psy exam 1
Be able to look at a (scatterplot) graph and make a reasonable guess at whether the correlation is positive or negative
Positive correlation goes up, negative correlation goes down.
Positive vs. Negative correlations
Positive- as values of one variable get bigger, value of the other variable also get bigger. Negative- as values of one variable get bigger, values of the other variable get smaller.
Describe the methods, results, and take-home message of Friesen's (1972) study comparing Japanese and American display rules. Why might these differences have emerged?
Ps - Japanese and American men PHASE 1 Watch unpleasant video alone PHASE 2 Interviewed by researcher PHASE 3 watch unpleasant video with researcher Secretly video-taped and later coded intensity of negative emotion expressions in each phase Phase 1 (unpleasant video alone) - Japanese and US expressions of negative emotion were equally intense Phase 3 (unpleasant video with experimenter) - Japanese more likely to mask negative emotions with smiles than US Japanese emphasize social hierarchy-consider it inappropriate to display negative emotions to a higher status other
Describe Pure Autonomic Failure and Locked-in Syndrome. Explain their importance for answering this question
Pure autonomic failure is a medical condition in which the autonomic nervous system ceases to influence the body. Locked-in syndrome: condition in which people lose almost all output from the brain to both the muscles and the autonomic nervous system, although they continue to receive sensations.
Who is Phineas Gage and why is his history important in understanding the role of the brain in emotion?
Railroad foreman. 1848 explosion sent iron pole into his cheek and - through ventromedial prefrontal cortex Personality before - Likable, socially skilled, competent. Personality after - Could not regulate emotion (short-tempered) or make responsible decisions (incompetent). Anticipate emotional consequences of decisions
Describe the methods, results, and take-home message of Levenson, Ekman, and colleagues' (1983) study of the autonomic specificity hypothesis. What did Cacioppo and colleagues' 2000 meta-analysis of the autonomic specificity hypothesis uncover?
What they uncover was that we tend to be less arousal during happiness than negative emotions. Heart rate increases more during anger, fear, and sadness than disgust.
When is this design appropriate?
When determining cause and effect relationship
Describe Elizabeth Phelps' theory on the role of the amygdala. What evidence supports her theory?
When the amygdala is active people shift their attention toward eyes. People with amygdala damage focus on the mouth and nose, NOT THE EYES. 1. Amygdala directs attention toward stimuli with emotional implications. More amygdala activation when viewing emotional stimuli, the better it's remembered later. People with amygdala damage don't remember emotional information > neutral. 2. Amygdala activation during emotional experience facilitates long-term memory
Confounds
A difference between conditions (other than the iv) that the research has overlooked
What's an advantage of this methodology? What's a disadvantage?
Advantage: Can evaluate the many processes a region is involved with Disadvantage: Damage usually not limited to one region (and in humans can't control which region that is)
What's an advantage of this methodology? What's a disadvantage?
Advantage: fast Disadvantages can only assess activity in regions close to the scalp, hard to determine exact location.
Describe the James-Lange Theory of emotion
An emotion is when we feel or notice the body's reaction (physiology and behavior) to an object or event it's the label we give to bodily reactions
Define hypercognized emotions and give an example
An emotion that is important in that society -> Increased vocabulary to represent it. ◦ 46 Tahitian words for anger
Define hypocognized emotions and give an example
An emotion that is not important in that society -> Relatively absent from language/limited vocabulary to represent it. ◦ No word for sadness in Tahitian
What are the key features of contemporary definitions of emotion?
"designed to have an effect upon the stimulus that initiated the complex sequence" "functional reaction" "facilitate a fitness-enhancing, environment-shaping response to the current situation" "to a stimulus" "an external stimulus event"
Identify and describe the four components of emotion
1) cognition/appraisal 2) feelings 3) physiology 4) behavior
Define Hypothesis and be able to come up with your own
A clearly stated, testable prediction about the relationship between two variables e,g . People who are chronically angry have higher blood pressure
Describe the Schachter-Singer Two Factor Theory of emotion
All emotions evoke similar physiological responses, figure out which emotion you are feeling based on situation, cognition/appraisal differentiates emotions, not physiology/feeling, physiological reaction determines the intensity of emotional feelings.
Describe the Dimensional Models of Emotion (particularly the Circumplex Model)
All emotions vary on a continuum; typically focus on same feeling dimension (as opposed to cognition, physiology, and behavior) Circumplex model: theoretical model that emphasizes positive-negative valence and degree of arousal as the key aspects of emotional experience; when arranged according to this model, emotions form a circle.
What is the amygdala?
Almond-shaped structure in the temporal lobe (there are two)
Describe the methods, results, and take-home message of Tsai and colleagues' (2007) research on children's storybooks and ideal affect.
Analyzed emotional content of 20 best-selling children's storybooks in Taiwan and the US (ages 4-8) Coded facial expressions of storybook characters Systematically separate facial units (e.g. eyes open or closed. Taiwanese Storybooks More likely to show features of contentment Eyes closed, small close-lipped smiles. US Storybooks More likely to show features of excitement Eyes wide open, ip corners raised high, teeth showing.
What criteria must emotions meet to be considered adaptations?
Based in our genes . These genes started out as random mutations. Individuals with emotions survived and reproduced more. These genes spread through population and became typical
Describe the Social Construction of emotion theory
Basics of the social constructionist approach Aspects of culture that impact emotion Comparing evolutionary and social constructionist approaches
3rd Variable Problem
Can't determine if a third variable caused both variables ( and is responsible for the relationship)
Reverse-Causality
Can't determine which is the cause and which is the effect
What does functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) measure? What's an advantage of this methodology? What's a disadvantage?
Changes in blood oxygenation as index of neural activity. Can also use to assess anatomy, volume, tracks, connectivity Advantage: Can determine exact location of activity, and can assess activity in entire brain Disadvantage: Ecological validity
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemical messengers that go between neurons (brain cells). Can transmit messages across regions of the brain. Impact psychological experience, including emotion.
How do cultural differences in individualism vs. collectivism relate to the way members of the culture think and process information? How do cultural differences in individualism and collectivism relate to emotion?
Collectivist Cultures Self is connected to others Goal to Fit into the community and social environment - adjust to current context Low-arousal positive emotions promote attention to surroundings. Individualistic Cultures Self is unique, separate from context and others Goal to Be distinct, autonomous - take action to express the self High-arousal positive emotions associated with agency, taking action
What is Urbach-Wiethe Disease? What are the symptoms associated with this disorder?
Damage to amygdala from calcium build-up. ◦ Humans will eat disgusting food, approach strangers, can't recognize who looks trustworthy
What types of functions does it play a role in? What types of bodily changes occur when the parasympathetic nervous system is activated (e.g. changes in heart rate, respiration, etc)?
Decrease heart rate, Stimulate salivary glands, peristalsis, secreting digestive enzymes
What is Klüver-Bucy Syndrome? What are the symptoms associated with this disorder?
Develops when temporal lobes are removed (including amygdala). ◦ Monkeys will fearlessly approach aggressive monkey & strange humans; rats and mice will fearlessly approach a cat
Describe the Intrapersonal Functions of emotions
Directly benefits individual experiencing the emotion (survival/reproduction) Emotion -> Behavior -> Survival & Reproduction
Are physiological signals necessary for emotional feelings? Do they strengthen emotional feelings? (see Shiota & Kalat Chapter 1 for more information)
Each emotion has it's own unique physiological profile (that's how we know which emotion we're experiencing)
How does this hypothesis relate to the James-Lange Theory of emotion?
Each emotion has it's own unique physiological profile (that's how we know which emotion we're experiencing)
What are Mutations?
Each offspring varies slightly
Explain what random assignment is
Each participant has an equal chance of being in any condition.
What does electroencephalography (EEG) measure? Define event-related potentials.
Electrical activity in the brain. Event-related potentials is rapid changes in response to specific stimuli
Describe the traditional assumptions about emotion
Emotions are disruptive. Advocated by influential philosophers. Emerges in metaphor and often fits personal experience
Describe the Interpersonal (Social) Functions of emotions
Emotions help to bind people together - build committed, interdependent relationships by extension enhances survival and reproduction
Describe the Basic Emotions Model (including criteria for being considered a basic emotion)
Emphasizes emotion categories- which are distinct and non-overlapping. Universal (maybe in other species) Distinct, built in way of expressing it ( facial expression, tone of voice, etc.) Evident in early life Distinct physiology
Discuss cultural differences in emotion language
English has 2,000 emotion words, Taiwanese has 750, Chewong (Malaysia) has 7 Cultures lack emotion words we use ◦ Tahitians have no word for sadness
Describe the methods, results, and take-home message of the fear conditioning paradigm used by LeDoux and colleagues (1990). What behaviors do normal mice evidence? Mice with amygdala damage?
Fear Conditioning & The Amygdala Measure behavior and physiology Healthy - freezing response increased blood pressure. I.e. fera conditioning( learningz) Amygdala damage- weaker freezing response smaller increase in blood pressure. Ie. weaker fear conditioning ( learning).
What are the two factors in the model?
First factor: unexplained physiological arousal. Second factor: examine environment, attribute arousal.
Which theory do researchers believe is (more) correct?
General consensus that james-lange theory is largely correct, but perhaps not in it's extreme version.
Basic principles of evolutionary theory
Genes are blueprints for body and behaviors. Genes are passed along from parents to offspring
What do cross-species comparisons of facial expressions of emotion reveal?
Have shared evolutionary history with many animals - particularly non-human primates
Know the methods, results, and take-home message of the Pen Study (not our class results, the published results described in the text)
Hold a pen with your lips, later repeat the procedure holding the pen with your teeth. In one study, participants holding the pen in a "smiling" position rated cartoons slightly funnier than did those who held it in the "annoyed" position. Changes in facial expression induce additional changes in heart rate, breathing, and so forth, so it is not certain that facial expressions by themselves led to emotional responses.
Describe the methods, results, and take home message of the two studies presented on the body and metaphor (the warmth studies)
Hold hot or cool therapeutic compress ◦ Product evaluation Compensation is a gift certificate: ◦ Can give to self as a personal reward ◦ Can give to a friend as a gift Results: Cool compress: 25% to friend - Hot compress: 54% to friend
Describe the roles of the hypothalamus, insular cortex, lateral prefrontal cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus and how they relate to emotion (**note - I don't expect you to be able to locate these regions in the brain**)
Hypothalamus- Maintains homeostasis. Controls ANS/hormone changes during emotion Insular Cortex - Map of visceral (bodily) sensations. Active during disgust & fear (bodily part of emotion) Lateral Prefrontal Cortex- Advanced cognitive functions - planning, self- regulation. Emotion-regulation Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (Orbitofrontal) - Decision-making. Anticipatory emotion (how consequences of decisions will feel) Hippocampus- Important for long-term memory. Connected to the amygdala which aids memory for emotional events
• Describe research on the universality of facial expressions of emotion o Describe Darwin's theory. How did he try to test this theory? What are limitations of Darwin's approach?
Hypothesized that emotions conferred survival advantage ◦ Written reports from missionary friends ◦ Is X, Y, Z the "typical" facial expressions in that culture?
What is the role of serotonin in emotion? What are Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and why are they important for emotion?
Involved in many psychological processes including mood. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) - Class of anti- depressants that block reuptake of serotonin at synapse (i.e. serotonin in synapse longer). Unclear what (if anything) serotonin is doing to impact mood Also involved in aggression and perhaps anger ◦ Rats & monkeys with low serotonin levels fight more Parolees with low serotonin most likely to be convicted of future violent crimes ◦ Same with violent children and people who have attempted suicide
Define Dependent Variable and be able to identify which is the dependent variable in a research design
Is the hypothesized effect. What is measure- all participants, in every condition, complete the same dependent variable.
Define Display Rules
Implicit rules for which emotions can and cannot be expressed in particular situations
What is the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness
In the environment in which humans first evolved
What types of bodily changes occur when the sympathetic nervous system is activated (e.g. changes in heart rate, respiration, etc)?
Increase heart rate, Stop salivary glands, peristalsis, secreting digestive enzymes.
Be able to compare and contrast the James-Lange and Schachter-Singer theories. How do they differ?
James-lange: each emotion has its own pattern of physiological changes. Schachter-singer: all emotions have the same pattern of physiological changes.
Describe collectivistic cultures.
Largely eastern (particularly South and East Asian) Prioritize group over the individual, group deference, social harmony
Describe individualistic cultures.
Largely western (particularly American) Emphasize individual uniqueness, personal rights, being true to one's self
Describe Schadenfreude, Amae, Litost, Hasham
Litost (Czech) - Torment/revenge ◦ Schadenfreude (German) - Enjoyment of another's suffering ◦ Amae (Japanese) - Pleasurable dependence on another ◦ Hasham (Bedouin) - Embarrassment/Shame in face of higher status other
• Describe the methods, results, and take-home message of Herstenstein and colleagues' (2006) study on using touch to express emotion. What does this tell us about emotion? • Describe research on the universality of the physiological aspects of emotion.
Method: Ps in USA and Spain Encoder: Given list of emotions and tries to convey them solely through touch Decoder: Tries to guess what emotion is being conveyed Results : Ps could decode: Anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude, and sympathy by touch Specific emotions associated with specific forms of touch
What types of functions does it play a role in?
Nerves from spinal cord to the heart, lungs, stomach, intestines, genitals, smooth muscles, etc. Maintains body's internal condition, e.g., respiration, heart rate, sweating, sexual arousal, digestion, etc.
Describe how the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems interact.
Not necessarily opposing, somewhat independent of each other Increases precision and control
Describe open-systems and closed-systems
Open-systems: Can be influenced by external social factors Closed-system : Fixed, unchangeable by social forces (e.g. digestion)
Describe evidence that suggests the amygdala is not simply the fear center of the brain
People with amygdala damage have trouble naming emotional expressions other than fear. The amygdala becomes more active when viewing expressions of sadness and disgust too
Are emotional behaviors necessary for emotional feelings? Do they strengthen emotional feelings?
People with spinal cord injuries (can't move muscles) report feeling normal emotions. People with permanent facial paralysis report feeling normal emotions. P's frown muscle temporarily paralyzed. With botox had weaker than normal brain responses to anger expressions
What are lesion studies used for? How are these methods applied in animals? In humans?
Study behavior of those with damage to specific parts of the brain (compared to those with no damage) Induced damage (animals) or from trauma/ degenerative disease
Describe the structure of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic Nervous System "Fight-or-Flight" Parasympathetic Nervous System "Rest-Digest"
What are caveats we must be aware of when considering emotions to be adaptations?
The environment of evolutionary adaptedness EEA
Define culture (can focus on definition from lecture or text)
The pattern of ideas, customs, institutions, traditions, and meaning that are shared by a particular group of people
Describe Levenson and colleagues' (1992) research testing this theory. What were the methods utilized and the results found? Focus on the heart rate results along with the overall pattern across measures.
The researchers were able to study 46 minangkabau men and to compare their physiological responses with those of 62 people in the united states. The researchers instructed the participants to make the facial expressions of anger, fear, sadness, disgust, and happiness while recording their physiological responses. .both groups, heart rate increased significantly while participants posed expressions of anger, fear, and sadness, but not while they posed disgust or happiness.
What is the role of facial expression in emotion?
The role of facial expression in emotion is to communicates feeling states to observes.
What distinguishes emotions from drives like hunger and thirst?
The stimulus must be external, or outside the person. There is a distinction between drives and emotions, it might be that emotions require a cognitive appraisal of the situation
Identify the key features of a correlational research design o When is this design appropriate?
This design is appropriate when determining the relationship between two variables
Describe Ekman and colleagues' research testing this theory. What were the methods utilized and the results found? How might this approach have overestimated/underestimated people's ability to interpret facial expressions?
Travel across the world, including Fore tribe in Papua New Guinea - never seen a Westerner - and show Ps facial expressions Given series of posed facial expressions - choose which expression corresponds to each emotion term (translated)
Know the methods, results, and take-home message of the famous study conducted by Schachter and Singer (1962) to test their hypothesis. (Note: focus on the summary given in lecture rather than the details in the text)
Unexplained arousal. Will look to situation to explain arousal. If pleasant situation interpret arousal as happiness. If unpleasant situation interpret arousal as anger. Ps in pleasant condition more likely to be happy and less angry than Ps in the unpleasant condition... ONLY if they were UNINFORMED about the injection's arousal effects
Describe Keltner and Haidt's (1999) Levels of Analysis approach, which was proposed as a way to reconcile the evolutionary and social constructionist theories
Universality vs cultural variation in emotion depends on your level of analysis (big picture vs. details)
Define ideal affect and describe cultural differences in ideal affect?
Which emotional state would you prefer to feel? ◦ Chinese (Collectivistic Culture) ◦ Low arousal positive: Calm/Contented/Peaceful ◦ European-Americans (Individualistic Culture) ◦ High arousal positive: Excited/Enthusiastic/Elated ◦ Chinese-Americans raised and living in the US (both) ◦ Equal preference for low and high arousal positive
What do these disorders tell us about the role of the amygdala in emotion?
With damaged amygdala, can't recognize the emotional significance of objects - no fear
Are body sensations necessary for emotional feelings? (Note: discussed in lecture on Emotion and the Body)
Yes. need sensation from muscles/ organs for full experience of emotion, if can't experience bodily sensations, no emotion.
Define Adaptation
a beneficial, genetically-based characteristic that has become species-typical as a result of natural selection
Describe the autonomic nervous system.
a branch of the peripheral nervous system, by which the central nervous system influences the visual organs
What is core affect?
a way of describing the feeling aspect of emotion, that emphasizes the dimension of pleasantness and arousal.
What is cultural priming? Why is this a useful technique in cultural research?
an experimental manipulation that makes one of a bicultural person's cultural identities especially salient for a short period of time
Describe the sympathetic nervous system.
brand of the autonomic nervous system, that supports and prepares the body for intense muscular activity
From an evolutionary perspective, what does it mean to say an emotion is "functional?"
designed to have an effect upon the stimulus that initiated the complex sequence"
Explain what control is
environment/ setting/ procedures the same in each condition- only difference is the independent variable.
Define Independent Variable and be able to identify which is the independent variable in a research design
is the hypothesized cause. What is manipulated- it varies across the different conditions
What are the strengths and drawbacks of experimental designs?
strength - can be determine cause-and-effect drawbacks - sometimes there is a confound
What are the strengths and drawbacks of correlational designs?
strengths - study issue where researchers can't intervene, often efficient. drawbacks - reverse-causality, 3rd variable problem
What types of functions does it play a role in?
the "fight or flight"
Describe the parasympathetic nervous system.
the "rest and digest" brand of the autonomic nervous system, that diverts resources to maintenance and growth activities
Define the Autonomic Specificity Hypothesis.
the hypothesis that different emotions involve qualitatively different autonomic nervous system physiology profiles
Define Natural Selection
the process by which problematic genetic mutations are removed from the population, whereas beneficial mutations spread through the population, because of the mutation's effect on reproduction