Psy 657 Unit 1

Hypotheses based on E Theories Ex:

"Lee Harvey Oswald shot President Kennedy"

Abraham Maslow

(1970) His theory of motivation, a pioneer of humanistic psychology, proposed that humans have a number of innate needs which are arranged in a hierarchy in terms of their potency. Maslow groups these needs into five categorical levels: physiological, safety, love, esteem and self actualization. Once an individual has satisfied the cluster of needs at a particular level, he or she is able to progress to the next hierarchical level

We don't have adjectives about people that are without...

values

Ch 3: if we choose to analyze a sequence of events purely at the conceptual level,

we could say that psycholigocal event causes another psychological event

Table ot Erikson's stages of Psychosocial development

1, Basic Trust v Mistrust, 0-1, Hope (positive outcome) 2, Autonomy v shame and doubt, 1-3, Will 3, Initiative v Guilt, 3-5, Purpose 4, Industry v inferiority, 5-12, competence 5, Ego identity v Role Confusion, adolescence, Fidelity 6, Intimacy v Isolation, Young adult, Love 7, Generativity v stagnation, adulthood, care 8, Ego integrity v despair, maturity, wisdom

Ch 6: Heraclitus

5th Century Greek Philosopher, used the term "enantiodromia" to refer to polar opposites. The concept of polar opposites in the human condition is a theme that runs throughout the writings of the Swiss psychiatrist Carl G Jung. Jung believed that the failure recognize the opposite tendencies within ourselves leads inevitably to the feeling of being torn apart; thus, to live a whole and healthy life, we must learn to accept and integrate our inherent enantiodromia.

Example

An observer is likely to explain homeless people's condition as being due to characterological or personality factors (lazy, addiction, etc) These attributions fai. to take into account the situational factors that can perpetuate homelessness such as a lack of affordable housing, job scarcity, discrimination, etc

Levy chapter 1

Because of the evaluative bias of language, we must become aware of our own personal values and be careful how we communicate these values. In other words, we should avoid presenting our value judgments as objective reflections of truth. It also should alert us to the value judgments inherent in other people's use of language and to the fact that in many cases the words they use tell us as least as much about them as the events and individuals they are attempting to describe

Reification Error

Confusing a hypothetical concept as if it were a tangible thing. the problem in psychology is that we frequently confuse concepts or constructs with objects. Andthat is what we're talking about when it comes to the reification error. Ex: the unconscious, self esteem, ego

Constructs vs. Human Made Events

Constructs are human-made ideas, to represent our ideas about things that we cannot see directly. So for example, gravity isn't an actual law. It's an idea created by scientists to explain why objects appear to be attracted to each other. Events, by contrast, are observable or have the potential to be observed if adequate tools were available. For,example, an apple falling from a tree is not gravity. It is an apple falling from a tree. Gravity is the invention we have to explain why the apple seems to fall-- well, not seems to, falls from the tree downward to earth.

Chapter 2

Correctness is an inappropriate criterion for evaluating these theories. They should be judged, instead, solely in terms of their usefulness or lack therof. Don't make the mistake of reifying Costruct Theories. Remember that Type C Theories are not objective facts "somewhere out ther," just waiting to be stumbled upon. Rather, they are human-made constructions-fragile and imperfect- that represent our best attempts to explain the world around us

Subjective vs Objective

Descriptions= more or less objective Evaluations=more or less subjective Objective description and subjective evaluation difference: words we use both describe and evaluate Subjective: "he's hot, she's cold" evaluative; cute cuddly calm Objective: "this water's cold/hot" objective; feline, black fur, yellow eyes

Point of Critical Distinction

Despite many similarities, this point (PCD) where two phenomena differ (apples and worms are both not animals)

Inoculation Theory

Developed by William McGuire to answer the question of "How can we resist attitude change?" This theory of attitude change, which essentially proposed that people are more resistant to the effects of persuasive communications after having been exposed to weak counterarguments

Masking

Differences can mask similarities (cultural differences- "people who are Jewish have no idea what it's like to be African American") and similarities can mask differences (stereotyping- "all women are sensitive")

Third variable may also be present causing A and B to occur, ex: pre-genetic disposition that is causing mood disorder and creativity to occur

Ex: Let's say in this example, we are looking at variable A as being sexual dysfunction and variable B as being anxiety. So variable A, sexual dysfunction, variable B, anxiety. All right. So here, we could have sexual dysfunction, A, causing anxiety. If the man has difficulty getting an erection, or premature ejaculation, or the woman has difficulty achieving orgasm, that certainly can cause anxiety. That would be A causing B. But of course, B could be causing A. If one is anxious, that is almost never going to help any sexual dysfunction. Ifsomebody is anxious, that's probably going to impair the very things they're worried about-- having an erection,premature ejaculation, achieving orgasm. And then we have the bi-directional case, where sexual dysfunction and anxiety are involved in a bi-directional loop,where one is the cause, the other is the effect, and then they switch roles. And let's take a look at, of course, the thirdvariable, where in this context, let's say you have a critical partner. Well, that can certainly cause both sexualdysfunction and anxiety.

Event Theory

Explanations to questions that allow for direct measurement Answers to questions with measurable solutions "Who shot president kennedy?" Can be verified/translated into fact Have the potential for true/false distinction

Sources of Error

In the course of evaluating similarities and differences between any phenomena, we are subject to committing errors in two directions: first by allowing genuine differences to be obscured by similarities, and second by allowing genuine similarities to be obscured by differences.

Prescribing the symptom or paradoxical intention

In which a therapist gives the client a directive that he or she actually wants resisted; the resulting changes takes place as a consequence of the defying the therapist. This technique is utilized to undermine clients' resistance to change by which paradoxically instructing them not to change, or even to deliberately engage in the unwanted undesirable behaviors. In effect, the therapist's directives are precisely the opposite of the desired goal.

E and C Theories in Clinical Practice

Instead of asking a Pseudo-question of fact and treating a construct like an event: "Does the client have depression?" Ask a question of utility: "How well does the concept of depression help to explain the client's current symptoms and level of functioning?"

Continuous Variable

Instead of being in mutually exclusive categories, they lie ona continuum. Continuous variables-- events in which there are an infinite number of points lying between polar opposites. Put another way, the shades of gray between black and white. Examples include weight, temperature, distance, age. Ex: the multiple shades of grey between black and white Weight, temperature, distance, age

Causal Loop

It is also possible that there is a bi-directionalrelationship between the two variables, A and B, between creativity and mood disorders Ex: kids behavior to act out is causing parent's cold behavior and/or parent's cold behavior is causing the kid's emotional distress

Correlation

It simply means a co-relationship between two variables. A correlation occurs when two or more variables are in a relationship where one variable gives us information about the other relationship. So if we have a correlation, it allows us to predict relationships based on statistical probability, and it gives us an idea of both the direction-- that is, positive or negative-- and the degree to which variables are related. So if we have any two variables, A and B, and they're correlated, we can, in essence, predict from one variable to the next. There is a striking correlation among mood disorders and level of creativity

It's a bi-directional relationship between emotions and thinking, that emotions cause thought and thoughts cause emotion.

It's a bi-directional relationship between emotions and thinking, that emotions cause thought and thoughts cause emotion.

Belief Perseverance Effect

It's our tendency to cling to our beliefs, even in the face of contrary evidence. And not just cling to the beliefs-- we'll use dis-confirming evidence to bolster our beliefs.

Ch 9: A Barnum Statement is..

a personality interpretation about a particular individual or group that is true of practically all human beings. In other words, it is a general statement that has "a little something for everybody".

David Hume

More than 200 years ago, he pointed out the values, ethics, and morality are based not on logic or reason, but on the sentiments and public opinions of a particular society. Thus, no description of human behavior, however accurate, can ever ordain what is "right" or "wrong" behavior. Makes no difference studying table manner, religious convictions, political beliefs, etc.

A theoretical construct can't produce...

a physical symptom. In like manner, biological events do not cause solely psychological events.

T. H. Huxley

Once noted that the "cosmic process has no sort f relation to moral ends." His assertion notwithstanding, our view of nature itself is subject to the Naturalistic Fallacy. This happens when we equate what is "natural" with what is "right.." Or when we proclaim that "things are as they should be"

Motivational biases

Refer to systematic mistakes that derive from our efforts to satisfy our own personal needs, such as our desire for self-esteem, power, or prestige. Simply put, motivational biases serve the function of making us feel better (usually about ourselves) even if they do so at the expense of distorting, obscuring or falsifying reality

Reaction Formation

Sigmund Freud conceptualized this ego defense mechanism which involves the unconscious transformation of unacceptable impulses into their opposite and more acceptable forms

What is responsible for these attributional errors?

Social psychologists have identified two principal sources: cognitive biases and motivational biases

How to De-Barnumize

Use modifiers. Use adjectives. And be specific about details. Ex: She has difficulty tolerating rejection (this is true for practically everyone) becomes....she has moderate difficulty tolerating rejection from her peers. Its a degree and has a context, it's more specific.

Erik Erikson

Theory of Psychosocial development (1950) theorized that all humans pass through a series of eight developmental stages, which stretch from birth to death. Each stage is characterized by a developmental conflict, problem or crisis. If the crisis has a positive resolution, the person's ego is strengthened by gaining a "virtue" which results in greater adaptation and a healthier personality. But, if the crisis has a negative resolution, the ego loses strength, resulting in inhibited adaptation an an unhealthier personality. For instance, if a young child's conflict between initiative and guilt has a positive resolution, he will emerge with the virtue of purpose; a negative outcome however, would result in a sense of unworthiness

Construct Theories

These are not directly measurable, because their explanations are intangible. A construct theory can never be proven. I'll repeat that again for dramatic effect. A construct theory can never be proven. Just because something cannot be disproved does not mean it is true. while we can cite examples of constructs in our worlds, this does not mean we can directly observe them. This isback to the same example. An apple falling from a tree is an example of what we can observe. However, we cannotsee gravity in and of itself.

Depression/Anxiety Similarities

They are similar in that they both involve emotional distress and discomfort and disturb sleep. Depression Anxiety Differences: Well, for depression, we have sadness, whereas, anxiety, it's more about fear,depression, fatigue, anxiety, restlessness. With depression, there is low, physiological arousal. With anxiety, there is high physiological arousal. With depression, it's more about the past. We tend to ruminate about things that didn't goright. Whereas, anxiety is more about the future, worrying about things that might go wrong Same with anxiety and excitement- share similarities and differences

Contiguity-Causation Error

This mistake involves arriving at the erroneous conclusion that a cause and effect relationship exists between two events simply because the events occurred next to each other in time (that is based on their temporal contiguity)

What can we conclude about the Fundamental Attribution Error?

This simple but powerful principle probably is the single most important lesson of twentieth century social psychology. Whenever you attempt to explain someone's behavior, never underestimate the power of the situation.

Ch. 4 Nominal Fallacy

Typically involves circular or tautological reasoning. A tautology is an unnecessary repetition of an idea or statement, using different words that essentially say the same thing twice. For example, "people who care about others have empathy;therefore, people who have empathy care about others"

CH 11: Although we typically tend to think of causal relationships as being...

Unidirectional (Event A causes Event B) frequently they are bidirectional (Event A causes Event B and vice versa) Variables can and do affect each other. This relationship is also referred to as a causal loop or "healthy spiral" or "vicious cycle" depending if we like it or not

Making dispositional attributions provides us with...

an illusion of control. We are prone therefore, to exaggerate our perceptions of controllability. Our illusion of control may lead us to blame people for the bad things that happen to them.

Critical Evaluation of Theories

We should evaluate E, or event theories, based on their accuracy, their potential to yield a factual answer. However, we must evaluate construct theories based not on their accuracy, but on their utility or usefulness, the ability to provide meaningful explanations of abstract ideas that cannot be operationalized. Failing to evaluate a theory correctly leads to the pursuit of what we call pseudo-questions, because we don't know the answer. It isn't really a question of whether the unconscious exists or not.

Love vs Psychosis

Well, they are both constructs. They're not real events. They're both humanexperiences. They both involve distorted perceptions, They're both considered irrational. But only one of them is a clinical DSM diagnosis (PCD)

The Barnum Effect

You have a small capacity for a reason, some basic tool making skills, and the use of a few simple words. Examples: For example, you have self-esteem issues. Everyone has self-esteem issues. You have a tendency to question your decisions. Well, everyone has a tendency to question their decisions. You have difficulty accepting criticism. Well,everybody has some difficulty accepting criticism. How about she has ambivalent feelings toward her mother?Everyone has ambivalent feelings toward their mother or father. a Barnum statement is an overly inclusive generalization that is true of practically every person or every sociocultural group. And we commonly see them or hear them in astrological forecasts and fortune cookies and political platforms and self-help books but unfortunately, in the offices of psychotherapists.

Ch 15: Behavior is due to...

a combination of many factors, both internal and external, that vary in the degree to which they are responsible for causing a person's actions. However, in arriving at causal attributions, we have a tendency to overestimate people's dispositions and underestimate their situation.

Ch 13: Remember that causation is not necessarily...

a dichotomous variable (ie causal v noncausal) Instead, causation can lie on a continuum with regard to its degree, magnitude or weight. Next, attempt to assess the approximate proportion that each cause contributes to the outcome, keeping in mind that not all causes are equal. Finally don't automatically disregard, ignore, or rule out causes solely because they possess less weight. In short, before reaching conclusions, consider the relative contribution of all possible causes.

Every psychological event has...

a neurological correlate, but differences in neurochemistry is not the same as disease

Ch 10: A correlation is

a statement about the relationship or association between two or more variables. Correlations thus enable us to make predictions from one variable or event to another. That is, if two events are correlated then the presence of one event provides us with information about the other event. A correlation does not however necessarily establish a causal relationship between the variables. In other words, cause and effect cannot be proven simply by virtue of correlation

t's possible, although not common, for a correlated relationship to

also be a causal relationship. Sofor example, unprotected intercourse is both correlated with and a cause of pregnancy. But correlations do not prove causation. So to summarize, knowing what occurs does not, per se, explain why it occurs. We can predict outcomes,but not necessarily causes. So when there is a correlation, consider all possible pathways of causation.

Depending on the variable

all phenomena have some similarities So apples and worms, they're both entities, they'reboth living, they're both terrestrial, they're both small, and, yes, in some circles, they are both food

All phenomena...

are both similar to and different from each other, depending on the dimension or variables that have been selected for purposes of evaluation, comparison and contrast. Further, no phenomenon is totally identical or totally unique in relation to other phenomena. Finally, the degree of similarity or uniqueness revealed between any two events is a function of the relevant points of critical distinction (PCD)

In a nonlinear (or multiplicative) combination...

by contrast, the effect cannot be explained without necessarily taking into account at least two causes In other words, a nonlinear combination requires making statement about a third variable. (C1xC2xC3)

Personality disorders are...

constructs while the behaviors are real

Language can...

describe and prescribe. There are very few neutral adjectives. Value judgements are inherent in the use of language Words are frequently used to persuade others The words we use often tell us more about ourselves than about who or what we are observing

Similarities obscured by differences (and vice versa)

examples of race with stereotyping (diff) and oppression of multiple groups (sim..Jewish and African American example)

Do not confuse name with...

explanation Remember that labeling something does no explain it. Finally, learn to recognize tautologous reasoning. Remind yourself that although tautologies may have appearance of being logical, tey an invalid method of proof.

The critical thinking principle here is that we tend to...

force things into all-or-none categories, that in fact should lie on a continuum. Ex: Addiction is a matter of degree rather than dichotomous, like sleeping, overeating, reading, these are all a matter of degree

Ch 5: A common goal of cognitive therapy approaches is to

help clients modify their black or white thinking into seeing more "shades of grey". By learning to view their situations in less absolute and more realistic in terms, clients can gain a greater sense of acceptance, flexibility, and control over their lives. In this regard, remember that although receiving or assigning a psychological diagnosis is a dichotomous act, the psychological condition that underlies the diagnosis is virtually always a matter of degree

Practical application of continuous variable

helping clients to view their and other actions and feelings on a continuum, rather than as extremes. So for example, clients with eating disorders frequently view the world as very dichotomous. They view themselves as either fat or thin. There is no middle ground

Even if we were to find the physical correlates to every psychological phenomenon,

it still leaves us with the formidable and complex task of defining and differentiating illness from health. In other words, evidence of physical difference is not per scientifically medical valid proof of medical disease. All things considered, it isn't surprising that the "physical or mental" question has not yet been answered.

Ch 12: In a linear (or additive) combination, the effect can theoretically be explained by..

one of multiple causes. In other words, each cause is, in itself sufficient to produce the effect. Thus a linear combination requires making a statement about only two variables-one cause and its effect. (C1+C2+C3)

The Barnum Effect refers to

people's naive willingness to accept the validity of overly inclusive and generic Barnum statements to find specific personal meaning containedwithin them as if the message were tailored just for me. It's not just for you. It's true of you, but it's true of everyone. "My psychic told me I'm going to meet someone who cares"

A therapist, in masking similarities and differences, can fail to

recognize the uniqueness ofeach individual despite their membership of a particular ethnic group or just make the statement that addiction todrugs is the same as addiction to sex. There may be a lot of overlap, but it's not entirely overlapped. And this is really important in clinical practice.

Cognitive biases

refer to systematic mistakes that derive from limits that are inherent in our capacity to process information. Because of our intrinsic cognitive limitations, we attempt to simplify our thinking by utlilizing various mental "shortcuts' that permit us to process information more rapidly and efficiently (albeit less accurately)

The Barnum Effect

refers to people's willingness to accept the validity of such overly inclusive and generic interpretations

Actor-Observer Bias

refers to the tendency for observers to overestimate the importance another person's dispositions, but for that person (the actor) to overestimate the importance of the situation in explaining his or her own behavior

Don't make the mistake of..

reifying constructs, of reifying construct theories. Remember that construct theories are not things out there waiting to be discovered. So remember that construct theories are human-made inventions that are imperfect at best that represent our attempts to explain the world around us.

Ch 7: We should bear in mind that all conceptual divisions....

such as categories, classification, diagnoses and taxonomies are human-made simplifications that by their very nature are fundamentally flaws.

Values and veracity are not....

synonymous

Ch 14: The notion of multiple causal pathways applies not to ....

the etiology of problems, but to their potential resolution as well. Specifically in terms of psychopathology, there are multiple pathways of treatment. The moral? First, never assume that similar outcomes must be the product of similar causes. Second, when exploring avenues of causation, always be on the lookout for alternate routes

Those with eating disorders are often...

the most dichotomous thinkers- fat or thin, perfect or wrong. Also those with PTSD from war- is this going to kill me or not kill me People who are paranoid- it's either safe or not safe, a threat or not Borderline personality disorder- bonded with me or abandoning me

Targets can be the same but...

the observers may have different responses Ex: manipulative (find this word deceitful) verses persuasive (impressed) Exhibitionistic verses outgoing Ruthless vs Tenacious

Dichotomous Variable

these are events in which there are only two possible outcomesPhenomena can be divided into mutually exclusive categories. And I'll give you some examples of truly dichotomous variables. Pregnancy, coin, a door being locked or unlocked, biological status being dead or alive.

CH 8: One very important way in which our personal values can bias our thinking is when...

we equate our description of what is with out prescription of what ought to be. This occurs for instance whenever we define what is good in terms of what is observable. This error in thinking is called the Naturalistic Fallacy