psyc 203 study ch 1,2,3,4,16
Theory
A group of logically organized and deductively related laws;an explanation of how and why something operates as it does.
interviews
data collection method in which an interviewer asks the interviewee a series questions often with prompting for additional information.
Causal description
description of the consequences of manipulating an independent variable.
Cohort-sequential design
design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal elements by following two or more age groups over time.
research misconduct
fabricating falsifying or plagiarizing the proposing performing reviewing or reporting of research results.
Control
(1) a comparison group, (2) elimination of the influence of extraneous variables , or (3) manipulation of antecedent conditions to produce a change in mental processes and behavior.
research ethics
a set of guidelines to assist the researcher in conducting ethical research
Variable
A characteristic or phenomenon that can vary across or within organisms , situations, or environments.
Paradigm
A framework of thought or beliefs by which reality is interpreted
Revolutionary science
A period in which scientific activity is characterized by the replacement of one paradigm with another.
Logical positivism
A philosophical approach that focuses on verifying hypotheses as the key criterion of science.
Meta -analysis
A quantitative technique for describing the relationship between variables across multiple research studies.
Induction
A reasoning process that involves going from the specific to the general.
Qualitative research study
A research study based on nonnumerical data.
search engines
A software program that seeks out web pages stored on servers throughout the world wide web.
Longitudinal study
A study in which the data are collected at two or more points in time.
Causation
A term whose meaning is debated by philosophers, but in everyday language implies that manipulation of one event produces another event.
Probabilistic Causes
A weaker form of determinism that indicates regularities that usually but not always occur.
beneficence
Acting for the benefit of others
Manipulation
Active intervention by researcher that is expected to produce changes in the dependent variable.
Assent
Agreement from a minor to participate in research after receiving an age-appropriate explanation of the study
psycINFO
An electronic bibliographic database of abstracts and citations to the scholarly literature in psychology.
Laboratory experiment
An experimental research study that is conducted in the controlled environment of a laboratory.
Internet Experiment
An experimental study that is conducted over the internet.
Confounding Variables
An extraneous variable that if not controlled for will eliminate the researcher's ability to claim that the Iv causes changes in the dependent variable.
Focus Group
Collection of data in a group situation with a moderator leads a discussion with a small group of people.
Existing or secondary data
Collection of data that were left behind or originally used for something different than the current research study.
Passive. Consent
Consent is received from a parent or guardian by not returning the consent form
Archived research data
Data (usually quantitative) originally used for a different research project.
Numerical Data
Data consisting of numbers
Non-numerical Data
Data that consists of pictures words, statements, clothing, written records, or documents or a description of situations and behavior.
Dehoaxing
Debriefing the participants about any deception that was used in the experiment
Operational Definition
Defining a concept by the operations used to represent or measure it
problem
Defining research to be solved is the fuel that drives the scientific process, and is the foundation of any research method and experimental design, from true experiment to case study.
Explanation
Determination of the cause or causes of a given phenomenon.
Nonmaleficence
Do no harm to others
Desensitizing
Eliminating any undesirable influences that the experiment might have had on the participant
Causal Explanation
Explaining the mechanisms through which a causal relationship operates.
footnote
Footnotes are numbered consecutively with a superscript Arabic numeral in the order in which they appear in the text of the report most footnotes are content footnotes containing material needed to supplement the information provided in the text. Footnotes are also used to acknowledge copyright permission footnotes appear in the bottom of the page on which they are discussed you can also place footnotes on a separate page after the references. When placed on a separate page, type the word (footnotes) at the top of the page centered in the upper and lower case letters. The first line of each footnote is in dented five spaces or 1/2 inch and the superscript of the footnote should appear in the space just proceeding the beginning of the footnote. Footnotes are tight in the order in which they are mentioned in the text.
Objectivity
Goal in science to eliminate or minimize opinion or bias in the conduct of research.
Privacy
Having control of others access to information about you
Placebo Effect
Improvement due to participants' expectations for improvement rather than the actual treatment.
Animal welfare
Improving the laboratory conditions in which animals live and reduce the number of animals used in research.
Results
In this section, the results of the analysis are presented. How the results are presented will depend upon whether the research study was quantitative or qualitative in nature. This section should focus only on results that are directly related to the research or the problem. Graphs and tables should only be used when there is too much data to efficiently include it within the text. This section should present the results, but not discuss their significance.
Informed consent
Informing the research participant of all aspects of the study that might influence His or her willingness to volunteer to participate
Qualitative Research
Interpretive research approach relying on multiple types of subjective data and investigation of people in particular situations in their natural environment; the type of research relying on qualitative research data.
Anonymity
Keeping the identity of the research participant unknown
Correlational study
Non-experimental research study based on describing relationships among variables and making predictions
Confidentiality
Not revealing information obtained from a research participant to anyone outside the research group
Laboratory observation
Observation conducted in lab setting set up by the researcher
Event sampling
Observations are recorded every time a particular event occurs.
Third variable problem
Occurs when observed relationship between two variables is actually due to a confounding extraneous variable.
Natural-ism
Position popular in behavioral science stating that science should justify its practices according to how well they work rather than according to philosophical arguments.
Empirical Adequacy
Present when theories and hypotheses closely fit empirical evidence
Cause and effect relationship
Relationship where changes in one variable produce changes in another variable.
Extraneous Variable
variable that might compete with the independent variable in explaining the outcome
Descriptive research
Research that attempts to describe some phenomenon, event, or situation.
Questionnaire
Self report data collection instrument filled out by research participants.
Pseudoscience
Set of beliefs or practices that are not scientific but claim to be scientific
categorical variable
variable that varies by type or kind
Tests
Standardized or researcher constructed data collection instruments designed to measure personality, achievement and performance.
Cross-sectional study
Study conducted at a single time period and data are collected from multiple groups; data are collected during a single, brief time period.
Rationalism
The acquisition of knowledge through reasoning
Discover-ability
The assumption that it is possible to discover the regularities that exist in nature.
Reality in Nature
The assumption that the things we see, hear, feel, smell, and taste are real.
Cause
The factor that makes something else exist or change.
Ethical dilemma
The investigators conflict in weighing the potential cost to the participant against a potential game to be acquired from the research project
Science
The most trust worthy way of acquiring reliable and valid knowledge about the natural world.
Normal Science
The period in which scientific activity is governed and directed by a single paradigm.
Debriefing
The post experimental discussion or interview about the details of the study including an explanation for the use of any deception
specificity of the research question
The preciseness with which the research questions is stated.
Hypothesis testing
The process of testing a predicted relationship or hypothesis by making observations and then comparing the observed facts with the hypothesis or predicted relationship; the branch of inferential statistics focused on determining when the null hypothesis can or cannot be rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis.
Methods
This section will describe the research design and methodology used to complete to the study. The general rule of thumb is that readers should be provided with enough detail to replicate the study.
structure of research paper
Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review Methods Results Discussion/Conclusion References/Bibliography
Natural Manipulation Research
Type of research in which the independent variable approximates a naturally occurring manipulation, but it is not manipulated by the researcher.
Null Hypothesis
Typically the hypothesis of no difference between means or among the variables being investigated or of no relationship in the population.
Multiple Operational-ism
Using multiple measures to represent a construct
Plagiarism
Using were produced by someone else and calling it your own work
Moderator Variable
Variable that changes or "Moderates" the relationship between other variables.
dependent variable
Variable that is presumed to be influenced by one or more independent variables.
Independent Variable
Variable that is presumed to cause changes in another variable.
Mediating Variable
Variable that occurs between two other variables in a causal chain: its an intervening variable.
Quantitative Variable
Variable that varies by degree or amount
Active consent
Verbally agreeing and signing a form consenting to participate in research
Passive deception
Withholding information from the research participants by not giving them all the details of the Experment
Authority
a basis for acceptance of information, because it is acquired from a highly respected source.
Falsification
a deductive approach to science that focuses on falsifying hypotheses as the key criterion of science.
theory
a group of logical organized and deductively related laws ; an explanation of how and why something operates as it does.
procedure
a methods subsection the reader is told exactly how the study was executed from the moment the participant and the experimenter came into contact to the moment there con tact was terminated consequently this subsection represents a step-by-step account of what both the experimenter and a participant did doing the study. This subsection should include any instructions or stimulus conditions presented in the participants and the response that were required of them, as well as any control techniques used (such as randomization or counterbalancing). In other words, you are to tell the reader exactly what both you and the participants did and how you did it. After reading the procedure subsection, the reader should understand the research design used as well as all the research design was implemented to answer the research question.
Deduction
a reasoning process that involves going from the general to the specific.
Quantitative research study
a research study that is based on numerical data.
Intuition
an approach to acquiring knowledge that is not based on a known reasoning process. + a gut feeling -- that unconscious reasoning that propels us to do something without telling us why or how.
Field Experiment
an experimental research study that is conducted in a real life setting.
Introduction
begins by introducing the broad overall topic and providing basic background information. It then narrows down to the specific research question relating to this topic. It provides the purpose and focus for the rest of the paper and sets up the justification for the research.
Abstract
can be defined as a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, or study that immediately follows the title page. The purpose of an abstract is to give the reader an introduction to see if that article will be particularly helpful in their research. An abstract usually consists of up to 120 words, rather than a full page article, and can be in the form of a poster in a presentation. It can consist of the purpose of the study or article, the questions asked, how many subjects were involved, what the dependent and independent variables are, the hypothesis, and the results. Abstracts are important in research because they allow the reader to understand an experiment prior to reading more about the details. Abstracts also help in keeping research organized and convenient for others to find. Usually the researcher writes the abstract after completing the report because it is a lot easier to summarize the concepts
Participants or subjects
in the method section.......should identify the demographic characteristics of the research but disciplines such as their age sex and ethnic or racial group any other permanent pertinent information regarding the participants should also be included such as eligibility and exclusion criteria the number of participants that were selected for the study but did not complete compete complete it and why and any any in deuce mints that were given to encourage participation you should also state how the sample size was determined example power analysis of animals were used 13 a species strain number and supplier should be specified in addition to their gender age weight and does a physiological condition.
apparatus materials measures and instruments
in this subsection the reader can learn what apparatus what materials were used sufficient detail should be used to enable the reader to attain comparable equipment. In addition, the reader should be told why do you equipment was used. Any mention of commercially want to equipment should be accompanied by the films name and the model number or, in the case of measuring instruments such as an anxiety scale a reference that will enable the reader to obtain the same skill. Custom-made equipment should be described, in the case of complex equipment, a diagram or photograph might need to be included.
Running head
is an abbreviated title typed flush at the top of the first title page and on all subsequent pages it is typed in all the uppercase letters it is not more than 50 characters in length counting letters punctuation and spaces between words
Author Note
is centered on the title page below the author affiliation and tight in upper and lower case letters this note is used to identify each authors institutional affiliation and to provide acknowledgments disclaimers and point of contact each paragraph should start with an indent the first paragraph identifies the apartment till affiliation each author with the city and state if there is no institutional affiliation country should be provided if outside the United States the second paragraph states the author affiliation if the subsequent to the time of study the third paragraph identifies the grants or other support received for the study as well as any acknowledgments for assistance given in the con duct or completion of the study . The fourth and last paragraph identifies the person to contact for correspondence regarding the manuscript including the mailing address and email of that person.
Psychological experiment
objective observation of phenomena that are made to occur in a strictly controlled situation in which one or more factors are varied and the others are kept constant.
Naturalistic Observation
observation conducted in real world situations.
Time-interval sampling
observations are recorded during pre-selected time intervals
Operational-ism
representing constructs by a specific set of operations
Observation
researcher watches and records events or behavioral patterns of people.
page number
should appear in the upper right-hand corner of the manuscript pages all pages should be numbered consecutively, beginning with the title page.
Prediction
the ability to anticipate the occurrence of an event.
Empiricism
the acquisition of knowledge through experience.
determinism
the belief that mental processes and behaviors are fully caused by prior natural factors.
Hypothesis
the best prediction or a tentative solution to a problem
Logic of justification
the deductive or theory-testing part of the scientific process.
Effect
the difference between what you would have happened and what did happen when a treatment is administered.
Logic of discovery
the inductive or discovery part of the scientific process.
Description
the portrayal of a situation or phenomenon
research hypothesis
the predicted relationship among the variables being investigated.
Replication
the reproduction of the results of a study in a new study
Experimental research
the research approach in which one attempts to demonstrate cause any fact relationships by manipulating the independent variable.
research
the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
Reference section
this section as you might expect is to provide an accurate and complete list of all the works cited in the text of the report all the works cited in the text must be cited and presented in alphabetical order using a hanging indent format this means the first line of each work cited is set blush left and subsequent lines are indented.
Discussion
this section should contain five main parts. They do not need to be written necessarily in the following order, but you should try to devote at least a paragraph to each point. ---Hypothesis You should always begin your discussion by reiterating your original hypothesis, and state whether or not your results supported the hypothesis. You can go into some detail here; for instance if your results did not support the hypothesis but instead displayed a different pattern, you should discuss what you actually found. NEVER say your results "proved" your hypothesis or a theory. In science we can't ever prove a theory correct (but we can disprove a theory by giving enough opposing evidence). ----Previous Research Whether your results supported the hypothesis or not, refer back to previous research and compare your results to theirs. Keep in mind the differences between your methodology and that of other researchers! What does your study contribute to the pre-existing literature on your topic? ----Limitations Discuss what aspects of your study design and procedure could have been improved to get better results, while still testing the same variables. Some questions to keep in mind when assessing limitations: Were your operational definitions precise? That is, did the variables you tested really reflect the psychological process you want to study? Was your procedure consistent across conditions? Was there some aspect of the participant group that could have skewed results? (For instance, would having an all-female, or all first-year participant group influence findings?) Did the TF/researcher give clear directions for how to perform the experiment? Don't just list your limitations: also discuss how they could be fixed in the future. -----Future Research In this section, you should discuss the "what now" aspect of your experiment. You should propose some suggestions for future research on your topic. Suggestions should not just fix the limitations you've discussed in the previous section. Rather, just as you thought about the questions raised in previous studies, think about the questions that went unanswered in your study. For instance, what would be the effect of changing one of your variables? -----Impact By now, you've made it to the bottom of the hourglass: your discussion should then focus on the impact of your results on the "real world." We encourage you to be creative here, because what's the point of doing research if you can't use the results anywhere? How do your results relate to individual people like you or me? How could they be used to solve problems in the community? How could these results be applied to things like legislative policy or education? -----References Your reference page includes all the sources you used to write your lab report. In contrast to MLA format, sources are listed in the order that they appear in your lab report, NOT in alphabetical order. On your reference page, make sure to type/write out the honor code and sign with your University ID. When listing your references, begin on a new page. For a more detailed explanation of how to construct your reference section, check out our Writer's Web guide to referencing sources in APA.