psyc 3030 final

Explain the difference between validity and truth.

just because it is valid because it follows the form, does not mean it is true

a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences

language

. What does the lexical decision task prove about response time relative to word frequency?

slower responding to low frequency words

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _____ problem.: source prototype target exemplar

source

another problem that shares some similarities with the target problem and that illustrates a way to solve the target problem

source problem

ability to imagine spatial realations

spatial imagery

representations in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space

spatial representation

Explain the visual world paradigm. What was the important result of Tanenhaus's study?

- determines how information in a scene can influence how a sentence is processed. -The important result of this study was that the eye movements of participants occur as they are reading the sentence and are influenced by the contents of the scene.—non-linguistic information is considered, not just information that the syntactic structure gives.

Explain Farah's study (squares and letters). What were the results, and how did she interpret them

- participants had to imagine whether the letter H or T was on a screen and once they did that, they had to press a button which would cause two squares to flash. -These squares appeared one after the other and had a target letter in one of them. -Participants were to decide which square the letter was in. -The results of this experiment were that the target letter was more accurately identified when that letter was being imagined by the participant. -This showed that mechanisms are shared between perception and imagery.

What happened in Kozhevikov's study on individual differences in visual imagery? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

- participants were given a questionnaire that would determine whether they preferred to use imagery or verbal-logical strategies when solving problems. -the visualizers, they were given a test to measure two different types of imagery. One was spatial imagery, which is the ability to imagine spatial relations. The test for this is called the paper folding test, in which participants saw a piece of paper being folded and then pierced by a pencil and then they had to pick what the paper would look when it was unfolded out of 5 options. -The other type is object imagery, which is the ability to imagine visual details. The test for this is the vividness of visual imagery questionnaire. Participants had to rate the vividness of mental images that they created on a scale from 1-5. -The result was that there are differences between participants who had low and high scores on the PFT.

Method of Loci -explain the backstory of Simonides

-2,500 years ago, Simonides presented an address at a banquet, and just after he left the roof of the hall collapsed, killing most of the people inside. many of the bodies could not be identifie, but Simonides realized that while giving his address he had created a mental image of where each person had been seated at the table. based on this image, he was able to determine who had been killed.

What happened in the Kounios study on EEG activity for insight? What were the results? What did Kounios conclude from this

-Participants were fitted with electrodes that measured the EEG, recorded from the thousands of neurons under the electrodes. It was measured for two seconds. Then a compound remote-associate problem was presented. This is when three words are presented and participants had to determine one word that forms a new word or phrase when combined with each of the other words. -Participants solved about 50 percent in 30 seconds and then were asked immediately after whether they got their solution using insight or noninsight. -The results showed that the EEG activity was increased in the frontal lobe for insight and increased in the occipital lobe for noninsight. Kounios concluded that the approach taken when solving a problem can be influenced by the status of your brain before you even begin the problem.

2.What happened in the Mechalfe and Wiebe study? What were their predictions? Explain both the triangle and chain problems. What were the results of the study? What do they mean?

-Participants were given insight and noninsight problems and had to make "warmth" judgements every 15 seconds during the problems. "Hot" meant they thought they were getting close to a solution and "cold" meant they were far from it. The two insight problems were the Triangle Problem and the Chain Problem. In the triangle problem, you are seeing if you can move the dots of the triangle from pointing to the top to pointing to the bottom. You have to measure your progress to see if you think you are making progress or if you all of a sudden just get it. In the chain problem there are four pieces of chain and each piece has three links. It costs 2 cents to open a link, three cents to close a link, and you want to join the pieces into a singe closed loop. You only have 15 cents. The task is to figure out how to do it. -For noninsight problems, analytically based problems are used. For insight problems, warmth ratings started at 2 and then at the end there was a sudden change from 3 to 7. -This meant participants did not feel they were close to a solution. For algebra problems, there was a gradual increase. This means that solution for insight problems do occur suddenly.

What happened in the Tanenhaus study about lexical priming using tape recordings? What were the results, and what do they mean?

-Participants were presented with a tape recording of short sentences. The target word in a sentence would be a word that could be a noun or a verb depending on the context. They used lexical priming to determine what meaning of the word occurred in the participants minds. The first word will cause faster response to the second word if they are related. -Participants had to read the probe word as quickly as possible. They found that the noun condition was 37 seconds faster in response times than the control group. In the verb group, even though the priming word was not actually related to the probe word, reaction times were still faster than the control group. After adding a delay time, priming occurred for noun condition but not verb condition. -this means that all of an ambiguous word's meanings are activated immediately after the word is heard. However, if there is delay, context is what exerts itself after the meanings of the word are accessed briefly.

How is common ground established?

-analyzing transcripts of conversation -referential communication task

What happened in the Voss study to prove that expertise is only an advantage in the expert's specialty?

-asked Russian agriculture problem to expert political scientists and chemists and novice political scientists, they found that political science experts performed the best, and chemists and novice political scientists performed just as poorly as each other

What were Branigan's findings using the syntactic priming task, and how were they interpreted?

-on most trials, the form of B's description matched A's priming statement -this supports the idea that speakers are more sensitive to the linguistic behavior of other speakers and adjust their behaviors to match

Explain the method of recording from single neurons in humans

-participants were patients with intractable epilepsy that could not be controlled by drugs but can be controlled by removing a small area of the brain called the epileptic focus (where the seizures originate) -electrodes are implanted in these patients brains and then monitored over a few days in the hope that spontaneous seizures will help pinpoint the focus -because the electrodes are implanted, it is possible, with the patients consent, to record the activity caused by cognitive actions such as perceiving, imagining, and remembering

What are the 2 properties of heuristics?

-positive: they are fast -negative: sometimes result in the wrong decision

What was Lea's interpretation of the results of Kosslyn's boat experiment about the spatial nature of imagery?

-that as participants scanned, they may have encountered other interesting parts and this distraction may have increased their reaction time

How did Noam Chomsky explain language acquisition? How did he react to Skinner's explanation?

-that it is coded in the genes and the underlying basis of all language is similar -his argument was that as children learn language, they produce sentences that they have never heard and have never been reinforced

what did behaviorists have to say about imagery? (2)

-the study of imagery was unproductive because visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them -unproven and mythological, therefore not worth studying

how does insight relate to the gestalt approach

Gestalt psychologists say that restructuring is often the outcome of insight

the given-new contract

a speaker should construct sentences so that they include 1. given info—info that the listener already knows 2. new info—info that the listener is hearing for the first time

baseline task where participants have 2 minutes to think of unusual uses for common objects

alternate use task

imagery neurons respond to: -an actual visual image as well as imagining the same image -only visual images in a specific category -all visual images -concrete mental images but not abstract

an actual visual image as well as imagining that same image

process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined

analogical encoding

while it is difficult to apply analogies in lab research, people routinely use analogies in real world settings

analogical paradox

using the solution to a similar problem to guide the solution of a new problem

analogical problem solving

the transferring from one experience solving a problem to another

analogical transfer

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that ____ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems: analogies subgoals insight flexibility

analogies

making a comparison in order to show similarity between two different things

analogy

algebra problems that are solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on experience.

analytically based problems

inference that involves inferring that both "she" in a sentence refer to the same person

anaphoric coherence

What did Bihan find about brain imagery and nonimagery questions in the brain?

asking imagery questions generated a greater response in the visual cortex than asking non-imagery questions

states that events that more easily come to mind are judged as being more probable than evets that are less easily recalled

availability heuristic

an individual's support for a particular viewpoint could actually become stronger when faced with corrective facts opposing their viewpoint

backfire effect

in an effort to get his sister sharon to vaccinate her children, frank compiled results from many scientific studies that show the long-term health benefits of childhood vaccines. yet when frank presented the info to sharon, she refused to believe him, stating that the research was clearly faked by large pharma companies. sharon not only said that vaccines are risky but now also claims they are poisonous. what occurred in the conversation? backfire effect mental modeling belief bias falsification principle

backfire effect

when one meaning of a word and the other meaning are equally likely to occur

balanced dominance

the relative proportion of different classes in the population

base rates

How does the permission schema relate to the abstract vs. concrete task difference?

because activating the permission schema helps people focus attention on the card that could test that schema

consider the sentence "because he always jogs a mile seems like a short distance to him"--the principle of late closure states that this sentence would first be parsed into which of the following sentences? -he always jogs -a mile seems -because he always jogs -because he always jogs a mileq

because he always jogs a mile

Why is the way the problem is represented in the mind important?

because success in solving the problem is influenced by the way it is represented

the premises and conclusion are statements that begin with "all," "no," or "some" all a are b all b are c all a are c

categorical syllogisms

you infer that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by the events that occurred in a previous sentence

causal inference

measuring the amount of time a person requires to complete different cognitive tasks is the goal of mental ______: chronometry topography scanning imagery

chronometry

states that the probability of a conjunction of two evets cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents

conjunction rule

the idea that information in addition to syntax participates in processing as a person reads or hears a sentence

constraint-based approach to parsing

negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens (you can get this if that happens)

contingency strategy

trains people to think creatively

creative cognition

anything made by people that is in some way novel and has potential value or utility

creativity

what is unilateral neglect caused by?

damage to parietal lobes

process of choosing between alternatives

decision

How might the fact that you feel happy or sad, or are in an environment that causes positive or negative feelings, affect your decisions?

decision making is affected by incidental emotions, even though they are not directly related to the decision

when we determine whether a conclusion logically follows from statements

deductive reasoning

what does dmn stand for

default mode network

spatial and object imagers are ____

differet

decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated

framing effect

-encourage people to freely express ideas that might be useful in solving a particular problem -proposed because of the idea that preconceptions can inhibit creativity

group brainstorming

in new guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that they: -had languages that were more primitive than languages of most non-isolated societies -had just a few language systems that were all goverened by similar rules -communicated by hand signals but not verbal language -had a large number of sophisticated language systems

had a large number of sophisticated language systems

-"rules of thumb" -likely to provide the correct answer to a problem but are not foolproof

heuristics

the debate about whether thought is possible in the absence of images -it was proposed that images are one of the three basic elements of consciousness, along with sensations and feelings -proposed that because images accompany thought, studying images was a way of studying thinking

imageless thought debate

a debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanisms, such as those involved in perception, or on mechanisms related to language, called propositional mechanisms

imagery debate

-neurons that fire in the same way when a person sees a picture of an object and when a person creates a visual image of the object -a neuron that fires the same way when the person closed his or her eyes and imagined a baseball (good firing) or a face (no firing)

imagery neurons

emotions that are not caused by having to make a decision—can be related to a person's general disposition, something that happened earlier in the day, or the general environment such as background music

incidental emotions

phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a time out from working on the problem

incubation

the process of drawing general conclusions based on specific observations and evidence -is probably, but not definitely true

inductive reasoning

determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text

inferences

conditions at the beginning of a problem

initial state

how did skinner explain language acquisition?

it is learned through reinforcemen

What is an advantage of the utility approach?

it specifies procedures that make it possible to determine which choice would result in the highest monetary value

words having more than one meaning

lexical ambiguity

how people can evaluate evidence in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes

myside bias

What happened in the Haviland and Clark study on the given-new contract? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

presented pairs of sentences and asked participants to press a button when they thought they understood the second sentence -it took longer for them to comprehend the second sentence when the first sentence did not mention anything related

representations in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols, such as an equation or a statement -stating that the cat is under the table

propositional representations

process of drawing conclusions

reasoning

a task in which two people are exchanging information in a conversation, when this info involved reference—identifying something by naming or describing it

referential communication task

gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving: -reorganization or restructuring -sensory operators -multiple goal states -continuity and form

reorganization or restructuring

changing the problem's representation

restructuring

meaning of language

semantics

the perception of individual words even though there are often no pauses between words

speech segmentation

the tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision

status quo bias

an oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative

stereotype

complete the following analogy: perception is to ____ as imagery is to ___ wave; droplet spark; flame stone; smoke gold; lead

stone; smoke

Experts_____ than novices: -are better at reasoning in general -are more likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems -spend less time analyzing problems -take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

problem the participant is trying to solve

target problem

according to your text, the key to solving the watson four-card problem is: the falsification principle categorical syllogism the law of large numbers mental model

the falsification principle

-patient ignores objects in one half of the visual field, even to the extent of shaving just one side of his face or eating only food on one side of the plate

unilateral neglect

How do we deal with the variety of pronunciations of words?

use the context within which the word appears

outcomes that achieve a person's goal

utility

when the form of the syllogism indicates that its conclusion follows logically from its two premises

valid

seeing in the absence of a visual stimulus

visual imagery

behaviorists branded the study of imagery as being unproductive because: -visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them -some people have great difficulty forming visual images -visual images vary in detail -the imageless thought debate was unresolved

visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them

the frequency with which a word appears in language

word frequency

the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words (home) than to low-frequency words (hike)

word frequency effect

thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential "solutions"

divergent thinking

What happened in the water jug problem? What did Luchins find?

- participants were given three empty jugs and told that they had to figure out on paper how to get a certain amount of water using the jugs. Lunchins ended up providing the solution to problem 1 and then gave them problems 2-8. All of them could be solved with that formula but 7 and 8 could be solved with an easier formula. The two groups were mental set, in which participants solved all 8 problems, and no mental set, in which participants only solved 7 and 8. --Only 23 percent of the mental set group used the easier formula whereas all of the no mental set groups used the easier formula. - Lunchins found that a mental set can influence problem solving. This is due to preconceptions about the functions of an object and preconceptions about the way to solve a problem

What happened in the Johnson and Johnson study with multivoxel pattern analysis? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

- trained a classifier by presenting four kinds of scenes to a person in a scanner and used this to study the relation between imagery and perception. (beach, desert, field, or house) - A participant viewed the picture of one of the scenes and the voxel predicted which picture they were looking at. -The classifier was able to predict the picture correctly 63 percent of the time. -These results showed that the classifier could predict what the participants was seeing by using what it had learned during the perception training

What happened in the Chi experiment, and what did that say about how the experts organized their knowledge?

-24 physics problems were presented to experts and novices and they had to sort the problems into groups based on their similarities -experts sorted them based on principles and novices sorted them based on characteristics -organizing based on principles results in more effective problem solving

Explain the four major concerns of psycholinguistics

-The first major concern is comprehension. This includes how people understand language and process it, as well as how they understand words, sentences, and stories that are expressed through language. It also includes how people converse. -The second concern is representation. They want to know how it is represented in the mind. This includes how people group words together and how they make connections between different parts of a story. -The third major concern is speech production. They want to know how people produce language using the physical and mental processes of speech. -The last concern is acquisition. This is how people learn language. This includes not only learning first languages as a child, but also learning additional languages.

Explain Gick and Holyoak's 3 steps in the process of process of analogical problem solving.

-The first step is noticing that there is an analogous relationship between the source problem and target problem. This is crucial and the most difficult step. Most participants need to be prompted before they notice the connection between the two. -The next step is mapping the correspondence between the source problem and the target problem. The participant must map corresponding parts of the story to the test problem. This is done by connecting elements of the source problem to elements of the target problem. -The third step is applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem. This involves generalizing certain aspects.

Why is the Tower of Hanoi problem important?

-this study specified the possible pathways from initial to goal states showed how people solve problems in a stepwise manner using subgoals

Explain the Tower of Hanoi problem.

-three pegs with three discs stacked on left—goal is to get them stacked on the right by moving one at time from one peg to the next

Why do people overestimate what their negative feelings will be?

because they do not take into account the coping strategies they will use

5 universal needs to communicate with language

-The need to communicate is very powerful. When a deaf child is in a situation where no one around them uses sign language, they will create a form of sign language in order to communicate. -People use a language and follow the rules even though they do not realize it. They may struggle with grammar when trying to learn the rules of it, but they can speak with no problems regarding grammar. -All cultures have language. When people were discovered in New Guinea, they had never been in contact with people in the rest of the world, but they still had many sophisticated languages formed amongst themselves. -The development of language is similar across cultures. At around 7 months children babble, by their first year they have a few meaningful words, and by the age of two they have multiword utterances. This happens no matter what the culture or language is. -Languages are "unique but the same" even though there are so many of them. They are different because they combine words differently and the words themselves may be different. They are the same because all languages have a system to ask questions, make things negative, and refer to different times.

Explain Paivio's paired-associate learning technique, including an explanation of the conceptual peg hypothesis

-The paired-associate learning technique is when participants are given pairs of words to study and then when they are tested, they are only given the first word from each pair. They must recall the second word. -The conceptual peg hypothesis helps explain how memory is better for word pairs that involve concrete nouns rather than abstract nouns. This hypothesis suggests that concrete nouns can be easier to create images for that the second word can "hang onto."

What happened in the Hauk study about the link between movement, action words, and brain activities through fMRIs? What were the results, and how were they interpreted

-There were two conditions: participants moving their right or left foot, right or left index finger, or tongue and participants reading action words that go with foot, finger, or tongue. -The results of this study show areas of the cortex that are activated by actual movements and reading the action words. These occur in the same areas of the brain, but actual movements cause more extensive activation. -These results suggest a physiological mechanism associated with creating situational models.

What happened in the Bisiach and Luzzatti study on unilateral neglect? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

-asked participant to describe things he saw when imaging himself standing at one end of a place that he was familiar with before his brain damage -his responses showed that he neglected the left side of his mental image just as he did the left side of his perceptions -supports the idea that mental imagery and perception share physiological mechanisms (even though it may not be a one-to-one correspondence)

Explain Perky's study on interactions of imagery and perception. What were the results?

-asked participants to "project" visual images of common objects onto a screen and then to describe these images but the participants didn't know that he was back-projecting a very dim image of this object onto the screen -the participants descriptions of their images matched the projected images and not one of them noticed there was a projection on the screen (they thought it was their mental image)

Explain what happened in the Tversky and Kahneman experiment on judgements? What was the conclusion of studies like this one?

-asked the question of whether someone was a librarian and a farmer and most people guessed librarian based on traits without realizing the basses rates of their population (which was more farmers) -when only base rate info is available, people use that—when any descriptive info is available, people ignore the base rate info which can lead to errors in reasoning

What happened in the Farah study of MGS (visual cortex removal)? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

-before removing part of her right occipital lobe for epilepsy treatment, she performed the mental walk (when the image overflowed her visual field) -before the operation, she felt that she was about 15 feet away before it overflowed and after the operation, the distance increased to 35 feet -removing part of the visual cortex reduced the size of her field of view, so the horse filled up the field when she was farther away -this supports that the visual cortex is important for imagery

What happened in the Chase and Simon experiment on experts? Why were the experts better?

-compared chess expert to beginner—the experts were better when the pieces were in normal game positions but not any better when they were random -the reason they were better with actual positions was because they had stored many patterns that occur in real games in their long-term memory so they saw them in terms of four to six chunks

Explain the nine-dot problem. Why is this problem so difficult?

-draw four straight lines that pass through all nine dots without lifting the pen or retracing a line -it is so difficult because of our tendency to perceive individual elements as grouped together (we see the dots as a square and don't realize we can go outside of the square)

to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify that rule

-falsification principle:

What happened in Ganis's study on perception and imagery activation in the brain? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

-for imagery condition, participants were told to imagine a picture that they had studied before when they heard a tone -for both conditions, they had to answer a questions such as "is the object wider than it is tall?" -results showed activation at three different locations in the brain—perception and imagery both activate the same areas in the frontal lobe—but perception activates much more of the visual cortex in the occipital lobe than imagery -there is almost complete overlap of the activation caused by perception and imagery in the front of the brain, but some difference near the back

What helps us with speech segmentation? (2)

-knowledge that certain sounds are more likely to follow one another within a word -knowledge of the meanings of words

topographic map--How does brain activity differ according to the size of the object?

-looking at small objects causes activity in the back of the visual cortex -looking at larger objects causes activity to spread toward the front of the visual cortex

How does how decisions are presented affect organ donor participation?

-low American rate for organ donation because they have to take a step to opt in, whereas high rates for France and Belgium occur because everyone is a donor until they take the step to request not to be

What happened in the Kosslyn study on transcranial magnetic stimulation? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

-for the perception task, participants briefly viewed a display and were asked to make a judgement about the stripes in two of the quadrants (comparing them) -imagery task was the same, but instead of actually looking at the stripes while answering the question, the participants closed their eyes and based their judgements on the mental image of the display -reaction times were measured when transcranial magnetic stimulation was being applied to the visual areas of the brain and also during a control condition when the stimulation was directed to another part of the brain -results indicated that stimulation caused participants to respond more slowly, and that this slowing effect occurred for both perception and imagery -concluded that brain activity in the visual cortex plays a causal role in both perception and imagery

What did Kreiman find about participnts who had electrodes implanted in various areas in their medial temporal lobe?

-found neurons that responded to some objects but not others -imagery neurons: a neuron that fires the same way when the person closes their eyes as they do when they see a picture of it -example: a baseball (good firing) or a face (no firing)

What did Ellamil find when measuring the functional connectivity between the DMN and ECN? Why is this connection confusing? How could they possibly work together?

-found that the DMN and ECN were functionally connected during both the generation and evaluation stages of the creative process. -This is confusing because they are usually thought to oppose each other. -They could work together, although they normally oppose each other, because of how the spontaneous nature of mind wandering creates a flow of thoughts and ideas. Also, creativity usually requires a traffic cop, which is what ECN does because it guides thinking.

1. . What happened in the Griggs and Cox study on the four card problem with a real world situation? Why is the concrete task easier than the abstract task?

-four cards but each card has age on one side and beverage on the other -the concrete is easier because it involves regulations that people are familiar with

What happened in the Baird experiment on creative incubation? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

-gave participants a baseline task, then a 12 minute incubation period during which participants carried out a difficult task that created low rate of mind wandering OR an easy task that had a higher rate of mind wandering -they then repeated the AUT task and the results were clear: easy task with high mind wandering had 40% increase on repeat AUT for baseline but hard tasks showed no change -the conclusion was that mind wandering facilitates creative incubation

What happened in the study of CK, and what does that mean?

-grad student who was hit by a car suffered from visual agnosia—the inability to visually recognize objects (he could recognize parts but could not make them into a meaningful whole) -but he was able to draw objects from memory—a task that depends on imagery -perception is poor but imagery is normal

What happened in the Wason study on confirmation bias? What were the results? How were they interpreted?

-had people create a sequence of numbers based on his rule without knowing it—they had to overcome confirmation bias to satisfy his rule instead of theirs -many people settled on an incorrect rule because they were only seeking evidence that confirmed their hypothesis, not evidence that refuted it (confirmation bias)

Explain the candle problem. What were Duncker's findings?

-have to figure out how to mount the candle on the corkboard so it will burn without dripping onto the floor—one group had empty matchbox and one had full matchbox -participants with empty boxes were twice as likely to solve the problem as the others -seeing the boxes as containers created functional fixedness

our ability to hear and understand spoken words is affected by: (4)

-how frequently we have encountered a word in the past -the context in which the words appear -our knowledge of statistical regularities of our language -our knowledge of word meanings

Explain the mutilated checkerboard problem

-if two corners of the board are eliminated, can the remaining squares now be covered with 31 dominos -all had the same solution but participants with the boards that emphasized adjoining squares and different colors found it easier to solve -results show that problem solving becomes easier when information is provided that helps point towards the correct representation of a problem

what did galton have to say about the imageless thought debate? (2)

-imagery was not required for thinking -people who had great difficulty forming visual images were still quite capable of thinking

Why does placing people in groups to share ideas result in fewer ideas than adding up the ideas generated by the same number of people asked to think of ideas individually? (3)

-in groups, some people may dominate the discussion, so others are not able to participate -being in a group can inhibit some people from expressing their ideas, possibly because they are afraid of judgement -people may be paying attention to others in the group, which keeps them from coming up with ideas on their own

Explain the pegword technique, including the steps.

-involved imagery, as in the method of loci, but instead of visualizing items in different locations, you associate them with concrete words -step 1: create a list of nouns (one-bun, etc.) -step 2: pair each other the things to be remembered with a pegword by creating a vivid image of your item to be remembered together with the object presented by the word

Explain in vivo problem-solving research.

-involves observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations, as well as labs, university research group, and brainstorming sessions -the advantage is that is captures thinking in naturalistic settings -disadvantage is that it is time consuming and difficult to control and isolate specific variables

Why is object-related construction more difficult to understand? (2)

-it demands more of the reader's memory which slows down processing -it is more complicated

Why was the discovery of imagery neurons important (2)?

-it demonstrates a possible physiological mechanism for imagery -these neurons respond in the same way to perceiving an object and to imagining it, thereby supporting the idea of a close relation between perception and imagery

What happened in the Rayner and Duffy study about frequency words using eye movement? What were the results, and what do they mean?

-measured participants eye movements and the durations of fixations that occur as the eye pauses at a particular place while they read sentences that contained either high or low-frequency target words -longer fixations on low-frequency words because they needed more time to access the meaning -the word frequency effect demonstrates how our past experience with words influences our ability to access their meaning

What happened in the Metusalem study on how situations are represented in the mind as we read? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

-measured the event-related potential (ERP) as participants were reading a story -our knowledge about different situations is continually being accessed as we read a story, and if one word is activated it is likely that other related words would be activated

Explain the think-aloud protocol. What does this protocol reveal, and how is that linked to Gestalt ideas?

-participants are asked to say aloud what they are thinking while solving a problem (not to describe what they are doing) -this reveals people's thought processes as they are solving a problem -the shift in how a person perceives the elements of the problem -in gestalt terms: the person creates a representation of the problem that makes it easier to solve

What happened in the Ellamil experiment supporting the link between ECN/DMN and creativity? What were the findings, and what do they mean?

-participants carried out creative task while in fMRI—they h ad to create a book cover in two stages: after reading a description of the book they had to generate ideas and then after a short break they were told to evaluate the designs that they generated -found that regions of the DMN and ECN were both more strongly activated during idea evaluation than during generation -concluded that activity of DMN and ECN are coordinated during creative evaluation

What happened in Kosslyn's study on mental image size in the visual cortex? What was the result? How was that interpreted

-participants created small, medium, and large visual images while in a brain scanner -the result is that when participants created small visual images, activity was near the back of the brain, but as the size of mental images increased, activation moved towards the front of the visual cortex—just as it does for perception -Kosslyn suggest that this could have been caused by activation by internal details of the larger image -both imagery and perception result in topographically organized brain activation

How did Kosslyn's mental scanning experiment work? What were the results and his interpretation of them?

-participants did the same procedure as the boat, but imagined an island that contained seven different locations and had to scan between every possible pair of locations -it took longer to scan between greater distances on the image -this supports the idea that visual imagery is spatial in nature

What happened in the Smith study? What does this say about the role of preconceptions in creativity?

-participants had to create toys or new life forms—one group was presented three examples and one group did not see any -the group that saw examples incorporated many of the examples features in their creation -preconceptions can inhibit creativity (much like functional fixedness)

What happened in the Altmann and Kamide study about prediction of sentences using eye movement? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

-participants heard either eat cake or move cake sentence. thy had to indicate whether the sentence they read could be applied to the picture -measurements of eye movements as they were hearing the sentences indicated that eye movements toward the cake occurred before the word was even said when they heard eat, whereas it was slower for move -prediction is likely to be occurring constantly as we hear or read sentences

What happened in this experiment on size in the visual field? What were the results, and Kosslyn's interpretation of them?

-participants imagined two animals (rabbit and elephant) next to each other and to imagine that they were standing close enough sp that the larger animal filled most of their visual field -then he asked questions such as "does the rabbit have whiskers?" and asked participants to find that part of the animal in their mental image and answer as quickly as possible -when he repeated this but said to imagine an elephant and a fly, participants created larger images of the rabbit -participants answered questions about the rabbit more rapidly when it filled more of the visual field -images are spatial

What happened in the Knoch study on decision-making without a PFC? What were the results, and what do they mean for the PFC?

-participants in both groups rated low offers as equally unfair, but participants with their PFC deactivated were significantly more likely to accept those unfair offers -this indicates that the PFC plays an important role in implementing the cognitively demanding decision to reject unfair offers

What happened in the Bransford and Johnson study about inferences? What were the results?

-participants read passages and then were tested to see what they remembered—they recalled seeing "hammer," when they never really did, because of inferences made in the sentence -people use a similar creative process to make a number of different types of inferences as they are reading a text

What happened in Maier's two string problem study? What were his findings? What does this mean for Gestalt ideas?

-participants tie together two strings hanging from the ceiling, but the strings were too far apart to reach—there were other objects available to help -they needed to use pliers as a pendulum, but they had functional fixedness about the use of pliers -once they saw the string swing (help from experimenter) the majority figured it out

What happened in the Chalmers and Reisberg study on flipping perceptions?

-participants were asked to create mental images of ambiguous figures -they found that participants who were holding a mental image of this figure were unable to flip from one perception to another

Explain what happened in the study with the hypothetical cesarean section. What were the results?

-they showed cases where the test case was presented first, the test case was preceded by four serious complication cases, and the test case was preceded by four normal cases—the highest % that was recommended was by those who had been presented the nonserious cases -it showed that a patient's chances of undergoing a c section can be influenced by the immediately prior experiences of the physician

Explain how the boat experiment took place, and Kosslyn's conclusions.

-participants were asked to memorize a picture of an object, such as a boat, and then to create an image of that object intheir mind and to focis on one part of the boat, such as the anchor -then they were asked to look for another part of the boat, such as the motor, and to press the "true" button when they found this part or "false" when they could not find it -the conclusion was that since imagery, like perception, is spatial, then it will take longer for participants to find parts that are located farther from the initial point of focus because they are scanning across the image of the object -took this as evidence for the spatial nature of imagery

What happened in the Mayseless study linking DMN and creativity? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

-participants were presented with an object and were instructed to propose one possible uncommon use for it and their brain activity (fMRI) was measured as they were doing it -originality was key (higher score for higher originality) -results were that higher originality rates were associated with higher activity of structures in DMN

What happened in the Gentner and Goldin-Meadow experiment on analogical encoding? What were the findings?. What did Gentner conclude from these results?

-participants were taught about trade off and contingency strategies and the one group received two trade off cases and the other got two contingency cases -they had to compare and come to a successful negotiation and then were given a third case which could be solved by either strategy -the results showed that when given the new problem, they mostly used the strategy they had emphasized in the sample cases -the conclusion was that having people compare source stories is an effective way to achieve analogical encoding because it forces them to pay attention to problem features that enhance their ability to solve other problems

What happened in Safey's ultimatum game experiment?

-people played 20 separate games as responder, some offers being fair and some being unfair -the results showed that most people rejected the lower offers

What happened in the Stanfield and Zwann study about picture orientation as we read? What were the results?

-presented sentences followed by either a matching or non-matching picture but the correct answer was always "yes" -people responded "yes" more rapidly when the pictures orientation matched the situation described -supports the idea that the participants created perceptions that matched the situation as they were reading the sentences

What happened in the Kermer experiment on emotions and risk aversion? What were the findings?

-rated happiness before a coin flip for money, predicted their happiness after, and then rated happiness after -greatly overestimated feelings after losing and only slightly overestimated feelings after winning -results show that the inability to correctly predict emotional outcomes of decision can lead to inefficient decision making

What happened in Gick and Holyoak's fortress story study? What were their findings?

-read the fortress study and then had to do the radiation problem—20% more solved the problem -found that even when exposed to analogous source problems, most people do not make the connection between the source problem and the target problem -when it was pointed out to the participants to pay attention to the analogy, the success more than doubled

coherence refers to the: -principle that we process info in isolation before we link it to its context -mental process whereby ambiguity is resolved online during sentence reading -representation of the text in a readers mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text -mental process by which readers create info during reading that is not explicitly stated

-representation of the text in a readers mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text

What three factors can contribute to the strength of an inductive argument?

-representativeness of observations: how well do the observations represent all members of the category? -number of observations -quality of the evidence: scientific descriptions are helpful

What did the fMRI show in the ultimatum game? (2)

-right anterior cingulate was activated three times more strongly when responders rejected an offer than when they accepted -also that participants with higher activation to unfair offers rejected a higher proportion of the offers

What happened in the Wineburg study on evaluating false evidence? What were the results? How were they interpreted?

-students were shown a real post from a photo-sharing website but given no source to back up the claim -when asked if the post provided strong evidence, only 20% said no and were critical of the post -this study showed that if people do not have the resources to know whether the info is inaccurate, they take it at face value—if they do have the resources to know if it is inaccurate, they would no longer trust it

What happened with RM, and what does that say about imagery and perception?

-suffered damage to occipital and parietal lobes -normal perception but impaired imagery -was able to recognize objects and to draw accurate pictures of objects that were placed before him, however, he was unable to draw objects from memory (a task that requires imagery) -he also had trouble answering questions that depend on imagery

Explain the syntactic priming task.

-task where two people engage in a conversation and the experimenter determines whether a specific grammatical construction used by one person causes the other person to use the same construction

What two things did Shepard and Metzler's experiment on mental chronometry show?

-that the time it took to decide that two views were of the same object was directly related to how different the angles were between two views -participants were mentally rotating one of the views to see whether it matched the other one

What about the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which plays such a large role in complex cognitive behaviors?-ultimatum game (2)

-the PFC was also activated but it was the same for offers rejected and accepted -PFC may be used to deal with the cognitive demands of the task, such as the decision

Why do people reject low offers in the ultimatum game? (2)

-they were angry because it seemed unfair -people are also less likely to get angry with an unfair computer than with an unfair person

Multivoxel Pattern Analysis - How does this work again?

-train a classifier to associate a pattern of voxel activation with particular stimuli and then to present a stimulus and see if the classifier can identify it, based on the pattern of voxel activity created by the stimulus

Explain Duncker's radiation problem. How is it solved? How does this fit with the Gestalt idea of representation and restructuring?

-tumor ray removal problem -fits with gestalt ideas because the initial problem is a single ray but the restructured solution involves many rays

What happened in the Stellman and Brennan study about common ground ? What were the results, and how were they interpreted?

-two partners had identical sets of 12 cards with pictures of abstract geometrical objects—there task was for the second partner to arrange the cards the way the first did through conversation -after a few trials, the partners established common ground through entrainment

What happened in the Lord study on the myside bias? What were the results? How were they interpreted?

-used a questionnaire to identify one group of participants in favor of capital punishment and one against it and then each participant was given research on capital punishment -when participants read the research, their response reflected the attitudes they had in the beginning -prior beliefs may have caused them to attend to information that corresponded with their beliefs and to disregard info that did not

Explain the paradox in these neuropsychological dissociations.

-when either perception or imagery is poor, the other is normal -the paradox is that on one hand, evidence for double dissociation is usually interpreted to mean that the two functions are served by different mechanisms. however, this conclusion contradicts the other evidence presented that shows imagery and perception share mechanisms

how does framing affect decision making? (2)

-when it is framed in terms of gain: risk-aversion -when it is framed in terms of losses: risk-taking

What happened in the Finke study? (umbrella)

-when participants followed instructions—like imagine a capital letter D, then rotate it to the left and place a capital J at the bottom, they reported seeing an umbrella

. What did Chi and Snyder find using transcranial direct current stimulation?

-when they placed the negative over certain area and positive over certain area, the % of people that solved the nine-dot problem matched the % that solved it when they were told the lines could go outside the box -this means that deactivating the area of the brain that causes us to interpret the world in certain ways can help up think outside the box

Explain the 4 steps of the problem solving process, according to Basadur.

1) problem generation 2) problem formulation 3) problem solving 4) solution implementation

the tendency to think a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable

belief bias

-a method in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout

Method of Loci

when one meaning of an ambiguous word occurs more often than the other

biased dominance

the representation of the text in a person's mind that created clear relations between parts of the text and the main topic of the story

coherence

mental knowledge and beliefs shared among conversational parties

common ground

helps explain how memory is better for word pairs that involve concrete nouns rather than abstract nouns. This hypothesis suggests that concrete nouns can be easier to create images for that the second word can "hang onto."

conceptual peg hypothesis

have two premises and a conclusion like categorical syllogisms, but the first premise has the form of "if...then"

conditional syllogisms

occurs when people look for information that conforms to their hypothesis and ignore information that refutes it

confirmation bias

task where there was a number of degraded line drawings and they had to determine what the image was. -object imagers performed better on this task than o mental rotation

degraded pictures task

spatial representations in which parts of the representation correspond to parts of the object -picture of a cat under a table

depictive representations

synchronization between two partners

entrainment

something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of the mechanism

epiphenomenon

involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out a task

executive control network

emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome

expected emotions

assumes that people are basically rational -if people have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility (outcome that achieves a person's goal)

expected utility theory

people who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that particular field

expert

people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution

fixation

The Wason Four-Card Problem- Explain and what principle goes with it?

four cards are shown each with a letter on one side and a number on the other and the task is to indicate which cards to turnover so that if there is a vowel on one side of the card, there is an even number on the other side -falsification principle

focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object—can work against problem solving

functional fixedness

as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of processing mechanisms

garden path model of parsing

sentences that begin appearing to mean one thing but then end up meaning something else (after the musician played the piano was wheeled off the stage)

garden path sentences

solution of the problem

goal state

the imagery debate is concerned with whether imagery: -is based on spatial or language mechanisms -canbe used to inform nonvisual sensory systems -is identical for all people -actually exists

is based on spatial or language mechanisms

a rule that can be applied rapidly to make a decision

heuristics

language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story . this demonstrates the ____ property of language: propositional parallel relational hierarchical

hierarchical

language consist of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units (words to phrases, phrases to sentences)

hierarchical nature of language

noam chomsky proposed that: -the underlying basis of language is different across cultures -as children learn language, they produce only sentences they have heard before -language is learned through the mechanism of reinforcment -humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language

humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language

one reason that most people do not easily solve the original (abstract) version of the watson four-card problem is that they: -confuse the ideas of validity and truth -ignore the falsification principle -are influenced by the atmosphere effect -incorrectly apply the permission schema

ignore the falsification principle

occur when a relationship between two events appear to exist, but in reality, there is no relationship, or the relationship is much weaker than it is assumed to be

illusory correlations

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the ________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty: transitory intermediate goal initial

initial

any sudden comprehension, realization, or problem solution that involves a reorganization of a person's mental representations of a stimulus, situation, or event to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious

insight

knowing, for example, that when Shakespeare wrote his plays he wrote it with a quill pen and not a laptop

instrument inference

problem solving requires a sequence of steps, and each action creates this

intermediate state

consider the following conditional syllogism: premise 1-if i study, then ill get a good grade premise 2-i got a good grade conclusion-therefore i studied the syllogism is: invalid valid robust skewed

invalid

evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they: -invent a sign language themselves -lose the ability to communiate in any way -start speakng our loud even though they cannot hear themselves -demonstrate compensatory regeneration of lost auditory neural pathways

invent a sign language themselves

when a person encounters a new word, the person's parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible

late closure

states that the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population

law of large numbers

a spatial imagery test measures a person's capacity with imaging which of the following: detail texture distance layout

layout

the task is to decide as quickly as possible whether a string of letters are words or nonwords

lexical decision task

occurs when a word is followed by another word with a similar meaning

lexical priming

meaning of words

lexical semantics

all of the words we know--also called mental dictionary

lexicon

Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable? -lydia is a state governor and active in the feminist movement -lydia is a state governor -lydia is a us congresswoman -lydia is a us congresswoman and active in the feminist movement

lydia is a us congresswoman

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they: -had received training in creative thinking -were told they were expected to be creative -made the objects themselves -had been preselected as "creative" individuals

made the objects themselves

relative frequency of the meanings of ambiguous words

meaning dominance

-primary goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal state -one way to direct the search for a solution

means-end analysis

determining the amount of time needed to carry out various cognitive tasks

mental chronometry

the ability to recreate the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli—includes all of the senses

mental imagery

a specific situation represented in a person's mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning

mental model

in deductive reasoning, determining if syllogisms are valid by creating mental models of the situations based on the premises of the syllogism

mental model approach

participants had to decide whether pictures were the same view or mirror images. -spatial imagers performed better on this task than on degraded pcitures task

mental rotation

Kosslyn's island experiment used the ________ procedure: mental scanning priming categorization mental walk

mental scanning

participants create mental images and then scan them in their minds

mental scanning

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person's experience of what has worked in the past

mental set

-participants imagine that they are walking towards their mental image of an animal and they have to estimate how far away thy were from the animal when they began to experience "overflow" -overflow is when the image filled the visual field or when its edges started to become fuzzy -particiapnts had to move closer for smaller animals than for larger animals, just as they would have to do if they were walking toward actually animals -this showed that images are spatial

mental walk task

trihn is a famous chef. since she does not like to share her secret family recipes, she does not write them down, making it difficult to remember ingredients. to aid her memory, she has created a uique mental walk that she takes to recall each recipe. for each one, she has a familiar route she can imagine walking through where she places each item alone the way. by doing so, she is using _____ to organize her memories: -method of loci -paired-associate learning -mental synthesis -pegword technique

method of loci

texts in which there is a story that progresses from one event to another, although stories can include flashbacks of events that happened earlier

narrative

approach to decision-making that combines research from the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and economics to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses

neuroeconomics

which is more difficult: subject or object -relative construction

object

ability to imagine visual details

object imagery

when the subject of the main clause is the object in the embedded clause

object-relative construction

Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as: mental sets operators intermediate states subgoals

operators

actions that take the problem from one state to another

operators

requires the person to take an active step

opt-in procedure

everyone is a part of something unless they request not to be

opt-out procedure

perky's imagery study had participants describe images that were dimly projected onto a screen. The significance of the results was that: -the screen images had no effect on peoples mental images -people were influenced by the projected images when forming their mental images, even when they were unaware that the projected images were present -people "used" the screen images to create the mental images but only when the objects were unfamiliar -screen images interfered with peoples ability to form mental images

people were influenced by the projected images when forming their mental images, even when they were unaware that the projected images were present

states that if a person satisfies a specific condition, then he or she gets to carry out an action

permission schema

objects created in Finke's "creative cognition" experiment that precede the creations of a finished product

preinventive forms

statements that are a part of syllogisms

premises

-a situation in which you need to accomplish a goal and the solution is not immediately obvious

problem

made up by the initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states from a particular problem

problem space

as described in your text, the pegword technique relies on all of the following EXCEPT: rhymes associations propositions visualizations

propositions

field concerned with the psychological study of language

psycholinguistics

states that the likelihood that an instance is a member of a larger category depends on how well that instance resembles properties we typically associate with that category

representativeness heuristic

warmth judgements on nearness to a solution _______ prior to the solution of an insight problem and ____ prior to the solution of a non-insight problem : -rise suddenly just; gradually rise -gradually rise; gradually rise -gradually rise; rise suddenly just -vary unpredictably; vary unpredictably

rise suddenly just; gradually rise

the tendency to avoid taking risks

risk aversion

a decision-making strategy that is governed by the idea of avoiding risk -often used when a problem is in terms of gains

risk aversion strategy

a decision-making strategy that is governed by the idea of taking risks -often used when a problem is stated in terms of losses

risk taking strategy

the components in the hierarchical nature of language can be arranged in certain ways

rule-based nature of language

syntax is the: -way people pronounde words -mental grouping of words -ruled for combining words into sentences -meaning of words

rules for combining words into sentences

the contraint-based approach to parsing states that: -semantics is activated only at the end of a sentence -semantics is activated as the sentence is being read -semantics is only activated to clear up ambiguity -the grammatical structure of a sentence determines the intial parsing

semantics is activated as a sentence is being read

What did Amedi find on perception and imagery in the brain—based off Ganis?

showed overlap but found that when participants were using visual imagery, the response of some areas associated with non-visual stimuli, such as hearing and touch, was decreased -the reason for this might be that visual images are more fragile than real perception, and this deactivation helps quiet down irrelevant activity that might interfere with mental image

-what is created when people read or hear a story -simulates the perceptual and more characteristics of the objects and actions in a story

situation model

according to the concept of _____, when we read a sentence like, Jorge grabbed his coat from his bedroom and his backpack from the living room, wlaked downstairs, and called his friend" we create a simulation of Jorge's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves situation models gloabl connections speech continuity causal inference

situation models

intermediate states that are closer to the goal

subgoals

when the subject of the main clause and embedded clause is the same

subject-relative construction

consists of two broad statement or premises, followed by a third statement called the conclusion

syllogisms

how conversational partners can end up coordinating their grammatical constructions

syntactic coordination

hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances that a sentence will be produced with the same construction

syntactic priming

the structure of a sentence

syntax

In analogical problem solving, the ________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the ________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution: -prototype; target -source; target -target; source -exemplar; source

target; source

-when first one organization is adopted in a sentence and then, when the error is realized, a person shifts to the correct organization -what is illustrated in garden path sentences

temporal ambiguity

consider the following argument: observation: here in nashville, the sun has risen every morning conclusion: the sun is going to rise in nashville tomorrow -the argument is strong because the premise includes scientific evidence -the argument is strong because there are a large number of observations -the argument is weak because the observation does not consider other cities -the argument is weak because there is only one specific case

the argument is strong because there are a large number of observations

a syllogism is valid if: -the conclusion follows logically from the two premises -there is evidence to support the two premises -the two premises and the conclusion are true -there is no more than one exception to the conclusion

the conclusion follows logically from the two premises

the conjunction rule states that: -the probability of two events co-occurring is the sum of the probabilities of each event occuring -the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone -people make decisions based upon both the costs and benefits of the choices -people make decisions based upon possible benefits when the choices are framed positively and based upon possible costs when the choices are framed negatively

the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone

Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning: the representativeness heuristic utility confirmation bias the falsification principle

the representativeness heuristic

Gabrielle is blonde, extremely attractive, and lives in an expensive condo. If we judge the probability of Gabrielle's being a model quite high because she resembles our stereotype of a model, we are using: framing the law of small numbers the availability heuristic the representativeness heuristic

the representativeness heuristic

insight refers to: -the sudden realization of a problem's solution -the tendency to respond in a certain manner, based on past experience -prior learning facilitating problem solving -prior learning hindering problem solving

the sudden realization of a problems solution

What increases the chance of risk aversion?

the tendency to predict that a particular loss will have greater impact than a gain of the same size

-involves two players, one as the proposer and one as the responder -the proposer is given a sum of money and makes an offer to the responder as to how this money should be split between them -if the responder accepts the offer, then the money is split according to the proposal but if they reject, neither receives anything -the responder should always accept the offer as long as it is over zero

the ultimatum game

the ability to understand what others feel, think, and believe, and also the ability to interpret and react to the person's gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice, and other things that provide cues to meaning

theory of mind

which of the following is a nonverbal component of communication? causal inference syntactic priming theory of mind anaphoric inference

theory of mind

why do experts get off to what appears to be a slow start on a problem

they spend time trying to understand the problem rather than immediately trying to solve it

-specific locations on a visual stimulus cause activity at specific locations in the visual cortex, and points next to each other on the stimulus cause activity next to each other on the cortex

topographic map

a negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, "ill give you__ if you give me ___"

trade-off strategy

-procedure for stimulating the brain in which two electrodes are placed on a person's head and connected to a battery powered device that delivers direct current. one decreases the excitability of neurons and one increases the excitability

transcranial direct current stimulation