prohibition of alcohol increased coffee consumption ▪ In 1946, annual per-capita coffee consumption reached an all-time high of 20 pounds • Soft drinks, energy drinks, and bottled water have replaced coffee as the most popular nonalcoholic beverages
After the Marijuana Tax Act
Cost of marijuana increased significantly LaGuardia Report, 1944 - concludes that marijuana use had less serious effects than commonly believed. -Strong negative reactions by some authorities were motivated by factors other than the actual date. Use of marijuana increase throughout the 50s and 60s -use peaked in 70s Marijuana use decreased in the 1980/ but rose again in the 90s.
DXM (Dextromethorohan)
Cough suppressant - also used to boost effects of analgesics if severe pain. - dose 15-30 mg for cough - 4 or more ounces may cause distorted visual perceptions, similar effects to PCP and ketamine. -Robo: internet groups to discuss robo-ing.
THC cognitive effects: Chronic
Difficult to make definitive statements about effects on long term cognitive functioning. - divergent findings and interpretations. After obtaining for more than a month, regular marijuana use produces few effects on cognition.
Opiods
Drugs derived from opium • Synthetic drugs with opium-like effects
Opioid Antagonists
Drugs that block the action of opioids • Examples: Naloxone or nalorphine Effects • Reverse the depressed respiration resulting from an opioid overdose • Precipitate a withdrawal syndrome if given to dependent people • Prevent dependent individuals from experiencing a high from further opioid use Harm reduction strategy • Several cities have initiated programs that provide naloxone to illicit opioid users and their partners, friends, and slash or family members ◦ Results in fewer overdose deaths
Cannabis History
Earliest mention is in 2737 BC in a Chinese pharmacy book -recommended several medical uses 1000 AD: social use of the plant had spread to the Middle East and North Africa - hashishyya religious cult carried out political murders. The word assassin originated from this term. -hashish use is mentioned frequently in the Arabian nights. -1970s, use of marijuana rarely led to cannabis use disorder -late 1980s, several interest groups campaigned for the medical legalization of marijuana. -2009, the US Attorney General directed federal prosecutors to not pursue cases against medical marijuana users complying with state laws. -2011 and 2012, several state and city-level officials petitioned the government to reclassify marijuana as a drug with acceptable medical usage. -2012, residents of Colorado and Washington voted to legalize marijuana for use of any kind, although such state measures can be blocked by the federal government. -2012, both the Netherlands and Canada permit its use for medical purposes.
Psilocybin: Acite and Long-Term Effects
Effects on feelings of spirituality Acute Effects Psilocybin does-dependently induces intense changes in mood, perception, and thought - describe the effects as pleasurable, enriching, and non threatening. - larger doses can cause headaches and strong feelings of dysphoria and anxiety in some individuals. Chronic Effects -relatively little is known -no drug abuse, persisting perception disorders, prolonged psychosis, or other long-term impairment of functioning in any of the participants.
History of Opium
Egypt: 1500 BC: Ebers papyrus described medical uses Greece: had an important role in medicine Arabic world: Opium used as a social drug, physicians wrote widely about use of opium and described opioid addiction Europe: opium used widely beginning in the 16th century, physicians developed a preparation called laudanum (a combination of strained opium and other ingredients) The Opium Wars: 1729 Opium smoking outlawed in China, but smuggling was widespread British East India Company was involved in opium trade: legally in India and illicitly (but indirectly) in China Pressure grew and eventually war broke out between the British and China
Other Sources of Caffiene
Energy drinks ▪ Compete with soft drinks in the market Over-the-counter drugs ▪ Many nonprescription drugs include caffeine, some in quite large amounts ▪ Example: Vivarin
Opioid Abuse after the Harrison Act
Enforcement of the 1914 Harrison Act made opioids difficult to obtain • Only sources of drugs were illegal dealers The act resulted in changes in opioid use patterns • Oral use declined • Primary remaining group of users were those who injected morphine or heroin • Cost and risk of use increased ◦ The most potent method, the intravenous injection of heroin, was favored • Addicts were looked upon as criminals rather than as victims After World War II • Use of heroin increased in low-income areas of large cities • Heroine was inexpensive The 1960s and 70s • Heroin use further increased in large cities • Heroin use was associated with minority populations • In New York, users were prosecuted under the Rockefeller Drug Laws ◦ Strictest drug laws in the United States
Theophylline
Found in tea Bronchodilator (increases airflow to the lungs) is present only in very small, nonpharmacological amounts in the beverage. Theophylline is very effective at relaxing the bronchial passages and is prescribed for use by asthmatics.
Chapter 14: Hallucinagens
Had a big impact in society especially in music culture.
cannabis: preparations
Hashish -most potent preparation -prepared by scraping or breaking of the tiny hairlike trichomes and packing them together, with up to 65 percent THC by weight. -relatively rare in the United States Sinsemilla -a method of growing mor potent marijuana -particular strains are selected and the male plants are removed prior to pollination so that the female plants produce more flowers and no seeds. Extraction -a variety of organic solvents are used to extract THC from the plant material. -plant material may be included in baked edibles.
Psychedelics as treatment
Have positive features pharmacologically -high therapeutic ratio. Negative side effects - hallucinogen persisting perception disorder Also Emprically Supported Treatments for many conditions psychedelics may assist in. -ptsd: prolonged exposure, cognitive processing therapy. BOTTOM LINE: may be helpful for some patients where other therapies don't work, but more research is needed.
Heroin Use in Vietnam
Heroin in Vietnam • Inexpensive • Pure • Easy to obtain About 5.1 percent of 100,000 personnel tested positive for opioids in 1971 • Most users smoked or sniffed the drug because of the purity • Most users stopped when they returned to the United States Important things learned from the Vietnam experience • Under certain conditions, a relatively high percentage of individuals will use heroin recreationally • Heroin addiction is not inevitable among occasional users
Coffee (Caffeine)
History: Originated from the Middle East Legend: Kaldi, an Ethiopian goatherd, and his goats ate coffee berries and danced. The practice of consuming coffee then started to spread ▪1400s: Egypt and other Arabic countries ▪1500s: Throughout the Middle East ▪1600s: Europe Originally, people chewed on coffee beans or put raw beans in hot water All coffee is made from two species: • caffea Arabica: has a milder flavor, takes longer to develop after planting, and requires a near-tropical climate to grow properly • caffea robusta: has a stronger and more bitter flavor and a higher caffeine content ▪ Used in less-expensive blends Over 3 billion pounds of coffee were imported by the United States in 2016 • Brazil supplied the most, followed by Vietnam and Colombia
LSD: Adverse Reactions
Impossible to determine true incidence of adverse reactions - adverse reactions to the street use of what is thought to be LSD can result in factors such as purity, chemical composition, or quantity. Flashbacks - replaces in the DSM-5 by the phrase hallucinogen persisting perception ndivitiadisorder - recurrence if symptoms weeks omg months after an individual has taken LSD. - rare Panic Reactions - intensity of the reactions can range from a. Mild case of increased anxiety to full blown panic attack. Prolonged psychotic reaction - depression/suicide - trigger schizophrenia or pre-existing psychosis
endocannabinoid system
Increases food intake by blocking satiety signals; decreases adiponectin release; decreases insulin sensitivity; increases fat synthesis; alters gastric motility 1964- isolation and characterization of tetrahydrocannabinil from cannabis sativa 1988- discovery of canna I pod binding sites 1990- characterization and cloning of the first cannabinoid receptor in mammalian brain. 1992 - isolation and characterization of the first endingcannabinoid - anandamide
Two Groups of Psychedelics
Indoles • Drugs that have the same basic indole structure of the neurotransmitter serotonin ▪ LSD and psilocybin contain this structure Catechols • Drugs that have the same basic catechol structure of the catecholamine neurotransmitters, norepinephrine and dopamine • Examples: Mescaline and MDMA/Ecstasy
THC cognitive effects: Acute
Infrequent users: marijuana distrusts cognitive performance. - slowed cognitive processing - distrusted short term memory. - distributive inhibitory control. - loss of concentration or vigilance - distrusted visuospatial processing. Frequent users: marijuana causes less dramatic effects. - slowed cognitive processing - frequent users may be tolerant to cognitive effects.
Caffeine withdrawal
Involves three or more: headache, fatigue/drowsiness, dysphoric mood or irritability, difficulty concentrating, and flulike symptoms.
Serotonergic (indole) Hallucinogens
Ipomoea spp Argyria nervosa Psilocybin cubenis
Fentanyl
Made by Paul Janssen in 1960, medical use in the US in 1968 • Synthetic opioid that is 50-100 times more potent than morphine • Added to heroin to increase it's potency • Moves quickly from the blood stream into the brain and binds tightly, making a fentanyl overdose extremely difficult to counteract • "Wooden chest syndrome" • As of 2016, involved in most overdose deaths in combination with other drug (Hedegaard et al., 2018)
The Cannabis Plant
Marijuana is a preparation of leafy material from the Cannabis plant that is smoked Marijuana is classified separately because its effects are varied and complex Sedation Pain relief Hallucinations (in large doses) Effects it produces in most users are sufficiently different from the effects of depressants, narcotics, and hallucinogens to merit its separate classification
Medical Uses of Cannabis
Medical use declined before the 1937 marijuana Tax Act for several reasons - new and better drugs were developed to treat illnesses - variability of product - active ingredient is solvable in water and this cannot be injected - peak dose has delayed onset of uses renewed interest in potential medical uses led to a review of older reports; reduces fluid pressure in the eyes; may relieve tension and migraine headaches; reduces severe nausea caused by certain drugs used to treat cancer (treats glaucoma) To increase appetite in aid patients.
Heroin Production and Purity
Most of the heroin used in the United States is derived from poppies grown in Mexico and Colombia Purity of heroin has increased dramatically in recent years • Mid-1970s through the mid-1980s: purity varied from four to six percent • 1989: the average street purity was 25 percent • Currently: purity ranges between 50 and 75 percent 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health • Only about 1 percent of Americans reported ever having used heroin • 0.3 percent reported use in the past year
Trichocerus spp Erowid Cacti
Most popular source of non-sacramental mescaline in the U.S. isn't peyote. Can be found anywhere
Mechanism of Action for Opioid receptors
Natural activators of opioid receptors: Enkephalins: found in brain extracts • Act like morphine and are many times more potent Endorphins: morphinelike substances found in brain tissue • Have potent opioid effects Endogenous opioids and opioid drugs have actions on several types of opioid receptors • Mu and kappa: play a role in pain perception • Delta: play a role in pain perception, but their role appears to be limited to chronic pain When opioids bind to opioid receptors • Promote potassium conductance • Inhibit calcium conductance • Effect of this depends on location of receptor Spinal cord • Inhibit transmission of pain information to the brain Periaqueductal gray • Inhibition of pain signaling in the spinal cord via medulla Anterior cingulate cortex • Reduce emotional impact of pain
Prescription of narcotic analgesics
Natural products • Morphine and codeine Semisynthetics • Heroin and diamorph Synthetics • Methadone, meperidine, oxycodone, oxymorphone, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, dihydrocodeine, propoxyphene, pentazocine, fentanyl
Opium Cultivation
Opium can be collected for only a few days of the plant's life Opium harvesters make shallow cuts into the unripe seedpods in the evening • A white substance that oozes from the cuts during the night oxidizes to a red-brown color and becomes gummy ◦ Scraped from the pod and collected in small balls in the morning Opium products • Morphine is extracted from raw opium • Heroin is derived from raw opium
Chapter 13: Opium
Opium is a naturally occurring substance derived from the poppy plant, Papaver somniferum. Has a 6,000-year-long history of medical use
Chocolate or cocoa (Theobromine) "Food of the Gods"
Ordinated from the Americas The Aztecs called the cocoa tree "Theobroma," which means "food of the gods" Legend: Cacao tree was a gift to humans from paradise from the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. ▪Aztecs cultivated cacao widely ▪The cacao bean was an important part of their economy and culture Prior to 1828, the traditional Aztec procedure was used to produce chocolate ▪ Cacao pods (Cacao trees) were dried in the sun and roasted before removing the husk ▪ Kernels in the pods were ground to obtain a thick liquid called chocolate liquor ▪In 1828, a Dutch patent was issued for the manufacture of "chocolate powder" by removing about two-thirds of the fat from the chocolate liquor ▪ The fat that was removed was called cocoa butter
Phencyclidine (PCP)
Originally developed as a general anesthetic in the 1950s by Parke Davis. BY 1960s, characterized as - an excellent analgesic for monkeys - a medically safe but psychologically troublesome anesthetic for humans -effects on body persecution. Licensed to use as animal anesthetic under brand name sernylan. ANGEL DUST: sprinkled onto herbs such as oregano and parsley and sold as marijuana in the 1970s. -inexpensive/easy to manufactur
Beneficial uses of Opioids
Pain relief • Reduce the emotional response to pain • Diminish the patient's awareness of and response to the aversive stimulus • Typically cause drowsiness but do not induce sleep Treatment of intestinal disorders • Counteract diarrhea and the resulting dehydration • Decrease the number of peristaltic contractions, which is the type of contraction responsible for moving food through the intestines Cough suppressants • Codeine has been widely used for its antitussive properties • Dextromethorphan is more selective in its antitussive effects ◦ Produces hallucinogenic effects at high doses
HPPD (Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder)
Perception of visual hallucinations long after taking a hallucinogen, not better attributable to another medical or psychiatric condition. Not really flashbacks- it is more of a continuous distortion of perception. Symptoms - won't see imaginary people - trailing of moving images, geometric hallucinations, flashes of color, halos around objects. - can cause great distress while mental mindset is intact. - depression is often comorbidly present.
Abuse of Prescription Opioids
Popular prescription opioids Hydrocodone • Examples: Vicodin and Lortab Oxycodone • Examples: OxyContin and Percocet Prevalence of use 2015: 1.4 percent of Americans aged 12 and older reported nonmedical use in the past month • Routes of administration include oral, insufflation, and injection Safety concerns • Most opioid overdoses occur in combination with a sedative such as alcohol • DAWN data: prescription opioids rank 3rd for ER visits and 1st for deaths Evolving policies impacting overdose rates from prescription drugs?
LSD (serotonin)
Potency of the drug attracted attention • Comparable effects from mescaline would require 4,000 times the dose of LSD ▪ One of the most potent psychoactive drugs ▪ No known human overdose deaths ▪ LD50 is about 400 times the behaviorally effective dose
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
Primary psychoactive agent in Cannabis THC is concentrated in the resin -Over 400 chemicals in plant. -70 unique to cannabis Major active metabolite is 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC Potency of cannabis preparations depends on the amount of resin present. -cigs made from flowering tips may contain up to around 20 percent THC. -cigs made from leaves have as little as 1 percent THC UNREGULATED PRODUCTION.
Dissociative Anesthetics (glutamate)
Produce effects by acting as antagonists of glutamate -blacks up the ion channel that is opened when glutamate binds to its receptor. -phencyclidine (PCP) -ketamine (special K) -Dextromethorphan- Roboing Effects - amnesia, analgesia, perceptual disturbances "hallucinations, coma.
Mescaline Pharmacology
Rapidly absorbed if taken orally Metabolism Half-life is about 6 hours Effects Low dose effects are primarily euphoric Higher doses cause the full set of hallucinogenic effects Most mescaline is excreted unchanged Psychoeffective dose causes sympathetic arousal LD50 is about 10 to 30 times the dose needed to cause behavioral effects Tolerance develops more slowly to mescaline than to LSD Cross-tolerance between LSD and mescaline
Decaffeinated coffee
Removing caffeine from the coffee bean • The most common method in the United States ▪ Soaking unroasted beans in an organic solvent, such as methylene chloride, removes the caffeine ▪ People have raised concerns about residues of the solvent remaining in the coffee The Swiss water process ▪ Removes more of the coffee's flavor ▪ Not used on a large commercial scale in the United States ▪Caffeine removed from coffee is used in soft drinks • Coca-Cola owns one of the largest decaffeinating companies
THC behavioral effects
Self-Administration - young adults self administer smoked marijuana and oral THC THEY KNOW. Under controlled laboratory conditions, participants prefer: - marijuana cigarettes with higher THC content - more oral THC during period of social interaction -Abuse potential for oral THC is modest at best -Experienced marijuana smokers can readily distinguish THC related effects -cannabis self administration is influenced by social factors. Subjective effects - euphoria, high, mellowness, hunger, and stimulation. - infrequent users experience similar but much worse effects compared to experience smokers. - at high THC concentrations, infrequent users may report negative effects such as mild paranoia. Food intake - significantly increased by marijuana and oral THC. Verbal Behavior - verbal exchanges decrease - nonverbal social interactions increased.
Anticholinergic Psychedelics
Solanaceae - family of plants in which all the genera, Atropa, Hyoscyamus, Mandragora, and Datura are found. Three pharmacologically active alkaloids are responsible for the effects of the plants - altropine or di-hyoscyamine -scopolamine or I-hyoscine - I-hyoscyamine All potent central and peripheral cholinergic blocking agents. Blocks the production of mucus in the nose and throat. Prevents salivation - Mitch becomes dry and perspiration stops. Temperature can increase to fever levels Heart rate increases Pupils of the eyes dilate, resulting in an inability to focus on nearby objects Behavioral effects -at high doses, mental confusion, loss of attention, drowsiness, and loss of memory for recent events.
Catechol Hallucinogens (norepinephrine)
Structures resemble catecholamines - dopamine - norepinephrine However, probably work by augmenting serotonin receptors Peyote cactus XTC
Marijuana Tax Act of 1937
Taxed the grower, distributor, seller and buyer of marijuana. Also required docs to pay an annual license fee to prescribe marijuana This is the ________ ___ ____ __ _____ State laws made possession and use illegal. 1969: United States Supreme Court declared the marijuana tax act unconstitutional.
Synesthesia
The blending of different senses such as seeing sounds.
Xanthine
The class of chemicals in which caffeine belongs.
U.S. policy that cannabis is a schedule 1 drug:
The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse. - how did it compare to alcohol (not scheduled, just like tobacco)? The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. - 99 percent in reduction of seizures There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision. - various ways active ingredients from cannabis can be extracted and used.
Tea (Theophylline) (Caffeine)
The origin of tea can be traced back to China ▪ Camellia sinensis: An evergreen tea tree ▪ Legend: Daruma, the founder of Zen Buddhism, cut off his eyelids to remain awake while meditating ▪ A plant grew from the spot where his eyelids touched the earth ▪ Leaves from that plant can be brewed to make a stimulating drink ▪Dutch delivered the first tea to Europe in 1610 ▪English East India Company ▪ Expanded imports of tea from China as the market for tea increased ▪ Became a monopoly once Britain banned Dutch imports of tea in 1669 ▪Profit from the China tea trade induced the English to switch from coffee to tea Theophylline is present only in very small, nonpharmacological amounts in tea ▪ Prescribed for use by asthmatics
Caffeine
The world's most common stimulant, used daily by more people than any other psychoactive drug. Found in coffee, soft drinks, OTC drugs • Used regularly by many individuals ▪There is evidence that caffeine can: • Cause dependence • Interfere with normal functioning
Opioid Abuse Before Harrison Act
Three types of opioid dependence were spreading in the United States • Oral intake via patent medicines • Opium smoking introduced by Chinese laborers • Injection of morphine ◦ The most dangerous form of use Percentage of Americans addicted to opioids at the start of the 20th century was: • Probably greater than at any other time before or since • Possibly as high as 1 percent of the popul Initially, opioid dependence was not viewed as a major social problem • Opium smoking was limited to certain ethnic groups • Patent medicines were socially acceptable • Opioid addiction was viewed as a "vice of middle life" Typical user • 30- to 50-year-old middle class white woman • Purchased opioids legally as patent medicines
Dependence Potential
Tolerance • Develops to most effects ◦ If used for pain relief, dose is increased to maintain constant effects • Cross-tolerance exists among all the opioids Physical dependence • Opioid withdrawal is unpleasant but rarely life-threatening • Withdrawal symptoms can be prevented with any opioid agonist ◦ Clonidine can diminish the severity of withdrawal symptoms Fast-acting injectable opioids are most likely to lead to dependence
Cannabis Tolerance
Tolerance to many marijuana effects develops after high levels of regular use. may not develop uniformly to all effects.
Salvia divinorum (kappa opioid)
Traditional method of using the plant include chewing the leaves, brewing tea from crushed leaves, or smoking the dried leaves Active agent: Salvinorin A, kappa opioid receptor agonist. Related to sage plants/mint family Does not grow in the United States naturally but can be cultivated. Mexican origin. Very potent; can be produced terrifically dysphoric effect.
Effects of THC depends on:
What: Type of cannabis used How much: amount of THX contained in the cannabis. How: the way the drug is taken. - smoking - eating - combined with other drugs? Who: Experience of user Where: setting in which it is used. Why: Expectations of user.
Ergotism
a condition caused by fungal contamination of grains resulting in headache, vomiting, diarrhea, and gangrene of the fingers and toes.
Theobromine
a xanthine found in chocolate Its physiological actions closely parallel those of caffeine, but it is much less potent in its effects on the central nervous system.
Ch11: Xanthine family of stimulants
caffeine, theobromine, theophylline
Heroin
narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive In 1974, two acetyl groups were attached to morphine to yield diacetylmorphine • Marketed with the brand name Heroin by Bayer Laboratories in 1898 Three times as potent as morphine • Heroin enters the brain more rapidly since the two acetyl groups increase the lipid solubility of the heroin molecule Originally marketed as a nonaddictive cough suppressant that would replace morphine and codeine • Heroin was later linked to dependence
Morphine
narcotic drug derived from opium, used to treat severe pain Morphine is the primary active ingredient in opium ◦ First isolated in 1806 ◦ Named morphium after Morpheus, the god of dreams ◦ 10 times as potent as opium Morphine use spread because of two developments • Technological development ◦ 1853: Hypodermic syringes allowed delivery of morphine directly into the blood Political development ◦ Widespread use during war provided relief from pain and dysentery to soldiers ◦ Veterans returned addicted to morphine • Addiction was later called "soldier's disease" or the "army disease"
Major Effects of Opiods
• Relieve pain and suffering • Deliver pleasure and relief from anxiety
Animism and Religion
▪ Animism • Belief that objects attain certain characteristics because of spirits contained within • If a plant contains a spirit, then eating the plant transfers this spirit to the person who consumes it Plants with psychoactive effects • May have been important in the development of spiritual and religious traditions and folklore in many societies all over the world
LSD: Pharmacology
▪ LSD is usually taken orally • Absorbed rapidly from the gastrointestinal tract ▪ Metabolism • Metabolized by the liver • Excreted as 2-oxy-lysergic acid diethylamide, which is inactive • Half-life of the drug is about three hours ▪ Tolerance develops rapidly, usually within three to four days of daily doses • Cross-tolerance can occur among L S D, mescaline, and psilocybin ▪ Physical dependence to LSD or to any psychedelics has not been demonstrated ▪ Best evidence indicates that LSD and other psychedelics act by stimulating serotonin-2 A subtype of receptors Most likely, LSD works by binding to and activating serotonin-2A receptors. ***If you give serotonin antagonists, you block the hallucinogenic effects. Rats will generalize to other indole and catechol hallucinogens, but not other types (i.e., PCP).
LSD: Psychological and Behavioral Effects
▪ Modification of perception, particularly of visual images ▪ Intense visual hallucinations ▪ Resurfacing of memories Users report an altered sense of time, changes in the perception of their own bodies, and alterations of auditory input ▪ Loss of self-boundary Synesthesia or "mixing of senses" ▪ Example: visual picture might alter in rhythm with music
Psychotomimetric Drugs
▪ Psychotomimetic means "mimicking psychosis" ▪ Implies that the drugs produce dangerous effects and a form of mental disorder ▪ Produce hallucinations and some altered reality, a state similar to psychosis
Hallucinogens are grouped according to primary NT system responsible for effects
▪ Serotonin ▪ Norepinephrine ▪ Acetylcholine/Anticholinergic ▪ Glutamate (our primary excitatory NT) ▪ GABA (our primary inhibitory NT) ▪ Kappa opioid
Behavioral Effects for Caffeine
▪ Stimulation ▪ Caffeine partially offsets fatigue-induced decrement in the performance of motor tasks ▪ Caffeine prolongs the amount of time an individual can perform physically exhausting work ▪ Headache treatment ▪ Helps relieve both migraine and nonmigraine headaches ▪ Hyperactivity treatment ▪ High doses may decrease hyperactivity ▪ Sobering up? ▪ Caffeine does not lower blood alcohol concentration, and there is little evidence that it will help a person sober up
Chocolatl meaning
▪ Was a thick liquid, like honey, flavored with vanilla ▪ From the Mayan words choc meaning "warm" and latl meaning "beverage"
Coca-Cola (Caffeine)
▪Developed as a "nerve tonic" in the late 1800s ▪ Ingredients ▪ Caramel and fruit flavoring ▪ Phosphoric acid ▪ Caffeine ▪ Cocaine, in small amounts Name was conceived to indicate the nature of its two ingredients with tonic properties: coca leaves and cola, or Kola, nuts ▪Today, the coca leaves are decocainized and shipped to the Coca-Cola Plant in Atlanta
Caffeine Pharmacology (Caffeine, Theobromine, Theophylline)
▪Mechanism of action • Xanthines block the brain's receptors for a substance known as adenosine Adenosine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter or neuromodulator ▪ Acts in several areas of the brain to produce behavioral sedation by inhibiting the release of other neurotransmitters ▪Physiological effects • Stimulates the CNS and skeletal muscles • Causes sleep disturbances • Elevates mood • Constricts blood vessels in the brain ▪ May explain the ability of caffeine to reduce migraine headaches Time course • Caffeine is absorbed rapidly if taken orally ▪ Peak blood levels are reached 30 minutes after intake ▪ Half-life is about three hours ▪Dependence • Caffeine is reported to have reinforcing properties • Withdrawal symptoms include headaches, increased fatigue, and decreased sense of vigor • DSM-5 does not list caffeine under substance use disorders
Caffeine: Causes for concern
▪Overall, there is no clear evidence that moderate caffeine consumption is dangerous ▪Cancer The 1984 American Cancer Society nutritional guidelines indicated that caffeine is not a risk factor in human cancer ▪Reproductive effects High consumption of caffeine reduces a woman's chances of becoming pregnant, increases the chances of miscarriage, and slows the growth of the fetus Heart disease ▪High intake of caffeine may increase the risk of heart attacks, particularly in people with other risk factors ▪ Small amounts of coffee may lower the risk Caffeinism or excessive use of caffeine ▪ Toxicity is relatively low ▪ 100 cups of coffee would be required to cause death ▪ Caffeinism can cause unpleasant symptoms such as Nervousness, irritability, tremulousness, muscle twitching, insomnia, flushed appearance, elevated temperature, palpitations, heart arrhythmias, and gastrointestinal disturbances
