PSYCH 101 MONSTER FINAL STUDY SESH
Cognitive Perspective
A perspective that investigates psychology at the cognitive level, such as by studying thoughts and feelings
Fovea
A pit within the macula that is responsible for our most detailed vision
Phrenology
A popular pseudoscience that tried to map different functions of the brain to different parts of it
Chochlear Implant
A possible treatment for neural deafness. A cochlear implant picks up sounds and stimulates the auditory nerve in a manner similar to the way the hair cells would.
Hastorf and Catril (1945): football games
Football game descriptions from people are so vividly different that one could assume that they were different games (proof for Phenomenological Perspective)
Psychoanalysis
Focused on unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts that influence current behavior.
Rotter's Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Focuses more on the likelihood of the reward
Positive Psychology
Focuses on beneficial qualities like happiness and gratitude
Positive Psychology
Focuses on beneficial qualities, such as happiness, gratitude and humility
Family-Focused Therapy (FFT)
Focuses on family psychoeducation
Weight Inclusive
Focuses on healthy behavior and overall health
The Humanistic, Existential, and Phenomenological Perspective
Focuses on human characteristics like spirituality and love
Pshconeuroimmunology
Focuses on psychological favors and the immune system
Realistic Appraisals
Focusing on viewing things not negatively but in a way that is realistic and positive, i.e. there was a lot of snow, but you conquered it and got to work!
Obedience
Following an instruction from an authority figure. Can be good, but also bad if the authority is bad
Psychodynamic
Freuds personality perspective, which emphasizes aspects of personality that are active and in conflict
Storge
Friendship love of Sternberg's model
Marshmallow Studies
Measured preschoolers' ability to delay gratification and found that those who could were more academically and socially advanced adolescents
Social Readjustment Rating Scale
Measures how stressful certain life changes are
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
Measures implicit thoughts about different groups through connections
Satiety signals
Hormones that influence feelings of fullness and decisions about eating a a specific meal
Womb Envy
Horneys idea that men might be jealous of women because men cannot bear children
Correlation Reearch
Measures of associations between variables. Has high external validity but low internal validity
Social Readjustment Rating Scale
Measures stress associated with significant life changes
Cultural Standards
Must violate cultural standards
Availability Heuristic
Involves estimating the probability or frequency of something by how easily examples come to mind
Representative Heuristic
Involves making judgements of whether a person, event, or object matches and is this a representative of a category. Basically, it's reverse stereotyping.
Representativeness Heuristic
Involves making judgments about whether the features of a person, event or object match the features of a category
Central Route
Involves thinking about the message
Analogy Appraoch
Involves using knowledge about a familiar problem to solve an unfamiliar problem
Hierarchy of needs
Maslow's theory that people desire to fulfill physiological needs first, then safety needs, special needs, then esteem needs
Note about the final:
Material covered will be all book and class notes, save for Phelps' review paper and all readings of Myers and Jeeves. Special emphasis is given to the chapters in this guide (100/200 of the questions) and to chapters 1, 2, and 3.
Preconscious
Material that we know and could think about but that is not currently in the conscious mind
Controversy of IQ Tests
May not be valid and can advocate for Eugenics. It can be culturally biased and ignore biological differences.
Personal Religious Functions
Meaning, control, and sociality
Direction
Measure of direction of association (how one affects the other)
Single-Blind Study
Only the researcher, and not the participants, knows who is in either the experimental or control group.
why did the differences go down between PREP and control?
PREP group stops practicing skills (have children)
Endorphines
Pain perception, positive emotions Associated with drug addiction
Classical Conditioning
Pairing a new stimulus with an old one to have the old response combined with the new stimulus
Convert Communications
People who has a problem but overcame it, such people tend to be more persuasive
Ethologists
People who study animal behavior
Fixed Interval Reinforcement
Predictable reward based on time, not behavior
Affective forecasting
Predicting our emotional reactions to future events
Colorism
Prejudice and discrimination not on race, but on skin color or Afrocentric features
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
Prejudice is caused by a perception of conflict/competition between groups
Behavior Analysis
Proposed mental processes are not as important as reinforcement with regards to behavior
Biopsychological Model
Proposes biological, physiological and social factors influence health
Evolutionary psychology
Proposes that behaviors that were beneficial for reproduction in the past should be more common today
Reference Dependence
Prospect Theory idea that says people react differently based on a starting point
Recovered Memory Controversy
Recovered memories can be loaded by those who encouraged remembering, causing false memories
Paradoxal Sleep
REM sleep is categorized with increased brain function, but at the same time involves being relaxed
Hood's Idea of RFR
Religion was never really an interest of psychology. It was an interest to only a few people
Soft spirituality
Religion without the "bad side." This is bad
Extrinsic Religiosity
Religiosity is a means to an end. They use religion for their own personal rewards. Tend to be less helpful.
Intrinsic Religiosity
Religiosity is in integral part to a person. They live the religion and tend to be better helpers
Religiosity as a personality trait?
Religiosity isn't included in the big 5, but it very well could be
Religiosity and physical health
Religiosity prompts caring for your body due to viewing your body as sacted, and thus better physical health
Negative Reinforcement
Removal of oneself from a fearful situation makes one feel better, reinforcing the fear
Deinstitutionalization
Removal of psychotic patients from large facilities to in community care
Negative Reinforcement
Removal of something aversion when a target behavior is performed
Negative Punishment
Removal of something pleasant when a target behavior is performed
Hierarchy of Responses
States that people have a set of likely responses, but choose the one that will most likely yield rewards
Biological Perspective
States that personality is determined by our biology
Sexual economics theory
Suggests that many phenomena related to sexuality can be understood in terms of economic principles like supply and demand
Volley Principle
Suggests that neurons fire in groups at different times, which enables a higher rate of firing than one neuron could accomplish alone
Type View
Suggests that people are distinct types who do not merely vary along dimensions; this implies that people cannot be easily compared
Idiographic Approach
Suggests that people are qualitatively different
Nomothetic Approach
Suggests that people are quantitatively different
Archetypes
Symbols important throughout the centuries, i.e. the hero, the sage, and the mother
Depersonalization
Symptom of panic disorder. Feeling separated from ones body
Extrapyramidal Symptoms
Symptoms associated with the extrapyramidal system of the brain, in charge of movement
Parkinsonism
Symptoms of Parkinson's disease, like trembling
Tardive Symptoms
Symptoms that appear after taking the medication
Residual Symptoms
Symptoms that are left over after schizophrenia
Hostile Attribution bias
The tendency to perceive hostility in the ambiguous actions of others
Risk Averse
The tendency to prefer a less risky option
Risk Seeking
The tendency to prefer a riskier option
Gambler's Fallacy
The tendency to think that future events will correct past events that don't look random enough
Outgroup homogeneity bias
The tendency to think that outgroup members are more alike than ingroup members
Set (or mental set)
The tendency to use a solution
Primary Effect
The tendency, for initial material to be better recalled, such as the first few items in a list
Abstinence Violation Effect
The tendency, if we violate our health plan (or other goal), to splurge or even abandon our health plan completely
Spreading Activation
The tendency, when one concept is brought to mind, for related concepts to also be activated
Tversky and Kahneman (1981)
Told people of an Asian disease and people tended to chose remedy choices that had happy words, like save or no one dies
Prevalence
Total number of cases
Incidence
Total number of new cases
Social Skills Training
Training in social and occupational skills to reduce isolation
Benzodiazepines
Tranquilizers that relieve anxiety quickly, but they are addictive
Deductive Validity
With regard to conditional reasoning, the type of validity that describes reasoning that is logical, even if it doesn't correspond to the real world
Sensitivity
With regard to signal detection, how easy it is to detect accurately
Criterion
With regard to signal detection, how sure we want to be before we decide that a stimulus is present
Denying the Consequent
With regard to conditional reasoning, reasoning from information the THEN part of the proposition is false
Negative Information
With regard to conditional reasoning, the presence of negative wording, such as the word NOT
Illicit Conversion
With regard to conditional reasoning, the tendency to make an error when rewording a proposition
Illusory Contours
With regard to the principle of closure, illusory contours are faint lines that appear to complete a figure
Scientific Method
a procedure for finding truth by using empiracle evidence
Gestalt psychology
a psychological approach that emphasizes the active role that the mind plays in generating perceptual experience
Hindbrain
division of brain above the spinal cord. Contains the Medulla, Pons, and Cerebellum
Clinical Specialty
doctors in the mind and have PhD's
illusion
errors in the perception of perception
Long term memory
essentially limitless capacity, essentially permanent
Basal Ganglia
collection of brain structures involved in movement. Damage to the substantia nigra causes dopamine deficiency, causing Parkinson's.
Frontal Lobe
command center for motor function and executive functions. Contains the motor cortex.
Hindsight bias
common sense
weight inclusive
exercise habits, diet; encourages healthy behaviors -larger BMI not deadly to certain extent
Myelin
fatty insulator that increases speed of neural transmission
Myelin Sheath
groupings of myelin, a protective sticky coating, on the axon of neurons to speed signal transmission
hedonic treadmill
keep striving for more and more, never achieve happiness
Meningitis
infection of the meninges that weakens them. This can kill in a few hours if left untreated
Worldviews
influence people's opinions and research choices. No one is free from them
Encoding Failure
information never got to LTM
free recall
just asking someone to recall the information with no triggers
White Matter
myelinated area of axons
Sigmund Freud
not the father of psychology medical doctor, not a psychologist, faith-based system, not science
Confederate
person who looks and acts like a participant, but who is actually a researcher
Dendrites
receive information from other neurons and relay it to the cell body
John Hedley Brooke
science and religion will have inevitable conflict, but are complementary, and their relationship is quite complex
Pancreas
secretes insulin, and is deficient in people with Type 1 Diabetes
Pineal Gland
secretes melatonin, which regulates sleeping cycles
Fear Appeal
A message designed to scare people and so promote behavior change
Need for Cognition
A personality trait that involves the tendency to think
Type A
A personality type characterized by high levels of time urgency, competitiveness and hostility
Type B
A personality type characterized by low levels of time urgency, competitiveness and hostility
Aversion Treatment
Pairing a behavior that one wants to stop with something unpleasent
Abraham Marlov
Phenomenological Perspective: subjective perceptions affect psychology
Biopsychosocial model
Proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all contribute to health
Why are correlation studies important?
They are cheap and test theory well, but you must be cautious with your interpretations. Look for convergence.
How to psychologists determine what to study?
They choose based off of what they find while researching or based off of their past experiences
Behavior Modification
Using learning principles to change behavior
Attention Focus
What one is attending to, which can influence whether symptoms are perceived
Population
group of people you are interested in studying
Naturalistic Observation
observation in its natural setting
Reappraisal
A component of transactional theory in which we reevaluate our appraisal of the events and whether we are coping successfully
Correlation do not imply causation? Why not?
Because of: - Direction of Effect: Which came first? - Lurking, Third Variables: A causes B, but A also causes C, so B doesn't cause C
BF Skinner
Behaviorist who backed up Watson' ideas
Arterial Ligation
Belief that opening the chest could relieve chest pains, but was only a placebo and worked more often when the procedure was not carried out when patients believed it was.
Stimulus Control
Changing the stimuli around oneself to promote health
Perspectives of Psychology
Cognitive, behavioral, biological
Wilhelm Wundt
First psychologist and believed in Introspection, the idea of looking within to find how they feel
Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka
Gestalt Psychology advocates, studying how the mind adds to sensory information to create something new, and advocates for Apparent Motion, how things look like they are moving but aren't, like traffic lights with "moving" arrows
Standard Deviation
How much data deviates versus variability
Epidemiology
Identifies risk factors by examining how medical conditions are distributed in a population
Cognitive Restructuring
Identifying and changing irrational negative thoughts to more reasonable and beneficial thoughts
Personal Experience can do what?
It leads people astray
Lay Referral System
Lay people (people who are not health professionals) whom we might consult about treatment decisions
Behavioral Perspective
Studying behavior
Biological Perspective
Studying the brain and neurochemicals
Yale approach
Suggests that an attitude change is influenced by the source of the message, the message itself and the audience listening to the message
Transactional Theory
Suggests that when we encounter a potentially stressful event, the degree to which we feel stress depends on how we appraise the event and our ability to cope
Human Finitude
The idea that not everything can be understood
Incidence
The number of new cases
Applied Research
research designed to address practical problems and relies on basic research
Basic Research
research designed to test theories that have been speculated upon
Public Opinion Poll
research where people are surveyed
Developmental Specialty
study how children develop mentally and how older people develop as they age
Health
study how health factors like smoking and health care decisions in people
Human Factor Specialty
study human performance when operating machines
School Specialty
study learning disabilities in school children
Social/Personality Specialty
study personal differences and how people react based on things like introversion versus extroversion
Educational Specialty
study specifically how to enhance learning and how to help students
Experimental Specialty
study the basics of psychological procedures, like research
Biological Specialty
study the brain and its function and relation to the mind along with hormone levels
Industrial/Organizational Specialty
study workplace life like how to lead and worker satisfaction
Representative Sample
subset of population that accurately represents the population as a whole, avoiding outliers
Sample
subset of population you actually study
Internal Validity
the degree to which an experiment is free of confounds
Hindsight Bias
the thought that no matter what, you knew what was right all along
Descriptive Statistics
things like mean, median, and mode
Double-Blind Procedure
way to increase internal validity by making both the participants and experimenter unaware of the condition the participants have
Forensic
work with the law, like determining competency
negative reinforcement
(-NOT PUNISHMENT!) -makes target behavior happen more frequently -start with unpleasant situation, when TB happens, unpleasant situation removed
What are the two areas on the left hemisphere of the brain vital to language, and what are their functions?
*Broca's area*: production of speech, left fontal lobe *Wernicke's area*: comprehension of language, left temporal lobe
What are the divisions of the Forebrain, and what are their functions?
*Corpus Callosum*: connects the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex *Cerebral Cortex*: divided into left/right hemispheres; responsible for sophisticated mental functions.
Parts of a neuron *Dendrite*: *Axon*: *(Soma) Cell body*: *Myelin Sheaths*: *Nodes of Ranvier*:
*Dendrite* - receives info *Axon* - sending info out *(Soma) Cell body* - contains organelles and cytoplasm, etc *Myelin Sheaths* - insulate axon, increasing speed *Nodes of Ranvier* - gaps in myelin sheath
Depolarized: Polarized: Refractory period: Resting Potential: Action Potential:
*Depolarized*: a state of the neuron during an action potential, in which the neuron is more positive inside than outside its membrane *Polarized*: the state of a cell in which the membrane separates two opposite charges *Refractory period*: the period in which another stimulus given to a neuron will not lead to another action potential *Resting Potential*: The state and voltage difference when a neuron is at rest (-70 mV) *Action Potential* - produced by ion movement across the axon membrane (+30 mV)
What are Dyssomnias and Parasomnias?
*Dyssomnias*: sleep disorders involving disruptions in amount, quality, timing of sleep (ie: insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, etc) *Parasomnias*: undesired arousal or actions during sleep (ie: night terrors, sleepwalking, etc)
Three theories of Dreaming, and what are their basic ideas?
*Freud Fulfilled Wishes*: Dreams are psychological safety vavle, symbolic of sexual and aggressive frustrations. Not supported by research. *Hobson and McCarley Activation-Synthesis Model*: Activation of brainstem circuits produces dream story, generating meaning on sensory signals. *Neurocognitive Theory of Dreaming*: Because we have reduced sensory imput and no voluntary control while asleep, individual sensory data is generated.
What are the major divisions of the brain, and what are their functions?
*Hindbrain*: connects spinal chord w/ rest of brain *Midbrain*: processing of auditory/visual sensory info *Forebrain*: complex mental processes (largest part of brain)
What is included in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)? What are the divisions of the PNS, and what are their functions?
*Included*: All nerves outside the CNS *Divisions*: Somatic Nervous system (voluntary actions, transmits sensory info to the CNS and motor info from the CNS to the muscles.) and Automatic Nervous system (involuntary actions, including the sympathetic nervous system - energy expended, and the parasympathetic nervous system - energy conserved).
In what four ways can attention be tricked or "blinded?"
*Misdirection*: distracting attention *Inattentional blindness*: not seeing a significant thing clearly in view *Inattentional deafness*: not hearing auditory messages *Change blindness*: not noticing when something changes
NREM slow-wave sleep contributes to ________, while REM sleep and NREM stage 2 sleep help consolidate _______.
*NREM slow-wave sleep*: the formation of new memories *REM sleep and NREM stage 2 sleep*: new procedural memories (learning new skill/task)
What is special about the sleep patterns of newborns, infants, toddlers, and kids at age 5, respectively?
*Newborn*: spend 50% of sleep in REM *Infant*: have 60 min sleeep cycles *Toddler* 75 min sleep cycles *Age 5* typical 90 min sleep cycles
The Limbic system is part of what part of the brain? What are the four divisions of the Limbic system, and what are their functions?
*Part of*: the Forebrain *Divisions*: the Hypothalamus (links brain with endocrine systems; regulates sleep, hunger, thirst, etc), the Thalamus (processes/integrates sensory info, relaying it to cerebral cortex), the Amygdala (emotions like fear and anger, memory), and the Hippocampus (memory formation).
The Endocrine system is made of what four major glands? What are their functions?
*Pineal Gland*: produces melatonin *Hypothalamus*: regulates release of pituitary gland hormones *Pituitary Gland*: Master hormone maker, secretes growth hormone, oxytocin, etc *Adrenal gland*: produces hormones involved in the stress response
What are the major divisions of the Hindbrain, and what are their functions?
*Pons*: Helps coordinate movements on left/right sides of the body *Cerebellum*: Coordinates movement, balance, and posture *Medulla*: Controls breathing heartbeat, and other vital life functions
What protects the CNS (including the spine and the brain)? What structures lines the surface of ventricles in the brain, and what is their function?
*Protection*: Meninges and cerebrospinal fluid *Lining*: Neural stem cells, help to produce new neurons
Non Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (NREM Sleep) has four stages. What brain waves are associated with each stage, and are there any specific landmarks in specific stages?
*Stage 1 NREM*: alpha/theta waves mix *Stage 2 NREM*: theta/beginning of delta waves; you can also see sleep spindles and K complexes *Stage 3 NREM*: theta/delta waves mix *Stage 4 NREM*: delta waves
set point range
-15-20 lbs range to maintain body weight -85% gain back weight in 5 years -weight watchers works, but modestly
Murray (1960-2010)
-1960-> people at top and bottom of ses ladder had similar values and interacted more -2010-> ppl at top and bottom dont have same values and interact less
Peripheral Nervous System
- Somatic Nervous System: relays worldly info to CNS and back to voluntary muscles - Autonomic Nervous System: relays info from internal organs to CNS and back again - Sympathetic Nervous System: arouses the body to a challenge - Parasympathetic Nervous System: relaxes a body after a challenge *people can die from extremes in the para/sympathetic nervous system
Pavlov classical conditioning
- dog salivates to food (unlearned) -dog salivates to bell (learned/conditioned)
Darley and Batson (1973)
-Princeton seminary students - IV-> 1) message 2) time pressure -DV-> helping rating (helping homeless man) -message had no effect, time pressure did
Functions of sleep
-Clearing metabolic wastes -Maintaining immune function -Learning, memory (new memories are strengthened and integrated, while emotional memories are preserved) -Regulating mood
Sleep deprivation effects
-Diminished concentration, reaction time, memory, risk assessment ability, and immune system -increased food consumption -stronger reactions to positive and negative stimuli
Types of Brain Imaging -Positron Emission Tomography (PET): -Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): -Functional MRI (fMRI):
-Positron Emission Tomography (PET): detects increased blood flow -Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): analyzes molecular response of nervous tissue to magnetic fields -Functional MRI (fMRI): Uses magnetic fields to detect metabolic activity in nervous system and detail neural activity
Some aspects of dreams
-about everyday things -women: emotions -men: aggression -negative feelings/events more common than positive ones
Cattell's Theory of Intelligence
-Fluid Intelligence: intelligence pertaining to processing and flexibility, similar to Spearman's "G" -Crystallized Intelligence: intelligence as it pertains to knowledge (e.g. vocab)
Spearman's Theory of Intelligence
-G: abbreviation for general intelligence -Two-Factor Theory: intelligence relies on general intelligence and specific abilities developed through practice
Bacon et. al (2005)
-Health at Every Size vs. diet program (2 years) -HAES- no lost weight, better body image -diet program- lost but gained back weight, worse body image
Daylight Savings Time
-KILLS PEOPLE -more fatal car accidents and heart attacks on Monday after
studies with high school students and sleep
-U. of Minnesota study -start school later!! -Jacksonhole, WY (70% drop in car accidents involving students)
Aspects of Nightmares
-Vivid/frightening dreams during REM sleep -more common in ages 5-10 -daytime stress, anxiety, and emotional difficulties contribute
sleep apnea
-airway closes; people do not know they are doing it -symptom: snoring -treated with c-pap: pumps air through nose all night
personality tests- projective tests
-ambiguous stimulus -response reveals unconscious motives, conflicts -challenging to administer and score
Dutton-Aron (1974)
-arousal males feel higher emotion of attraction -IV: arousal- high or low -DV: 1) calling researcher 2) sexual imagery
Prepare-Enrich
-assessment based program for couples -strengths and weaknesses and Big 5 assessment -outcomes research, improves relationship -self-selection-> choosing to be in study 7 get counseling -correlationa
example of shaping (Wolf et al. 1964 case study)
-autistic boy didn't follow directions (glasses) -repeated positive reinforcement w/ clicker until he listened
Exner Method
-based upon Rorschach's hypothesis -show people blots-> say what they see -rarity?- people should see things most people won't see -if rare, person has break with reality -does it fit with the contour of the blot?
advantages to marriage
-better sex- women -wealthier 1) long-term horizon 2) diff. roles boyfriend vs. husband - married men work more hours -healthier-especially men -specialization- don't have to be experts in all household activities (long-term) -emotional security- married couples trust more -happer -less violence -less likely to divorce than people who cohabit before marriage
mental influence of pain Edwards et al (2009)
-catastrophizing -> freaking out -> high perception -distraction-> less pain perception -reappraisal-> labeling pain as something else -work not pain -reaffirming -> not a big deal, can handle -religious coping -mixed (reduces pain in some studies, increased in others) -bc some emphasized reappraisal, some catastrophizing
predictors of happiness
-close friendships, satisfying marriage -meaningful faith -good sleeping habits -exercise -spend on experiences, not stuff -developing self-control
fixed interval rates of responding
-clustered around times reinforcement will happen
relax
-cool, dark room (65)
Latane and Darley (1968)
-cover story about being student at urban university -IV-> presence of others -DV-> time before reporting smoke
what are predictors of martial satisfaction?
-dated long enough to know well -a year -what are they like in tough situations? -similar age, faith, education -stable income -married after 20 -building a life together (not joining 2 already made lives) -both from stable 2 parent homes
consequence of 25 hour cycle
-easier to travel East to West -harder to wake up on Mondays
objective tests
-easy to administer/score, hard to interpret -MMPI- in clinical settings, most widely used -mistake that worked -primary purpose- distinguish between w/ and w/out mental health problems -listen to people w/ and w.out mental health problems-> kept different answers grouped -patients from psychiatric hospital and families of patients -L and F scales-> see if people are faking mental sanity -faking sanity-> high L -faking insanity-> high F
exercise
-exercise regularly to improve sleep -finish at least 2 hours before bed
scientific perspective on Freud
-faith based system -poorly defined, not testable -at best, good history
Fincham et al. (2010)
-fidelity in romantic relationships w/ prayer or positive thinking -3 DVs: Fidelity physically, fidelity mentally, alcohol consumption
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)
-gave kids fake IQ test -randomly label kids academic bloomers, tell teachers kids should be smarter -teachers treat kids differently
Stice et al. (2000)
-get women to do things inconsistent with thin-ideal internalization -reduced thin-ideal internalization, less dieting, more positive effect, fewer bullimic symptoms
managing sleep debt
-go to bed and get up at same time -avoid sleeping late -use naps well
Knutson et al. (2005)
-greater activity in nucleus when anticipating winning than when actually winning -hard-wired for greed
Schater-Singer experiment
-group told about side effects did not pick up emotion -expecting physiological change did not effect emotion
unsuccessful relationship signs
-harsh start-up -> not good direction -insult - while trying to win argument -invalidation -> dismissing other's p.o.v. -failed repair attempts -> most couples have heated arguments -man withdraws-> does not want argument & to protect relationship
fixed and variable ratio rates of responding
-high rates -may wear ourselves out
culture of thinness
-historical variation on optimal attractiveness, weight -easy to experimentally manipulate women on body image -even elementary school girls
predicting and protecting marital satisfaction
-how they look engaged (80-90% accurate) -chores, in laws, money, sex- common disagreements -videotape couples talking about subjects while engaged
Eppling and Pierce (1988)
-inducing anorexia in rats -IV: availability of exercise (unlimited vs limited) -DV: food consumed, amount of exercise, longevity -results: limited rats fine, unlimited rats consume less and less food, exercise more, shorter longevity -why? 1) evolutionary adaptions 2) endorphins
what is intelligence?
-inquiring knowledge -think & reason in abstract -capability for solving problems
intrinsic vs extrinsic religiosity
-intrinsic-> internal love for God -extrinsic-> practical benefits
less obvious consequences of sleep deprivation
-learning (sleep deprived while studying is counterproductive -athletic performance decreases -immune system function decreases
Lang and Melamed (1969)
-positive punishment -shocking boy whenever he gags to make him swallow food
advantages of cohabitation
-less housework- women -bc boyfriend's stuff is less her own, but husband's stuff shared -more personal free time -married couples- more likely to get roped into things they wouldn't normally do -easier exit of relationship- no legal bind
why are cohabitors more likely to divorce?
-less traditional- value marriage less -sliding-slow progression -> not discussed it -> makes it harder to terminate relationship -marriage seems like natural progression -gender differences- women think moving in is prelude to marriage -> men- sex more often until something better -soul mate = dangerous concept
Mitler et al. (1997)
-long haul truckers -monitored brain waves to tell if they were asleep/getting data about what truck was doing -4.7 hours per day average sleep -6% of time truck was moving brainwaves said they were asleep
chronic insomnia
-long-term -good sleep "hygiene" -treat with therapies, medication
obvious consequences of sleep deprivation
-lowered functioning of prefrontal cortex -less focus/motivation -less Christ-like
perception of body odor Stevenson and Repacholi (2008)
-male body odor-> naturally abrasive or learned? -children and teens name and hedonically evaluate a) male sweat b) butanol- smells bad (kids did not like) c) caramel -findings -teen women only group that said sweat smelled bad -people who could name scent -> said it smells bad -learned
consequences of sleep debt
-more easily irritated, self-centered, less motivated (tasks dependent on prefrontal cortex)
NREM sleep
-not REM 1. wake up, might not know you're asleep 2. when you sleepwalk/talk 3. wake up, could sleep through fire alarm -higher # stage, deeper the sleep; always brain activity
why poor memory for dreams?
-not culturally important -adaptive; inhibit memory of dreams (maybe so we don't confuse dreams with REAl memories)
Freud
-not doing psych, but influential in society -biology is destiny-> can't trust females
intermittent/partial reinforcement
-not reinforced every time -longer learning, more persistent -ex. slot machines
The D.J. and Randy Gardner
-over 200 hours no sleep -paranoid delusions (bc of stimulants), but didn't die -experienced microsleeps (brief periods of sleep that intrude into wakefulness
minimum requirements for pain
-pain receptors need to fire -capsaicin-> ingredient in chili peppers, main ingredient in pain relieving cream (stop firing pain receptors) -perception of pain in brain -endorphins-> neurotransmitters similar to dopamine/morphine -high vs. low pain tolerance (high vs low perception)
Rorschach- Ink Blot test
-part of having mental health problems is having a break with reality -people who perceive reality correctly vs. those who don't -not good scientific evidence
Brooks (2008)
-people involuntarily unemployed less likely to say they are happy -control over life = happier
strobe light study
-people sleep deprived, taped eyelids open, strobe light, subject pushed button when light flashed -sometimes didn't push bc sometimes asleep
best spin on Freud
-popularized ideas -past affects present -some of mind is unconscious -importantly wrong, even with concepts popularized
correlation- direction
-positive & negative -2 variables rise and fall together
fixed ratio
-predictable and based on target behavior -ex. snack after reading 30 pages
fixed interval
-predictable and based on time passing -ex. checking clock as end of class nears
divided consciousness view Reed et al (1996)
-random assignment- hypnotized and not -listen to two tones- which is louder-> hypnotized between tones -in between tones- go deeper into hypnosis (may not hear 2nd tone) -say 1st tone louder- people pretending -say 2nd tone louder- people really hypnotized
Social influence view Orne and Evans (1965)
-random assignment- some hypnotized, some pretend -dip hand in soap and fling it in other guy's face -> told liquid was acid -both groups did it
REM sleep
-rapid eye movement -similar to brain activity while awake, voluntary muscles paralyzed -most vivid dream-like state
charismatics vs. reformed- pain perception
-reformed -> catastrophizing -charismatic -> reappraisal
continuous reinforcement
-reinforcement every time -fastest learning, fastest extinction (TB ceases to happen) -ex. vending machines
defense mechanisms
-repression -denial-> not unconscious -sublimation-> channel impulse into something socially acceptable
PREP
-skills based program -teach skills for marriage -women -> expressive communication -men -> active listening (can paraphrase what was said, no sarcasm) -make dating a priority -research-based program -causes people to be more likely to get married
intelligence: basic principles of testing
-standardization->compare performance to representative sample, everyone taking tests under highly similar conditions -reliability-> consistency in measurements -validity-> measuring what we intended to measure?
what is hypnosis?
-state of increased suggestibility (NOT gullibility)
variable interval rates of responding
-steady response rate
What is science? (Popper)
-subject to revision and rejection -human finitude
What is science? (Stanovich)
-systematic empiricism -publicly verifiable -solvable problems
acute insomnia
-temporary -life event (death) -treat w/ ambien
schedules of reinforcement
-typically positive reinforcement -frequency of reinforcement affects learning
variable ratio
-unpredictable and based on target behavior -ex. slot machines
variable interval
-unpredictable and based on time passing -ex. checking phone for texts when on silent mode
Albert Bandura et al.
-vicarious reinforcement: ability to imagine effects of reinforcement (big break for behaviorism which emphasized personal reinforcement) -vicarious punishment: ability to imagine effects of punishment
does reinforcing children hurt creativity?
-when reinforcement is contingent on performance creativity doesn't suffer -standard of performance-> specific for child
gender differences
-women express more emotion -women identify emotion in others better -women and men have same physiological changes -cognitive appraisal? -> we don't know if men are as emotional
Familiar Size
A depth cue based on our knowledge of the typical size of an object
Fire Steps
1) Threshold of Excitation is reached 2) sodium gates open up, filling the cell with sodium ions, bumping the charge up to +50mV 3) sodium gates shut and potassium gates open, causing potassium to pour out of the cell, decreasing its charge to -80mV, known as hyperpolarization 4) charge slowly returns to normal
Taijin Kyofusho
Fear of offending others
The Scientific Method
1. FORMULATE a testable hypothesis 2. DESIGN a study to collect data 3. ANALYZE the data to arrive at conclusions 4. REPORT the results
The five key ethical guidelines/provisions (supplied by the APA) for research with human participants responsible for definitions and/or explanations
1. Informed consent and voluntary participation 2. Students as research participants 3. The use of deception 4. Confidentiality of information 5. Information about the study and debriefing
Stimulus Control
Changing the stimulus around you to stop temptation
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
3 intelligence types: -Analytical Intelligence: solving math problems and analyzing info -Creative Intelligence: creativity and innovative problem solving -Practical Intelligence: how to succeed every day. Street smarts
Stice et al (2000)
3 session intervention with thin ideal students. They did role play about the thin ideal and wrote about it. After a few months, they displayed greater body satisfaction
Relative size
A depth cue based on the apparent size of an object compared to other objects
Neologisms
Invented words
Ventricles
4 space in which the brain produces CSF
Occlusion
A depth cue based on the fact that objects are perceived as closer when they occlude, or block, farther objects
Cultures and Self
Cultures can influence our ideas of self
Action Potential
4: Resting State 6: Threshold of Excitation 12: Hyperpolorization and return to resting state
DSM V
5th edition of a commonly used book to diagnose disorders
how much sleep do you need?
7 1/2 - 8 1/2 hours
Blood Brain Barrier
A barrier that helps to protect the brain from substances in the blood
Healing Touch
A belief that people could heal by touch, proved wrong when practitioners could not heal a 10-year-old girl with touch and challenged by James Randi with a $1M reward for proof
Acquiescence
A bias that involves the tendency to agree with questions
Social Desirability
A bias that involves the tendency to answer in ways that will always look good
Inferior Colliculus
A brain structure involved in locating sounds
Superior Colliculus
A brain structure involved in the processing of movement, including movements of the eyes and the perception of moving objects
Nerve
A bundle of axons
Experimental Research
A carefully controlled scientific procedure that involves the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect.
Immune neglect
A cause of impact bias that involves failing to appreciate that our psychological immune system helps us to cope with negative events
Focalism
A cause of impact bias that involves focusing on an event and failing to consider other things that will enter our minds later
Wason Selecting Task
A classic if then test revolving around letters and numbers on cards. Testers were told to come up with a rule, but many failed as they did not try to discredit themselves
Persistent Depressive Disorder
A combination of chronic major depressive disorder and dysthymia, resulting in a long lasting hollowness rather than sadness
Info Storage
A complex topic that has many ways of being understood
Episodic Buffer
A component of Baddeley's model that integrates information from different systems, such as verbal and spatial information
Phonological Loop
A component of Baddeley's model that stores auditory information and also includes a rehearsal (or articulatory) process
Visuospatial sketchpad
A component of Baddeley's model that stores visual images and spatial information
Central Executive
A component of Baddeley's model that supervises the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad and makes decisions about what to attend to
Primary Appraisal
A component of transactional theory in which we evaluate a potential stressor
Second Appraisal
A component of transactional theory in which we evaluate our ability to cope with an event
The Self
A concept of a person's being
Synthesia
A condition in which perceptions are experienced in multiple channels, such as seeing lightening bolts in response to a certain sounds or seeing black and white text in color
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
A condition in which the body produces additional androgen Girls with CAH might have male features (genitals, facial hair). Boys with CAH might enter puberty as early as age 2
Culture of Honor
A culture in which it is more acceptable to respond aggressively to a threat to ones honor
Linear Prospective
A depth cue based on the fact that, because parallel lines appear to converge toward the horizon, objects that are located where the lines appear farther apart are perceived as closer
LeDoux Circuit
A direct pathway from the thalamus to the amygdala and an indirect pathway from the thalamus to the amygdala by way of the cortex...that makes no sense ok.
Inattentional Blindness
A failure to detect something because we are not paying attention, even though the information is reaching our senses
Myelin
A fatty substance that wraps around axons to increase the spread of nerve impulses traveling down the axon
Insight
A flash of realization where one suddenly hits upon a solution
Antisocial/ Dyssocial Personality Disorder
A focus on personal desires, lack of concern for others, and impulsive, risky behavior.
Instrumental Aggression
A form of aggression in which the aggressive behavior is a means to accomplish another goal
Optimism
A learned characteristic that predicts mental health and promotes long term health
Gene
A major unit of hereditary transmission
Decibels
A measure of loudness. The decibel scale compresses the huge differences in amplitude to make them more manageable
Hertz
A measure of the sound wave. Greater amplitude is perceived as a louder sound
Oval Window
A membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear
Absentmindedness
A memory problem in which we can't recall information because we weren't paying enough attention to encode it properly
Confederate
A person who seems to be a participant, but is actually working with the experimenter
Misattribution
A mistake in deciding the cause of arousal, such as thinking fear is attraction
Source Misattribution
A mistake in remembering the source of a memory
Compensation
A motivation to get better at something as a reaction to feeling inferior
Set Point
A natural weight range for our bodies
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter. Low levels have been implicated in depression as well as impulsive and violent behavior
Lateral hypothalamus
A part of the hypothalamus that initiates eating
Apparent Motion
A perceptual phenomenon in which objects appear to move even though they are stationary
Proactive Interference
A problem in recalling newer information because older information interferes
Confound
A problem in which there are multiple explanations for an experimental result, making it difficult to know why the result occured
Retroactive Interference
A problem recalling older information because newer information interferes
Free Association
A psychoanalytic technique in which the client talks about whatever comes to mind
Expected Utility Theory
A rational model for economic decision making, argued false by some
Expected Utility Theory
A rational model of economic decision-making
Direction Problem
A reason why causation cannot be inferred from correlation. If two variables are correlated, either might cause the other
Third Variable Problem
A reason why causation cannot be inferred from correlation. If two variables are correlated, neither might cause the other because both are caused by a third variable
Collectivist Cultures
Cultures emphasizing the group, producing self-sacrificing people
***Descriptive Research methods*** (Contains important subcategories w/o flashcards)
A research method in which researcher observes and records behavior and mental processes without manipulating variables. Procedures involving systematically observing behavior to describe relationship b/w behavior and events. Includes Naturalistic Observation, Case Studies, Surveys, and Correlational Studies. (Know these strategies).
Ambiguous Stimulus
A seemingly random thing that tells us about the unconscious
Purkinje Shift
A shift that occurs in dim light, with greater sensitivity to colors toward the blue end of the spectrum
Cochlea
A snail-shaped structure in the auditory system that contains the structures of the inner ear
Homeostasis
A state of balance or contentment
Meta-analysis
A statistical technique for combining and analyzing data from many studies in order to determine overall trends.
Factor Analysis
A statistical technique that can be used to extract relatively few groups, called factors, from many personality questions
Basilar Membrane
A structure in the auditory system that vibrates when sound waves reach the ear and so causes hair cells to release neurotransmitters
Retrospective Study
A study that looks backward (to the past) to try to identify potential causes
Prospective Study
A study that looks forward (to the future) to try to identify potential causes
Spontaneous Recovery m
A sudden recovery of an extinct response
Propositional calculus
A system for categorizing different types of conditional reasoning
Dichotic Listening
A task in which two messages are presented simultaneously, one to the right ear and one to the left ear
Meta-analysis
A technique for statistically combining the results of many studies
Multiple Errands Task
A test of cognitive deficits that requires people to shop for certain items, to be at a certain location at a certain time, to record some information and follow certain rules
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
A test of cognitive flexibility
Rep Test
A test to identify constructs
Prospect Theory
A theory of economic decision making that describes biases in how people make decisions
Cannon-Bard Theory
A theory of emotion that suggests that information from the thalamus activates physiological reactions (increased heart-rate) and cognitive reactions simultaneously
Eclectic
A therapist who draws from a variety of orientations or techniques
Denying the Consequent (then)
Denying the then part. Also denies the if part
Placebo
A trick treatment sometimes used to treat stress
Conditional Reasoning
A type of deductive reasoning that involves if-then propositions
Logotherapy
A type of existential therapy that emphasizes the importance of finding meaning in life
Script
A type of schema that has a sequence
Herpes Simplex Encephalitis (HSE)
A viral infection the brain that can damage the temporal lobes and hippocampus and cause memory loss
Atkinson-Shiffrin model
A well-known memory model with three main storage areas: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory
Mania
Dependent love of Sternberg's model
Personality Types
A: hostile B: Relaxed C: controlled (cancer risk) D: Distressed
Deviation IQ
An IQ score based on one's performance compared to others in one's age group
Ratio IQ
An IQ score equal to (mental age divided by chronological age) times 100
Individualist Culture
Cultures emphasizing the individual, producing independent, accountable people
Push Pulling
Asking an incriminating question before the actual one to change results
Exner Method
Asking people to identify an ink blot and asking them how they see it. Looking for rarity, not bizarity
Organic Amnesia
Amnesia caused by brain damage, and any damage can cause this
Resilience
Ability to get back up after a stressful situation
Main predictor of psychological disorder
Abnormality (implies detrimental effect)
Negative Symptoms
Absence of characteristics present in normal people
Goal Attainment
Achieving goals. High levels predict manic episodes due to the sufferer's reward sensitivity.
Reciprocity
Acting to others how they act to us, like liking someone who likes us. Increases relationship potential
Affirming the Consequent (then)
Affirming the then is true. Leads to invalid reasoning as many other ifs could have led to the then
Sunk Cost
After money is spent, we keep going with the experience to avoid wasting money
Rorschach Test
The ink blot test
Sodium-potassium pump
Actively moves sodium out of the cell and brings potassium
Broadly Beneficial Activities
Activities that aid mood disorders by being overall beneficial, i.e. exercising, relaxing, and practicing one's faith
Langer et al (1978): copier study
Adding "because" to a request to use the copier ahead of someone granted near 100% compliance due to people assuming a good reason
Positive Reinforcement
Addition of something positive when target behavior is performed
Conformity
Adjusting one's behavior to match that over others
Edward Titchener
Advocated for Structuralism, believing that there is a structure of the conscious experience, and downing Volunterism, the idea that consciousness is an act of will
Human Connectome Project (HCP)
Aims to create a 3D map of brain neural pathways by combining brain-imaging data from hundreds of participants
GAS
Alarm, resistance, exhaustion
Regression
Allows one variable to accurately predict another
Spreading Alternatives
Alternatives seem more different (ones we choose better and ones we don't not) after we choose than before
Culture of Thinness
America nowadays prompts incredibly skinny girls, something unobtainable
Organic Amnesia
Amnesia caused by brain damage
Review how a neuron transmits a signal to another
An action potential travels along the axon of the post-synaptic neuron, leading to synaptic vesicles in its synaptic cleft to be released into the synapse. They release neurotransmitters to the synapse, where they bind to the receptor sites (specific to each neurotransmitter) of the post-synaptic neuron. The receptor transmits the signal along the dentrite of the post-synaptic neuron, leading to an action potential that is carried down the axon terminal to another neuron. The neurotransmitters fall off the receptor sites, at which point they will either be recycled by the pre-synaptic neuron (reuptake) or they will be broken down by enzymes in the synapse.
Self-actualization
An aspect of the humanistic perspective that involves fulfilling one's potential
Self-Actualization
An aspect of the humanistic perspective that involves fulfilling ones potential
Self-Actualization
An aspect of the humanistic perspective that involves fulfilling ones' potential
Attitude
An evaluation; a judgement from good to bad. Develops from experience, learning, genetics, etc.
Randomized Clinical Trial
An experiment designed to evaluate a treatment
Prototype
An ideal example. Info is stored like this. For example, when you ask for a bird, you probably think of a robin. The same goes for names
Disinhibition
An impairment of mechanisms that normally inhibit aggression
Humanistic Psychology
An important movement in psychology that suggested psychology should focus on distinctively human qualities
Case Study
An in-depth investigation of a single person or small group of people
Jiko-Shisen-Kyofu
Fear that one's glance will offend others
Nature-Nurture Controversy
An ongoing dispute about the relative contributions of nature and nurture in determining the development of behavior and mental process.
Theory
An organized, interrelated set of concepts that explain a phenomenon or body of data. An explanation that tries to integrate/account for relationships b/w findings and observations
Self Report
Asking people to report what they think. Common and easy, but not always reliable as people don't want to reveal undesirable personality traits
Interpersonal Self
Aspect of self presented to others as a result of social interaction
Positive Punishment
Application of something unpleasant when a target behavior is performed
Treatments for depression
Are as followed
Thorndike and his Puzzle Cats
As cats did an action that released them from boxes, they repeated the actions more quickly
Diminishing Sensitivity
As gains and loses increase, further changes have less of an impact
Demand Characteristics
Aspects of an investigation that tip of participants about what the researchers would like to find. As a result, participants might try to help the researchers
Expressed Emotion
Assessment of criticism, hostility, or emotional ovrtinvoovement by caregivers. High levels predict relapse
Major Depression
Associated more with women, though men still have it. It has a high lifetime prevalence and is accompanied by restlessness, self loathing, guilt, etc.
Stimulus Enhancement
Attention is directed to stimulus
Yale Approach
Attitude change is influenced by the source of the message, the message, and the audience
Electrostatic pressure
Attraction between particles of opposite charge and repulsion between particles of like charge
Hair Cells
Auditory receptors that release neurotransmitters when the hair bend
Avoidant Personality Disorder
Avoidance of interpersonal relationships, low self esteem, and anxiety regarding social situations
Forgetting
Basically, info can be lost from our minds through no action of our own
Acrostic
Like acronym, but a phrase is created (the planet memory phrase)
Cognitive Restructuring
Bad thoughts to good ones
Reciprocal Determinism
Bandura's idea that personality, behavior and the environment influence one another
chunk
a cohesive unit of information
Habituation
Becoming less responsive to a stimulus as it appears more frequently
What are the eight major perspectives?
Behavioral, Humanistic, Cognitive, Biological, Evolutionary, Psychodynamic, Positive Psychology, and Cross-Cultural
Psychotic Disorder / Psychosis
Being out of touch with reality
Prejudice
Belief or feeling, typically negative, about a group before we know said group
Anxiety Sensitivity
Belief that anxiety has negative social and physical consequences even after an episode. Leads to more episodes
Stereotype
Belief we hold about the characteristics of a group
Stanovich
Believed in Systematic Empiricism (observations) and that science must be able to be publicly verifiable and deal with solvable problems
John B. Watson
Believed in behaviorism, which focused on studying the effects of behavior exclusively. Also believed children were blank slates
Ethnocentrism
Believing one's culture is typical of all cultures, is central and correct, and judging others by this standard.
Do global personality traits exist?
Big 5: yes! Walter Mischel: no!
Coronary Heart Disease
Biggest killer in the US, caused by hostility and poor eating
Pheromones
Biochemicals that travel through the air and are detected by smell
Behavioral Inhibition
Biological anxiety disorder development factor involving fear of new situations, predicted by cortisol
Hypothalmic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis
Biological anxiety disorder development factor involving the hormonal stress response system being more active in people prone to anxiety
The thirteen major psych specialties
Biological, School, Clinical, Health, Experimental, Industrial/Organizational, Social, Applied, Educational, Cognitive, Developmental, Counseling, and Personality
Instincts
Biologically built in impulses that lead the relatively inflexible behaviors
Old-Fashioned Racism
Blatant racism
Stress
Body's reaction to stressors
Reason for the reaction of Zimbardo's Study
Boredom and lack of supervision
Double-Blind Study
Both the researcher and the participants are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group.
Male Identification according to Freud
Boys want mom, but they can't kill dad to get mom, so they act like dad to get someone like mom
Cochlear Nucleus and Superior Olive
Brain structures involved in hearing. It is between these two structures that much of the auditory information crosses over to the other side of the brain
Neuroplasticity
Brain's ability to reorganize and change it's structure and function throughout lifespan.
Means-end analysis
Breaking larger problems into smaller problems
Means-End Analysis
Breaking problems into smaller subgoals
Strice's Theory
Bulimic symptoms are caused by dieting and negative affects, caused by pressure to be thin and body dissatisfaction stemming from a thin ideal internalization
Stephan
Bullet injury improved manners
Houlihan et al (1990): bill and balloons
By flooding a man with fear of balloons, his fear was conquered in 3 days. Phobias are learned and can be unlearned.
Lifetime Prevalence
Likelihood of developing the disorder in one's lifetime
Episodic Memory
Memory of experiences
Message Framing
Changing terminology to promote change, like using good terms to persuade someone to do something and bad terms to stop them
Simultaneous Conditioning
CS and US presented at the same time
Forward Conditioning
CS presented before US, leading to stronger learning
Frontal Lobe Damage
Can cause impairments, and more rarely, improvements. Can also decrease attention span
Social Desirability and Religion
Can cause religiosity measurements to be screwed as most people associate religion as a positive social characteristic
Genes
Can effect our personality, such as different syndromes. But the environment also effects personality.
Observational Learning or Modeling
Can lead to fear
Conditional Positive Regard
Care and approval that are given only under certain circumstances
Unconditional Positive Regard
Care and approval that are given unconditionally
Humanistic
Carl Rogers, people are inherently good, listen to our organism
Optic Nerve
Carries information from the eye father down the visual pathway
Optic Nerves
Carry information from the eyes farther down the visual pathway
Overestimation of Threat
Cause of OCD. Feeling that an intrusive thought could lead to severe consequences.
Thought-Action Fusion
Cause of OCD. Idea that having a bad thought is as bad as doing the action, leading to thinking that thinking of an action will cause it to happen
Inflated Responsibility
Cause of OCD. Tendency for one to take responsibility for an outcome, no matter how little one's role in it was
Korsakoff's syndrome
Caused by a thiamine deficiency (often from chronic alcoholism), which can damage the thalamus and mamillary bodies and cause memory loss
Gray matter
Cell bodies
Horizontal Cells and Amacrine Cells
Cells in the retina that enable communication between adjacent cells
Bipolar Cells
Cells in the retina that relay information from rods and cones to ganglion cells
Photoreceptors
Cells that are sensitive to light
Glial Cells
Cells that help to take care of nuerons
Spiral Ganglion Cells
Cells that make up the auditory nerve
Ganglion Cells
Cells that make up the optic nerve
two major divisions of the nervous system
Central and Peripheral
Goal of Behavioral Therapy
Change of behavior
Goal of Cognitive Therapy
Change the way one thinks to help ease disorders. One wishes to stop warped thinking
Framing
Changes our reaction
Social Rythm Disruptions
Changes that affect ones sleep and wake cycle. Causes manic episodes.
Recategorization
Changing "us" and "them" into a single group
Cognitive Restructuring
Changing negative thoughts to constructive, positive ones
Cognitive Restructuring
Changing the negative thought of the fear into a positive one
Positive Symptoms
Characteristics present in the sufferer but not on most people
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Characterized by anxiety-provoking "obsessions" and the relief-bringing "compulsions"
Personality Disorder
Characterized by dysfunctional self and interpersonal self and long term maladaptive personality traits
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Characterized by inattentiveness, hyperacticity, or both
Ions
Charged particles, such as sodium and chloride
Chase and Simon (1973)
Chess players remembered piece placement better if the pieces were put there by moves, not randomly
Procedural Memory
Memory of how things are done
Zajonc et al (1969): cockroach study
Cockroaches were put in a maze with 2 exits, a fast one and a slow one. When watched by other cockroaches, they were faster down a straight path and slower down a maze, as if confused, despite knowing the way
Attributional Retraining
Cognitive restructuring focusing on changing attributions
Geen (1984)
College students chose study areas in accordance with Eysenck's theory: introverts with low noise, extroverts with high noise
College Student Syndrome
College students eat badly, don't exercise, and don't sleep enough, resulting in higher chances of depression
Aggregation (controversial)
Combining across instances, like combining many behaviors to determine personality on average
Aggregation
Combining across instances, such as combining many behaviors to see the effect of personality on behavior
Availability Heuristic
Coming to a conclusion based off of how readily available examples are
Evaluating the Trait Perspective
Common and easy to understand, but doesn't explain personality; only describes it
Downward Social Comparison
Comparing ourselves to the less capable, causing an esteem increase
Upward Social Comparison
Comparing ourselves to the more capable, causing an esteem decline
Lowball Technique
Compliance strategy in which an agreement is made but then hidden costs are revealed. The agreement is made, so people don't want to back out
Reciprocal Concession
Compliance strategy involving concession from a large initial request prompting others to be more compliant
Bait and Switch / Lure Technique
Compliance strategy involving drawing someone in with a deal and then switching to another deal
Visuospacial Sketchpad
Component of Working Memory Model that stores visual images and spacial info
Central nervous system
Composed of the brain and the spinal cord
Freudians and Dreams
Composed of what one sees (manifest content) and what the dream implies about the unconscious (latent content)
Neutralizing Effect
Compulsion that involves reversing an obsession, like thinking good thoughts
Symmetry
Concept of beauty referring to matching left and right sides of the body
Averageness
Concept of beauty referring to the degree to which one has typical rather than atypical features
Personal Constructs
Concepts that we use to understand the world
Personal Constructs
Concepts we used to identify the world
Evaluation Apprehension
Concern about ones performance being judged by others, leading to social facilitation or inhibition
Greenwald (1975)
Concluded that readings of the good Samaritan were more likely to influence helping, but the experiment had low power and this it did not show the results
Conditional Positive Regard
Conditional care and approval. Increases the effect of the care, but decreases self actualization
Terms to know
Conditioned and unconditional stimuli and responses
Applications
Conditioned taste aversion, conditioned emotional response, and tolerance
Trace Conditioning
Conditioning in which CS is presented during and after appearance of the US
Delayed Conditioning
Conditioning n which CS is presented before and during appearance of the US
Inhibitory Conditioning
Conditioning that inhibits a response
Excitatory Conditioning
Conditioning that produces a response
Aversive Conditioning
Conditioning using aversion things
Appetitive Conditioning
Conditioning using pleasant things
Normative Influence
Conformity in which people conform because they want to fit in and be liked
Exposure Therapy
Confrontation of feared stimulus to overcome the fear
Interneurons
Connect to sensory or motor neurons to other interneurons
Super Ego
Considers morality and ethics. It includes the ego ideal, which encourages us to do right and causes us to feel proud when we do, and the conscience, which discourages us from doing wrong and causes us to feel guilt or shame when we do
Consistency
Consistency of behavior across time
Sustained Attention
Continuously paying attention over a period of time, often because we are searching for something or watching to see if something will happen
Attitude-Behavior Constancy
Correlation between attitudes and behavior. Not always a predicting relationship
Kozielecki
Correlation between parental divorce and how common someone thinks divorce is
Alfred Binet
Created first intelligence test by relating people's intelligence to the average of the age group
Freeman and Wattz
Created the lobotomy, though Freeman did it behind Wattz' back with an ice lick
What can critical thinking tell us?
Critical thinking helps distinguish theories and data, considers whether or not biases exist, and helps us to be as objective and fair as possible.
Daily Hassles
Daily hard times that stress you out
Inductive Reasoning
Data driven reasoning that reasons from specific info to general info
Narcolepsy
Daytime sleepiness, especially during emotional events
Situational Attributions
Deciding circumstances are the cause of behavior
Dispositional Attributions
Deciding personality is the cause of behavior
Conditional Reasoning
Deductive reasoning involving if-then propositions
Denial
Defense mechanism in which thoughts reach the conscious but we deny them
Sublimation
Defense mechanism involved in channeling info from the subconscious into a socially acceptable output
Repression
Defense mechanism to keep info in the subconscious
Contingency
Degree to which CS and US are related. One must indicate the other to prompt learning
Distinctiveness
Degree to which a behavior is unusual across circumstances
Generalization Gradient
Degree to which generalization falls off
Self-Efficacy
Degree to which one has confidence in their ability to succeed
Self-Monitoring
Degree to which people evaluate social situations and adjust their personality to match
Self Relevance
Degree to which skill is important to oneself, dictating which social comparison is used
Contiguity
Degree to which two events happen closely in time
Locus of Control
Degree to which we think our actions matter. Internal if we think it is high, external if we think it is low.
Delusional Disorder
Delusions but no other common schizophrenia symptoms
Negative Cognitive Triad
Depressed people have negative views of themselves, their world, and their future
Monocular Cues
Depth cues that require only one eye
Aim of Pychology
Describe, predict, explain, and change
General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)
Describes 3 stages of reactions to stressful events: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion
Prospect Theory
Describes how people make risky decisions
Cognitive Remediation
Designed to improve cognitive functioning of schizophrenic individuals
Masculine Protest
Desire to become stronger and independent, common in children. Can be in women if femininity is not valued
Reactance
Desire to reinstate one's freedom when one feels it is limited
Ratio IQ
Determined by Stanford-Binet test: (Mental age)/(chronological age) * 100
German Time Cue Study
Determined the SCN is a 25 hour clock by removing day and night stimulus
Sana et al.
Did two experiments, one measuring multitasking during a lecture. It found that the multitaskers scored an average of 55% and got a 2.7/5 on note efficiency while the normal note takers scored an average of 66% and a 4.1/5 in note accuracy. In Experiment 2, they studied people distracted by other students' computer screens. The control group, who did not see screens, scored an average of 66% while those affected by confederate computer users scored only 50%
Stroop Effect
Difficulty in naming the ink color of color words when the color word differs from the ink color
Anterograde Amnesia (AA)
Difficulty in remembering new things
Retrograde Amnesia (RA)
Difficulty in remembering things that were learned before the damage
Retrograde Amnesia (RA)
Difficulty remembering events prior to trauma
Anterograde Amnesia (AA)
Difficulty remembering new things after trauma
Blunted Affect
Diminished emotional response
Extinction
Disappearance of a response when the US no longer accompanies the CS
Unrealistic Expectations
Discounting the situation when we do not know the degree to which the situation influenced behavior
Conscience
Discourages is from doing wrong and makes is feel guilt or shame when we do
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Disorder caused by a traumatic event which triggers stress-related symptoms like anxiety or guilt. CBT is a good treatment for this
Bipolar II Disorder
Disorder characterized by periods of depression and hypomania
Bipolar I Disorder (Manic-Depressive)
Disorder characterized by periods of depression and mania
Culture Bound
Disorder specific to a culture
Scrupulosity
Disorder that involve intense worry that one has violated religious standards, even if one hasn't, an thoughts or behaviors that reduce anxiety. Treatments are similar to those for OCD
Schizoaffective Disorder
Disorder with a combination of schizophrenic and manic or depressive symptoms
Anxiety Disorder
Disorder with excessive irrational anxiety as a commonality
Panic Disorders
Disorders characterized by recurrent attacks of intense anxiety
Chaining
Displaying a behavior in parts and learning parts in forward or backward order
Godden and Braddley (1975)
Divers taught and tested on shore and underwater tested better in their respective environments
Discomfort in Others
Does it hurt others?
Personal Distress
Does it negatively impact your life?
Seligman and Maier (1967): shocking dogs
Dogs shocked could relieve pain by pushing a lever, but when it stopped working they stopped pushing it, eventually not even trying to leave the painful situation
Cognitive Perspective
Dominant perspective about how we think and feel
Dream Video
Dreams are associations made up in the mind, thus association ability increases as we sleep
Activation Synthesis
Dreams are meaningless and based on random inputs from neurons
Domhoff's View
Dreams may be meaningful. By the continuity principle, we dream of things we think about during the day
Primary Drives
Drives to obtain things that are naturally rewarding such as food
Secondary drives (or acquired drives)
Drives to obtain things that we have learned to find rewarding, such as money
Tend and Befriend
During stress, people seek connections and care
Serotonin
Emotional states, sleep, sensory perception Too little causes Depression
Attitude Accessibility
Ease with which an attitude comes to mind. Predicts behavior well if it is high.
Prospect Theory
Economic decision making that describes biases in how people make decisions. People are risk averse when confronted with gains and risk seeking when confronted with losses
Mood Disorder
Emotional disorder characterized by extremes along the continuum from happiness to sadness
Victor Frankl
Emphasized a person's ability to find meaning anywhere
Mischel
Emphasized how we categorized the world
Bandura
Emphasized reinforcement of expectations
George Kelly and Personal Constructs
Emphasized the way people think of others
Trait Perspective
Emphasizes actual traits that make up personality
Evaluating the Humanistic, Existential, and Phenomenological Perspective
Emphasizes important, individual, human issues, but does not emphasize investigation.
Value Violation/Threat
Encountering a person who behaves in ways that conflict with our values. Religious people experience this towards gay people, which explains a decrease in help given to them
Virtual-Reality Exposure
Encountering the feared stimulus in a simulated reality
Ego Ideal
Encourages us to do right and feel good about it
Eppling and Pierce (1988)
Enduced anorexia in rats. They did so by decreasing the duration in which rats could eat whole allowing exercise. Those without exercise did well as they slowed down. Those with exercise did poorly as they increased activity to "run away" from the famine. This increases there endorphin level and led to decreased appetite.
Neurotic Trends
Enduring personality traits forced as a way to cope with an anxiety-provoking world
Comparison Process
Esteem booking or maintenance through comparison
Primary Appraisal
Evaluate of stressor is good or bad
Secondary Appraisal
Evaluate our ability to cope
Jones and Harris (1967): essayist personality
Even when told the essayist had no control over what he wrote about (i.e. told to write about something), readers believed his personality lied congruent with his writing
Delusions of Reference
Events refer to oneself even if they don't
Glutamate
Excitatory messages Too much causes seizures, Too much causes Alzheimer's disease
Burnout
Exhaustion due to stress
Logotherapy
Existential therapy that emphasizes finding meaning in life
Perceptual Set
Expectations that can influence perception
Henry Molaison
Experienced AA, forgetting jokes told moments ago or old conversations
Randomized Clinical Trial
Experiment designed for treatment evaluation
Pahoke (1966): Good Friday Experiment
Experiment in which one group was given entheogens before a black Friday service and one was not. The group given the drugs had mystical experiences
Causal Attributions
Explanations for behavior
Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP)
Exposing a person to a stimulus but then preventing the performance of the compulsion
Light Therapy
Exposure of someone to bright lights to combat SAD
Catastrophic Misinterpretation
Extreme or incorrect interpretations for ambiguous body sensations. High in people suffering from panic disorder
Social Phobia
Extreme or unreasonable anxiety with regard to social situations
Catatonic Behavior
Extreme unresponsiveness interrupted by intense activity
Narcissism
Extremely high esteem accompanied by views that one deserves admiration or special treatment
Arousal theory
Eysenck's theory suggests that people desire an optimal state of arousal, and so might seek out relaxing activities to reduce arousal or exciting activities to raise arousal
Evaluating the Biological Perspective
Factors are predisposition, not causes
Conjunction Fallacy
Failing to recognize a combination of events is not more likely than the individual events alone
Faith influences on motivation and emotion
Faith alters perception and learning but also influences motivation, sexual permissiveness, and sometimes aggression (increases perception, motivation, and learning, decreases permissiveness, but has both influences on aggression)
Lindsay et al (1981)
Fake thefts set up in poor viewing conditions resulted in high estimations of eye witnesses with high faith on the part for the witnesses
Specific Phobia
Fear of a specific stimulus or situation
Basic Anxiety
Fear of being helpless and alone, caused by being insecurely attached
Stereotype Threat
Fear that one's performance will confirm a stereotype, causing poor performance due to anxiety, confirming the stereotype. Common in IQ tests.
Relative Deprivation
Feeling deprived compared to others
Mystical Experience
Feeling of encountering or communing with God, oneness with the universe, or nothingness
Numinous Experience
Feeling that one is communing with a supernatural being
Animus
Female's idea of a male
Phonemic Restoration
Filling in missing speech sounds
Francis C. Sumner
First African American to earn a Ph.D. in psych
Margaret Floy Washburn
First American woman to earn a Ph.D. in psych
Wundt
First psychologist (1879), introspection
First Generation Antipsychotics (FGA)
First wave of antipsychotic medication
Omega 3 Fatty Acids
Fish oil that helps neuron growth and prevent cognitive decline due to age. May also help ease mood disorders.
Insight
Flash realizations when one finally hits a solution. That "Ahah!" moment
Gestalt Psychologists
Focused on perception die to it being more than just as sum of the parts. Liked insight
Transience
Forgetting due to info fading over time. Herman Ebbinghaus suggested unused info and nonsense fades away over time.
Transcience
Forgetting occurs because the information fades away
Abraham Maslow
Formed Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, suggesting people must have a goal of self actualization
Hippocampus
Forms explicit memory. Damage destroys ability to make these, but you can still make implicit ones
Brown and Jenkins (1968)
Found Autoshaping when illuminating a sign when pigeons fed to attract pigeons with light. This is known as sign tracking
Christiansen-Szalenski et al (1983)
Found doctors attribute risk of dying with amount of journals published about it
Sloan et al (1979): proof for behavioral therapy
Found that people do not substitute symptoms.
Internal Working Model
Framework that describes how relationships work, which provide a basis for future relationships, including ones with God
Base Rate
Frequency or number of something. High values offset the representative heuristic
Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud's idea about the mind, divided into the unconscious and conscious. Main battles are ego vs. superego (action vs. morality) and id vs. superego (pleasure vs. morality)
Psychodynamic
Freud's personality perspective, which emphasizes aspects of personality that are active and in conflict
Psychodynamic Model
Freud's perspective. States disorders are caused by unconscious thoughts coming into the conscious
Psychoanalysis
Freud's therapy that tries to access the unconscious to find causes for disorders
Psychoanalysis
Freudian Therapy. Disorders can be caused by unconscious problems
Psychoanalysis
Freudian therapy. From the psychoanalytical perspective, disorders can be caused by unconscious problems, so a primary goal of therapy is to gain insight into what is buried in ones unconscious so those problems can be addressed
MMPI
From the personality chapter. Is used to test for psychological disorders
Manifest Content
From the psychoanalytical perspective, what a dream really means
Fixation
From the psychodynamic perspective, psychic energy that is stuck at a psychosexual stage of development causes characteristics of that stage to be present in the adult personality
Cognitive Control
Frontal lobes and prefrontal cortex are involved in making decisions and self control
Compliance
Fulfilling a request from a peer
Self-Actualization
Fulfilling ones potential
Difference between Functional Plasticity and Structural Plasticity
Functional plasticity refers to the brain's ability to shift functions from damaged parts to undamaged parts of the brain, while structural plasticity refers to its ability to change its structure in response to learning, experience, etc
Vohs and Schooler (2008)
GRE students took tests and self scored. They were paid a dollar per correct answer. Those who were inclined to believe in determinism gave themselves higher scores because they believed missing questions wasn't their fault.
Ludus
Game playing love of Sternberg's model
Nodes of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin
Elaborative Rehearsal
Generating examples. Results on good memory
Biological Causes
Genetics or amygdala and GABA disfunction
Manage sleep debt
Get sleep, use naps well, don't drink caffeine after 12, exercise, and relax
Fallon and Rozin (1985)
Girls think men want them to be thinner than they actually do, and strive to be thinner than that
Female Identification According to Freud
Girls want to be like mom to get dad but also don't want to be like mom because they blame mom for not having penises
Pseudoscience
Give the appearance of science, but are false. Ex: Psychics, mediums, palmists
Superordinate Goals
Goals multiple groups have in common, reducing prejudice as people must work together (sherif et al (1961))
Relapse
Going back to a stopped behavior. It's a real threat
Systematic Desensitization
Gradually working up a hierarchy of fears from least to most scary
Chunking
Groping small pieces of info into fewer larger pieces to make it fit into short term memory
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Had participants judge the speed of cars on collision. Wording with harsh words led groups to faster estimates and even saying there was broken glass present
Diagnosis and Statistics Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
Handbook of criteria for mental disorders for psychologists
Psychodynamic Explanation for Mood Disorders
Hatred for someone else turned inward
Adiposity signals
Hormones that are secreted according to one's body fat and continue until body fat returns to normal
Mirror Nuerons
Have the same structure as motor neurons, but are activated both when an action is performed and when one is observed
Gender Typed Definition
Having a definition stacked against a gender. Depression might affect everyone equally but men normally react in a different way to the emotions
Source Misattribution
Having a memory but forgetting the memory's source
Comorbidity
Having multiple disorders at one time. Very common
Introversion
Having one's energy directed inwards
Extroversion
Having one's energy directed outwards
Deindividuation
Having ones identity hidden; disguise, in darkness, in a crowd
Sensorineural deafness
Hearing Loss caused by damage to the hair cells
Conduction Deafness
Hearing loss that occurs when the ossicles are not functioning properly
Grandiosity
High self esteem or self importance
Grandiose Delusions
Highly elevated views of one's importance
Audience Inhibition
Hindrance to help because others might disapprove
Evaluation of Freud
His ideas are too flexible to be taken as fact. He had good ideas, and is popular for it, but he wasn't always right
Psycholinguistic Perspective
Holds that slips of the tongue are simply us being prepared to say multiple things at once
Transactional Theory
How much stress we feel is determined by our ability to cope
Concensus
How other people think or behave. High concensus if a lot of people believe a point
Self-Presentation / Impression Management
How we present ourselves to others, like wearing a suit to look like a businessman
Deviation IQ
IQ score based on the performance of others in one's age group. This is the modern IQ
aggression in media- Molitor and Hirsch (1994)
IV: exposure to aggression DV: time before getting researcher- proxy for tolerance of aggression
Delusions of Guilt
Idea about guilt for a crime one didn't do
Interactionism
Idea that behavior is caused by the combined effects of situation and personality
Delusions of Control
Idea that one's thoughts are being broadcasted to others or am outside force controls one's thoughts
Law of Parsimony (Occam's Razor)
Idea that theories should be simple unless required to be complex
Constructive Alternativism
Idea that there are different constructs we use to identify the world, changed by situation
Reciprocal Determinism
Idea thay personality, behavior, and environment influence one another
Existential Philosophy
Ideas about meaning and existence, stating that without drive, we aquire worthless things
Epidemiology
Identifies risk factors by studying how medical conditions are distributed in a population
Law of Effect
If an acting produces a positive results, the action is likely to be repeated
Maladaptiveness
If it interferes with one's wellbeing
Base Rate Fallacy
Ignoring the base rate and jumping to heuristics
Rosenhan (1973): healthy people in a mental ward
Illustrated how difficult it is for people to diagnose mental disorders by allowing 8 healthy people into a mental ward. They then had a hard time getting out as the doctors believed they were insane. It wasn't their fault, though, because they viewed all of their actions in light of disorder
Stem Cells
Immature cells that have the potential to develop into almost any type of cell depending on the chemical signals they receive.
Miss
In signal detection terms, thinking that a stimulus is not there when it actually is present (87)
False Alarm
In signal detection terms, thinking that a stimulus is present when it actually isn't present
What is easier to store? Explicit or implicit memory?
Implicit. It is also easier to recall
Erotomanic Delusions
Impossible ideas about attraction or sexuality
Delusions
Impossible or extremely implausible ideas
Overconfidence
Improves your confidence even though you may be dead wrong
Superiority Complex
In Adler's theory, feelings of self-importance that emerge because we feel inferior
Masculine Protest
In Adlers theory, a desire ti become powerful and independent
Compensation
In Adlers theory, a motivation to improve caused by feelings of inferiority
Basic anxiety
In Horney's theory, a fear of being helpless and alone
Moving away from people
In Horney's theory, a manner of interacting with people that involves trying to be self-sufficient so that we dont need others
Moving toward people
In Horneys theory, a manner of interacting with people that involves trying to please others so that they will care for us
Neurotic Trends
In Horneys theory, enduring personality characteristics that develop as ways to cope with an anxiety-provoking world
G
In Spearman's theory, the abbreviation for general intelligence
Free will vs determinism
In a Christian worldview, there must be both elements. With only free will, you can't feel bad for people in bad circumstances and there's no predictability for science. With only determinism, there is no ability to praise others for their decisions
Gestalt Psychology
In contrast to structuralism, gestalt psychology emphasized that people see whole forms and that the whole is more than of the sum of the parts
Hit
In signal detection terms, correctly recognizing that a stimulus is present (pg 87
Correct Rejection
In signal detection terms, correctly recognizing that a stimulus isn't present
Does gratifying a compulsion help?
In the short run yes, but it causes greater compulsions in the long run
Placebo
Inactive substance used as a control.
Outcome of Freud
Incorrect ideas but popularization of a new and useful topic
Fight or Flight Response
Increased arousal in the face of a stressful event
Correspondent Inferences
Inference that a person's personality matches his or her behavior
Unconscious inferences
Inferences that we are not aware of making but that help us to perceive the world
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder
Inflexibility, compulsiveness, perfectionism, and focus on accomplishments
GABA
Inhibitory messages Too little causes anxiety disorders
Goal of psychoanalytic therapy (Freud)
Insight into the cause of a disorder
Statistical
Instance must be rare
Crystallized Intelligence
Intelligence that pertains to knowledge
Fluid Intelligence
Intelligence that pertains to processing and flexibility
Modeling
Interaction with a feared stimulus through modeling may prompt the fearer to get over their fear
Descartes
Interactive Dualism - mind/body are separate entities
Social Engineering
Interventions designed to promote health
Correlational Findings of Darley and Batson
Intrinsic religiosity measured by works was positively correlated with helping
Phobia
Irrational or intense fear
Learning
Is not required, but allows for quick adaptation
Coghill et al (2003)
Is there the same amount of pain information in high and low pain tolerance? -heated skin to 120 degrees, monitoring activation in thalamus -no matter how much pain received, same pain info. -high pain tolerance = successful coping w/ pain in the past
Mood dependent memory
It is easier to encode/retrieve memories that are consistent with our current mood
Expectancy
Likelihood of receiving a reward. It may be great, but lower expectancy decreases likelihood of a behavior
Rise-Fall-Rebirth
Journey of psychology of religion over the years. States that it rose to popularity only to fall around the 1930s and rise back up recently.
Executive Self
Jr consciousness of will. It regulates our behavior and makes decisions
Collective Unconscious
Jung's idea that everyone shares a common unconscious with several factors
Lost in the Mall Study
Kid was asked to write about two events and bring lost in the mall. This led to a made up memory of him actually being lost in the Mall.
Sherif et al (1961): summer camp competition
Kids at a summer camp were asked to compete and developed prejudice to each other, solved by cooperation
Molitar and Hirsh (1994)
Kids exposed to aggressive movies were more likely to allow aggression to continue before stopping it
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968): kids and IQ
Kids who took a test were randomly assigned normal or academic bloomers. Those assigned as bloomers got smarter due to teachers treating them differently
Schemas
Knowledge Frameworks that organize what we know
Metamemory
Knowledge about ones own memory. It is high when one remembers things in one's own memory
Self-Concept
Knowledge about onesself like appearance. Organized by schemas
Schemas
Knowledge frameworks that organize what we know
Schemas
Knowledge frameworks that organize what we know. For instance, Mario is a plumber, so he must go into pipes to find coins to get paid
Lucid Dreams
LaBerge: Vivid dreams that people know they are awake in. Can interact with outside world. It cannot, however, be used to "slay" bad thoughts
Insomnia
Lack of ability to sleep. Poorly understood, though can be fixed by good sleep hygiene
Causes of Correspondence Bias
Lack of awareness, unrealistic expectations, incomplete corrections, and inflated categorization
Flat Affect / Affective Flattening
Lack of emotional response
Lack of Awareness of the Situation
Lack of knowledge about the situation that caused the behavior
Avolition
Lack of motivation
Anhedonia
Lack of pleasure in positive things
Alogia / Poverty of Speech
Lack of speech
Horney
Last Neo-Freudian
Superego
Last to develop. It controls the brain based on morality.
Level Usage
Laymen use basic level words while experts use specific terms
Observational Learning
Learning from observing others. Not the same as contagion, classical conditioning or stimulus enhancement
Vicarious Reinforcement
Learning from the reinforcement or punishment of others
Instrumental Conditioning
Learning in which a behavior produces a consequence
Progressive Muscle Relaxation
Learning to tense and relax particular muscle groups
Brain Asymmetry
Left brain activity predisposed people to positive emotions and right brain activity to negative ones
Savings
Leftover knowledge we didn't know we still had
Darley and Latane (1968): seizure test
Less help came to someone experiencing a seizure when there were more bystanders due to the bystander effect. Reasons are as followed.
Dysthymia
Less intense but longer lasting depression
Mach Bands
Light and dark bands that appear when a light region and dark region are separated by a transition from light to dark
Reasoning
Logical pathways from known info to lead to conclusions
Summer Camp Study
Looked at male aggressiveness. Some boys were aggressive to peers but not staff, but some were aggressive to staff but not peers, suggesting that personality traits are only similar
Retrospective Study
Looking at the last to determine causes
Sleep Debt Consequences
Loss of motivation and attention, increased hostility. Shown by the strobe light study
Ego Depletion
Loss of self control due to ovderexerting it
Macular Degeneration
Loss of vision in the center of ones visual field
Positive Regard
Love and respect for others
Passionate vs. Compassionate Love
Love is either intense, physical, passionate attraction or affectionate, intimate commitment
Foot-In-The-Door Technique
Making a smaller request before making a larger related request
Contingency Contracting
Making an agreement with another person about the rewards or punishment one will receive for engaging in healthy or unhealthy behavior
Contingency Contracting
Making an agreement with someone else about rewards or punishments for behavior being done
Anima
Male's idea of a female
Prejudice Reduction
Many different ways as followed
Treatment
Many types
Causes of Prejudice
Many types as followed
Sigmund Freud
Medical doctor who proposed psychological causes to diseases. Came up with: - Psychodynamics: personalities struggle for control in the mind - Psychoanalysis: exploring the unconscious for therapy - Free Association: clients talk about whatever comes to mind
Anticonvulsant Medication
Medication designed to treat seizures but coincidentally Stavalizers mood
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
Medication to treat depression. Does what it says.
Short Term Memory
Memoru that holds what we are currently thinking about. Capacity is 7 +- 2 chunks. Rehearsal keeps things here
Episodic Memory
Memory for experiences
Somantic Memory
Memory for general info and language
Semantic Memory
Memory for general information, including facts and language
Procedural Memory
Memory for how to do things, such as riding a bike or playing the piano
Bradley's Working Memory Model
Memory model that refers to what is being processed or worked on. Allows for memory of 2 seconds of info. Comprised of the Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Episodic Buffer, and Visuospacial Sketchpad
Sensory Memory
Memory of quick exposure to the senses. Contains both iconic and echoic memory. Allows us to build pictures and notice tone changes in questions.
Long-Term Memory
Memory over long periods of time. Suggested by Bahrick to permastore information
Proactive Interference
Memory problem in which one cannot remember new info because older info prevents encoding. The old info was proactive and prevented the new info from killing it
Retroactive Interference
Memory problem in which recalling old info is hard because newer info over wrote it. The retro info was overwritten, like retro memory cards
Networks
Memory structure composed of interconnected concepts, or nodes, in a hierarchy
Networks
Memory structures composed of interconnected concepts called nodes. Networks are arranged hierarchically such that lower-level concepts are arranged under higher-level concepts
Mnemonics
Memory techniques
Implicit Memory
Memory that we don't know at a conscious level
Explicit Memory
Memory that we know at a conscious level
Implicit Memory
Memory we do not know at a conscious level, like balance
Explicit Memory
Memory we know at a conscious level
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts leading to quick but biased choices
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts used to save thinking energy
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts. Useful but can lead to biased judgements
Hardiness
Mental toughness related to seeing stress as a challenge, to control it, and to commit to doing better
Hardiness
Mental toughness. 3 components, 3 C's: Challenges, Control, Commitment
Delayed JOL (Judgement of Learning) Effect
Metamemory is more accurate after a delay in learning and memory
Prodromal Symptoms
Mild symptoms preceding schizophrenia
Fallacy of Nothing But-ery
Mistaken idea that explanations of one phenomenon necessarily eliminate others. I.e. there can be both psychological and religious explanations for things.
Parapraxes
Mistakes, such as slips of the tongue. Might reveal unconscious problems
Misattribution
Mistaking psychological arousal due to fear as attraction
Miller et al (1997)
Monitored truckers and found that they slept 7% of the time the truck was moving
What are people more apt to reason?
More apt to affirming that denying
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation that comes from the outside the person, such as a reward or treat
Intrinsic (internal motivation)
Motivation that comes from within, such as playing the piano because one enjoys it
Dopamine
Movement, thought processes, rewarding sensations Too little causes Parkinson's Disease Too much causes Schizophrenia Associated with drug addiction
Objective Tests
Multiple choice tests for personality. Easy to score (i.e. MMPI)
Dysexecutive Syndrome
Multiple defects linked to central executive damage
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
Muscle paralysis during REM sleep is nonfunctional, causing people to act out dreams
White Matter
Myelinated axons
Primary Reinforcer
Natural, like sex or food
Errors in Conditional Reasoning
Negative information, illicit conversion, and belief bias effect
Old View of the Soul
Nephesh, the soul in a sense that it is combined with the body
"What" pathway (or ventral stream)
Neural pathways involved in identifying what something is. The pathway for vision pertains to identifying objects. The pathway for hearing pertains to identifying sounds
"Where" Pathway (or dorsal stream)
Neural pathways involved in identifying where something is. The pathway for vision pertains to locating objects. The pathway for hearing pertains to locating sounds
"Where" pathway (or dorsal stream)
Neural pathways involved in identifying where something is. The pathway for vision pertains to locating objects. The pathway for hearing pertains to locating sounds
Moving Against People
Neurotic trend associated with seeking to be powerful and respected
Moving Away From People
Neurotic trend associated with trying to be self sufficient so we won't need others
Moving Toward People
Neurotic trend associated with trying to please others so they will care for us
Alfred Adler
Next Neo-Freudian
Health at Every Size
No, as it tricks our bodies into thinking we are in a famine
Is religiosity caused by biology?
No, but it is influenced by it
Is Evolutionary Psychology demoralizing human uniqueness?
No. Being similar to animals does not destroy the uniqueness that humans possess. Animals do things out of survival, but we do things based on human altruism and beliefs in goodness (i.e. due to the sacrifice of Christ)
Limitedness. Is it sinful?
No. In fact, it represents or relation to God. We don't know everything, so it's OK that we can't remember everything
Does humanistic therapy work for everyone?
No. Only for YAVIS people, young attractive, verbal, intelligent, and successful people
Can prayer be tested?
No. Prayer has no effect when not witnessed, yet we cannot test God
Should Christians see only Christian psychologists?
No. Psychologists should offer help no matter how one thinks and should not discount one's faith.
Should there be Christian Psychology?
No. Psychology is a neutral science
Does the ability to encourage a mystical experience disprove them?
No. We can cause happiness but we know that's real. The argument is illogical.
Are prayer experiments trustable?
No. You can never succeed with those experiments.
NREM Sleep
Non rapid eye movement sleep made of 3 stages, the higher the stage indicating the deeper the sleep
Euthymia
Normal mood stage
Are memories repressed?
Normally no. PTSD confirms this. If they are, you find them on your own.
Display Rules
Norms about the appropriate expression of emotion
Eyewitness Memory. Is it dependable?
Not always. People can sometimes remember info incorrectly
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
Not being able to recall something despite consciously knowing it
Absentmindedness
Not being able to remember because you were not paying attention at the time of encoding
Chp. 11: Social Psychology
Notes on chapter 11 followed by class notes
Mortality
Number of deaths from a condition
Morbidity
Number of people with the condition
Social Learning Theory
Observational Learning involves attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
Dreams
Occur during REM sleep
Displaced Aggression
Occurs if we are angry with one target but behave aggressively toward another target
Triggered displaced aggression
Occurs if we are angry with one target but behave aggressively toward another target who commits a minor offense (the trigger)
Participant Bias
Occurs when experimental conditions influence the participant's behavior.
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Occurs when one desires to both approach and avoid a particular option
Sample Bias
Occurs when the research participants are not representative of the larger population.
Approach-approach conflict
Occurs when there are multiple choices and one must choose between them
Chp. 8 class notes
On Freud and personality tests
Contagion
One behavior elicits a response in others
Cones
Photoreceptors that provide our daytime vision and our ability to see color
Big 5 (OCEAN)
Openness Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
Id
Operates according to the pleasure principle, where the goals is to seek pleasure and avoid pain
Ego
Operates according to the reality principle, and so take into account limitations of the real world when trying to satisfy desires
Ego
Operates based on the reality principle, taking reality into account to avoid punishment (not wrongdoing)
Id
Operates on the pleasure principle. Does things to seek pleasure and avoid pain
Optimists and Difficulty
Optimists see problems as temporary, specific, and external
Delusions of Perspective
Others are monitoring and trying to harm oneself or loved ones
Shadow
Our dark side we hide from others
Metamemory
Our knowledge about our own memory
BIG PICTURE
Our physiology determines more about who we are than we would like to admit
Agoraphobia
Outcome of panic disorder. Fear of being in public. Stems from not wanting to be embarrassed
Nerve Impulses (or action potentials or spikes)
Outgoing messages that travel down the axon
Rods
Photoreceptors that provide vision in dim light
Parents and religiosity
Parents tend to be authoritative, the good parenting style
Eros
Passionate love of Sternberg's model
Pavlov's Salivating Dogs
Paved the way for classical conditioning
Peers and religiosity
Peers have large influences on the outcome of a child's religiosity
Rogers and Prentice-Dunn (1981): shock test
People gave black people less shocks in a test, but many more when they overheard an insult
Arch (1956): line length
People had to judge the lengths of lines and would do so based on confederate answers even if they were wrong
Indiscriminately Proreligious
People high in both extrinsic and intrinsic religiosity
Pure Extrinsics
People high in extrinsic religiosity and low in intrinsic religiosity
Pure Intrinsics
People high in intrinsic religiosity but low in extrinsic religiosity
Bystander Effect Video
People ignored a man in need of help due to forming an implicit rule: "do not help." It was hard to get someone to help, suggesting that the less people there are, the greater likelihood for help there is
Indiscriminately Antireligious
People low in both extrinsic and intrinsic religiosity
Mita et al (1927): mirror and people
People prefer their own reflections because of how often they see them, similar to how others do not prefer another's reflection
Darley and Batson (1973): Princeton campus seminary study
People randomly assigned to a speech topic (good Samaritan or non-ministry jobs for seminary grads) and a time constraint. When they saw a homeless man who was sick, they reacted or didn't and were scored. They found time pressure alone significantly affected helping
Lay Referral System
People seek lay people about whether treatment is a good idea or not
Correll et al (2002): shooter game test
People were quicker to shoot black enemies in a game than white enemies
Neo-Freudians
People who based their ideas off of Freud, but less so about sex and drives and more so on the ego and social interaction
Moritz and Pohl (2009): OCD and bad events
People with OCD were more inclined to believe that bad things would happen to them, even when presented with contrary evidence
Subliminal Perception
Perception in which we are affected by stimuli that we can't consciously detect
Learned Helplessness
Perception of helplessness brought by uncontrolled negative events
Hallucinations
Perceptions that don't correspond with reality. Auditory ones are the most common
Consummate Love
Perfect love of passion, intimacy, and commitment in sternberg's theory
Manic Episode
Periods of unjustified mood and energy elevation lasting at least a week
Internal Attribution
Person's characteristic
Personality vs. Situation
Personality controls behavior, but only so much
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Personality disorder characterized by eccentric traits and problems in emotional and interpersonal functioning
Personality Implications
Personality implies central, constant things that shape our thinking
MMPI
Personality test for disorders, focusing on disordered and nondisordered population. Includes an F Scale to test for fake insanity
Need for Cognition
Personality trait in which people require thinking about something. They respond to facts better than emotion
Big Five
Personality trait test based on OCEAN (openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism). It is the most common test.
Model
Perspective about the cause of abnormal thinking or behavior
Fear Appeal
Persuasive messages designed to induce fear
Signal Detection Theory
Pertains to attempt to detect a stimulus (or the absence of a stimulus)
Data-driven Processing (or top down processing)
Pertains to the influence of background knowledge on perception
Wall and Taylor (1992): college optimism
Pessimists ignored problems and hoped they'd go away and optimists formed plans to solve problems
Pessimists and Difficulty
Pessimists see problems as stable, global, and internal
Eidetic Imagery
Photographic memory
Eidetic Memory
Photographic memory
Norepinephrine
Physical arousal, learning, memory, regulation of sleep Too little causes depression Too much causes stress
Proximity
Physical closeness. Being closer prompts greater friendship
Self-Handicapping
Placing obstacles in one's own path to provide an excuse for failure, protecting one's image
Subtyping
Placing people who do not fit in a stereotype in a subcategory as an exception to the rule, leaving the overall stereotype intact
Borderline Personality Disorder
Poorly developed or unstable self, low empathy, conflicted relationships, emotional instability, hypersensitivity, or risk taking behavior
Permeable
Porous, open
Dopamine Hypothesis II
Positive symptoms are caused by overactivity of dopamine in the striatum and negative symptoms are caused by underactivity of dopamine in the frontal cortex
Optimism
Positive view on life
Peak Experiences
Power experiences of insight, well being, or wonder self actualized people have
Pragma
Practical love of Sternberg's model
Operational Definition
Precise description of how the variables in a study will be observed and measured. (Ex: Drug abuse might be operationally defined as the number of missed work days due to excessive use of an addictive substance.)
Fixed Ratio Reinforcement
Predictable reward based on behavior
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Preoccupation with oneself, being self absorbed, and wanting to be the center of attention
Depressive Attribution Style
Problems are internal, stable, and global
Phrenology
Procedure developed by Franz Gall that explained a person's personality by the shape of the skull. Support for LoF
Neurogenesis
Process by which new neurons are generated.
Factor Analysis
Process by which personality groups called factors are extracted from questions.
Eustachian Tubes
Provide a pathway for air between the middle ear and the back of the throat
Occasion Setters
Provide information about when a CS predicts a US
Entheogens
Psychoactive substances used in religious ceremonies or spiritual rituals, commonly known as hallucinogenic drugs
Health Psychology
Psychology applied to health
Psychology and Science
Psychology claims to be a science, but it is not. It is simply a process rooted in science, though it is not final.
Chp. 11
Psychology of Religion
Schizophrenia
Psychotic disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, lack of motivation, reduced emotional response, and cognitive defects
Secondary Drive
Push to attain things we learn to be valuable, like money
Primary Drive
Push to fulfill natural needs, like food and water
Reversed items
Questions for which people who are high in the construct should disagree, rather than agree
Reversed/Reverse-Scored Items
Questions in which disagreement is required for people high in the construct. Combats acquiescence.
Microsleep
Quick sleeping session during periods of severe sleep debt
What neurotransmitters are associated with the following neurons: REM-off neurons, and REM-on neurons
REM-off neurons: norepinephrine and serotonin REM-on neurons: acetylcholine
Flight of Ideas
Racing thoughts
Random Assignment
Randomly assigning participants to a group to avoid bias. This is the ONLY WAY to determine causation
Gambler's Fallacy
Ranking future events will correct past ones
REM Sleep
Rapid eye movement
Pressured Speech
Rapid speaking
AA or RA
Rare to have RA without AA, but AA is worse as it implies learning problems
Deductive Reasoning (or theory-driven reasoning)
Reasoning from general premises to specific instances
Inductive Reasoning (or data-driven reasoning)
Reasoning from specific information to a general conclusion
Affirming the Antecedent (if)
Reasoning that says the if part of the statement is true. This affirms the consequent.
Denying the Antecedent (if)
Reasoning that the if is false. Leads to incorrect reasoning
Attributions
Reasons for behavior we witness
The Brain Lobes and Pons
Red: Frontal Lobe Blue: Parietal Lobe Purple: Occipital Lobe Green: Temporal Lobe Brown: Cerebellum Yellow (Top): Pons Yellow (Bottom): Medulla Oblongata Yellow (all): Brain Stem
Ventromedical hypothalamus
Reduces eating
Diffusion of Responsibility
Reduction of responsibility to act when others are present
G.G. Simpson's Methods
Reductionist Question: How? (mechanism) Compositional Question: What for? (function) Formational Question: How did this come about? (history)
Reappraisal
Reevaluate if an event is good or bad to see if we coped successfully
Desensitization
Refers to the fact that we get used to things, and so might be less distressed by violence after we've seen a great deal of it
Regression to the mean
Refers to the fact that, if a person is performing at a level that is either above or below his or her mean (average), the person's performance will tend to return to his or her mean
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcement after every behavior. Quickest learning and extinction
Intermittent or Partial Reinforcement
Reinforcement only sometimes. Slower learning, but slower extinction.
Gick and Holyoak (1980)
Related tumor removal to a general splitting his army. Only a few people got it, suggesting the analogy approach is natural in only a few people
Fixed Action Patterns
Relatively inflexible behaviors that are produced by instincts
Efferent neurons (or motor neurons)
Relay information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Afferent Neurons (or sensory neurons)
Relay information from the senses to the brain and spinal cord
Maintenence Rehearsal
Repeating info. Results in poor memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repeating the information. This tends to produce poor memory
Learning
Require a person to recite the answer in correct order
Multiple Errands Task
Required multiple errands to be completed. People with PFL did badly
Peterson and Peterson (1959)
Required people to remember numbers and recall them. Found that short term memory is lost after 20 seconds, though loss is quicker if people are not expected to recall the numbers.
Peripheral Route
Requires less thinking. Less about message quality
The Tower of Hanoi
Requires movement of disks in a specific way with smaller ones always on top. It is hard until broken into subgoals
Applied Research
Research designed to address a practical problem
Basic Research
Research designed to test theory
Correlational Research
Research strategy that calculates the strength of correlation between two factors
Naturalistic Observation
Research that involves observing behavior in its natural setting
Descriptive Research
Research that seeks to describe a phenomenon
Akathisia
Restlessness
Negative Effect Reciprocity
Returning negative emotions with negative ones. High in low-commitment couples
Illicit Conversion
Rewarding a proposition, changing the meaning. This is not a flaw of logic, but of chance
Shaping
Rewarding closet and closer approximations of behavior until the behavior is learned
Neil vs. Biggers
Rules suggestive behaviors don't disallow testimony, even if it causes incorrect memories
Treatment for Panic Disorder
SSRIs, CBT
Second Generation Antipsychotics (SGA)
Safer, second wave of antipsychotic medication
Popper
Said everything is subject to revision and rejection, believing in absolute Truth and human finitude
Spurling
Said lack of awareness leads to forgetting
Ebbinghaus
Said memory is defined by free recall, recognition, and Serial Learning, free recall in order
Flashbulb Memory
Said to be a special kind of particularly vivid and detailed memory that is formed when we hear something surprising and important
Free Association
Saying what comes to mind. Freudians used it to discover latent thoughts
Fear Appeal
Scaring someone into changing
Scripts
Schemas with sequences. May cause incorrect recall if logic goes against the sequence
Dopamine Hypothesis I
Schizophrenia is the result of overactivity of dopamine
Psychology
Science of behavior and mental processes, including animals
Experimental Research
Seeks to discover if one variable causes another
Self-Regulation
Self control. Use will decrease it's strength but increase its strength in the long run, like a muscle (ego depletion)
Twenty Statements Test (TST)
Self-Concept measure that asks people to complete 20 "I am ___" questions
Agape
Selfless love of Sternberg's model
Interoceptive Sensitivity
Sensitivity to body situations. High in people with panic disorders
Echoic Memory
Sensory Memory for auditory info. Darwin used sounds at different sides for the head to determine its length (2 sec)
Iconic Memory
Sensory Memory of visual info. Sperling used flashcards to determine its length (1/4 sec)
Echoic Memory
Sensory memory for auditory information
Iconic Memory
Sensory memory for visual information
Freud's View of Dreams
Separated by manifest content and latent content
Major Depressive Disorder
Severe depression lasting at least 2 weeks. Can be recurrent or a single episode
Moniz
Severed frontal lobe connections to relieve disorders
Rescorla's Rats
Shocking during feeding and not during feeding resulted with rats not learning
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
Shocking the brain to induce a brief seizure to fish depression. Rarely used and only if the person is at risk of suicide
Problem-Solving Strategies
Short strategies people use to easily help with problems
AA and memory
Short term and working memory still present
Darley and Gross (1983)
Showed a stereotyped girl in city and suburban settings. She missed questions in both settings, but those who saw her in the city setting said she was unintelligent. This shows people believe stereotypes when confirmed
Cyclothymic Disorder
Similar to bipolar disorder, but less severe and longer lasting
Hypomanic Episode
Similar to manic episodes, but shorter and less severe
Simple Identification
Simply asking of someone's religious status to measure religiosity
External Attribution
Situation's characteristics
Hobson
Sleep is for and by the brain
What is sleep thinking, and in what kind of sleep does it occur?
Sleep thinking is a recap of recent memories that occurs during NREM slow-wave sleep.
Parapaxes
Slips of the tongue that Freudians believe reveal deep thoughts.
Latent Inhibition/ CS Preexposure Effect
Slow learning due to already being exposed to a CS
Subgoals
Smaller goals that are part of a larger goal
Help for stress
Social support, expressive writing, progressive muscle relaxation, deep breathing, guided imagery, self affirmation, biofeedback
Social Engineering
Societal interventions, including interventions designed to promote health (laws and rules)
Cognitive Theory
States that negative thoughts and schemas perpetuate depression
Are stereotypes bad?
Some are actually true and beneficial, i.e. surgeons are smart.
Boundary Issue
Some people and issues are not helpful in your lives and thus are better off not in your life
Psychopath
Someone defined by arrogance, low empathy, impulsive behavior, and social deviance, such as antisocial personality disorder sufferers. Prone to aggression and violence.
Secondary Reinforcer
Something learned to be good, like money
Salient
Something noticeable that captures our attention
Word Length Effect
States that one can remember more smaller words
Matching Hypothesis
States that people are likely to match up with people of similar attractiveness levels
How the Scientific Study of Spirituality and Virtue can Promote Human Thriving
Special seminar: When studying the difference between secular and faith-based journal writing (journal, social journal, prayer journal), it was found that prayer decreased negative affect while increasing positive affect, gratitude, and hope, suggesting prayer allows one to directly thank the benefactors and sanctifies the activity. In short, virtue building activities differ from prayer activities
Receptors
Specialized cells that are able to detect physical stimuli, such as light or sound
Hypothesis
Specific, testable prediction about how one can factor, or variable, is related to another.
Pearce-Hall Model
Stages learning occurs because a CS might predict a US, and if it doesn't, it need not be attended to
Stan and Jan example
Stan is an extrovert whole Jan is an introvert. Stan puts up a fit to go to a party. Stan is freed of loneliness while Jan is free of Stan's whining. Negative reinforcement
School Starts
Starting later increases achievement and decreases car accidents
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Starting with an incorrect belief but acting in a way to make it true
Instinctive Drift
States animals do not learn things that contradict their instincts
Eysenck's Theory
States that extroverts have low arousal and thus seek highly arousing social situations while introverts have high biological arousal and thus seek situations with low arousal.
Nomothetic Approach
States that humans are only quantitatively different. We can describe ourselves the same way, but to different extremes.
Lexical Hypothesis
States that if a personality traits is important, people probably have a word for it
Situational Selection (controversial)
States that while a situation is chosen for us in an experiment, we choose our situations in real life, implying personality is a greater predictor of behavior
Statistical Significance
Statistical statement of how likely it is that a study's result occurred merely by chance.
Algorithms
Step by step procedures that lead to solutions. Much more efficient than random guessing
Discriminative Stimuli
Stimuli that provide info about when a reward is available
Problem Focused Coping
Stress coping dealing with directly addressing the problem
Emotion Focused Coping
Stress coping that deals with managing emotions
Inferiority Complex
Strong feelings of incompetence and helplessness
Superiority Complex
Strong feelings of self importance stemming from feeling inferior
Petty et al. (1981): students and arguments by papers
Students more motivated by effect chose better written arguments while those uninterested chose ones by figures of higher stature, like professors
Fertinger and Carlsmith (1959): being paid to like studies
Students paid $1 and told to say they liked the study began to actually like it while those paid $20 did not for they felt they were paid
Steinburg
Studied adults and teenagers playing a computer game, driving to grocery store as fast as possible with stop lights turning yellow
Spacing Effect
Studied by Bjork and Kornell in 2008, states that spacing studying improves memory
Social Facilitation / Social Inhibition
Study done in the presence of others. Participants either improve (facilitation) or get worse (inhibition)
Avoidance Study
Study in which a target behavior results in avoiding something unpleasant
Escape Study
Study in which a target behavior results in leaving something unpleasant
Induced/Forced Compliance
Study in which people are forced to do things inconsistent with their attitudes to see if their behavior will change
Prospective Study
Study looking at the future to identify causes
Evolutionary Psychology
Study of how evolutionary processes, like natural selection and genetic mutations, affect behavior and mental processes.
Attribution / Attribution Theory
Study of judgements drawn from behavior. People identify stable causes to better control behavior.
Cognitive Psychology
Study of mental activity, like memory, problem solving, and decision making
Social Psychology
Study of social interactions
Neurotheology
Study of the role of the brain in mystical experience.
Expectancy effects (Source of bias)
Subject's expectancy causes changes in dependent variable
Mood Stavalizers
Substances like lithium that stabilize mood
Symptom Substitution
Substitution of one symptom of a disorder for another. Freudians believed this was the result of behavioral therapy
Demand characteristics (source of bias)
Subtle cues by the researcher communicating the type of response expected from the subject
Aversion Racism
Subtle form in which people do not think of themselves as racist but hold implicit, unconscious, negative thoughts about members of a racial group
Panic Disorder
Sudden attacks of unwarranted panic
Flooding
Sudden exposure of feared stimulus
Tulving (1972, 1985)
Suggested 3 areas to long-term memory: Somantic, Episodic, and Procedural Memory
Karen Case Study and OCD
Suggested that a woman's OCD when picking out Cereal was due to her being negatively reinforced to spend less time with her kids who were awful
Reformulated Learned Helplessness Model
Suggests attributions made about events determine if we become depressed or not
Common Ingroup Identity Model
Suggests aversive racism and ingroup bias is reduced by expanding a common identity
Covariation Principle
Suggests behavior is attributed to a cause thay occurs when the behavior occurs
Latent Content
Symbolic meaning, hidden to protect us
Theory of Planned Behavior
Suggests behavior is determined by behavior intentions, forced by attitudes, suggestive norms, and perceived behavioral control
Discounting Principle
Suggests behavior should be discounted as an indicator of personality if the situation could also produce the behavior
Contact Hypothesis
Suggests bring groups into contact reduces prejudice
Yale Approach
Suggests change comes from the message, the source, and the audience factors
Correspondence Principle
Suggests children with certain attachments to their parents are likely to mirror that attachment with God.
Rusbult's Investment Model
Suggests commitment in a relationship is produced by satisfaction, investments, and quality of alternatives
Levels of Processing
Suggests deeper processing makes it easier to remember things
Incomplete Corrections
Suggests discounting personality is hindered when we are unmotivated or too busy
Biological Model
Suggests disorders are caused by biological factors, like genes or diseases. Provides medication as a treatment
Diathesis-Stress Model
Suggests disorders are caused by predisposition (diathesis) and a stressful situation that sets it off
Cognitive Model
Suggests disorders are caused by problems in thinking, like irrational negative thoughts. Cognitive restructuring is a common treatment
Behavioral Model
Suggests disorders are learned due to maladaptive thinking
Inflated Categorizations
Suggests expectations about behavior can also inflate trait influences, leading to an increased belief that the person's behavior is due to personality
Family Systems Perspective
Suggests families have habitual ways of dealing with each other and if they are dysfunctional, disorders may result
Social Identity Maintenence Model of Groupthink
Suggests groupthink involves trying to maintain a positive image for the group, potentially leading to troubles with actual thinking
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
Suggests helping is egoistic when empathy is low but altruistic when empathy is high
Rescorla-Wagner Model
Suggests learning increases with surprise
Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love
Suggests love is of 3 components: intimacy, passion, and commitment
Self-Evaluation Maintenence Model
Suggests maintenance and enhancement of esteem is important to us and is accomplished by 2 processes: second 3 cards
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Suggests many types of Intelligences, like linguistic, logical/mathematical, musical, and interpersonal. Controversial as it scratches the limits of the word "intelligence"
Womb Envy
Suggests men feel inferior to women because they cannot bear children, opposite to Freud's penis envy
Socioculture Model
Suggests one's social environment may cause problems
Looking-Glass Self
Suggests our self develops when we imagine how others see us
Type View
Suggests people are distinct types, not merely variances on dimensions, implying that we aren't easily compatible
Idiographic Approach
Suggests people are qualitatively different and thus not comparable
Informational Influence
Suggests people can conform because they think the group knows the answers. Good for learning
Trait View
Suggests people only differ in the degree to which they possess certain traits, making them comparable along personality dimensions
Beautiful-is-Good Stereotype / Halo Effect
Suggests people think physically attractive people have better traits
Humanistic Model
Suggests people want to self actualize but they sometimes distort themselves to gain approval, causing problems
Integrated Threat Theory
Suggests perception of a threat can cause prejudice
Phenomenological Perspective
Suggests perceptions of reality are important (e.g. people react differently to the same stimulus)
Dopamine Hypothesis III
Suggests psychosis is caused by dopamine dysfunction in the striatum, that the problem with dopamine overactivity begins with dopamine synthesis, and that dopamine dysfunction alters how stimuli are evaluated
Self-Regulation and Prejudice Model
Suggests that being prejudiced can cause guilt and this unbiased though in subsequent incidences
Biopsychosocial Model
Suggests that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in leading to a disorder
Opponent Process Theory
Suggests that color receptors are sensitive to opposing pairs of colors
Levels of processing approach
Suggests that deep processing produces better memory than does shallow processing (less thinking)
James-Lange theory of emotion
Suggests that emotions are caused by our perception of our bodily reactions
Schachter and Singer's cognitive theory
Suggests that emotions are caused by physiological arousal combined with an appraisal of the circumstances
Exotic-becomes-erotic theory
Suggests that if one is accustomed to interacting with opposite-sex peers, it's one's same-sex peers who might seem interesting and exotic, and eventually this develops into a sexual interest
Trait View
Suggests that people differ only in the degree to which they possess certain qualities; this implies that people can be compared along personality dimensions
Compensation Principle
Suggests that people who are insecurely attached to their parents compensate with their lack of good parents with God
Pragnanz
Suggests that perceptions tend to be ideal or best
Two-factor Theory
Suggests that performance is based on both general intelligence and specific abilities
Place Theory
Suggests that pitch is communicated by the location on the basilar membrane that is firing the most
Rate Theory (or frequency theory)
Suggests that pitch is communicated by the rate of signals in the auditory nerve
Social Identity Theory
Suggests that since part of our esteem comes from our group, we want a good one and so view our group favorably
Psycholinguistic Perspective
Suggests that slips of the tongue occur because we are preparing to say multiple sounds or words and we sometimes mix them up
Webers Law
Suggests that the just noticeable difference is a percentage rather than an absolute amount
Neuron Doctrine
Suggests that the nervous system is composed of individual cells
Muellers Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies
Suggests that the sensations we feel depend on the specific nerves carrying the impulses
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
Suggests that there are three types of intelligence Analytical Intelligence: solving math problems, analyzing info Creative Intelligence: Innovative problem-solving Practical Intelligence: How to succeed in everyday life, street smarts
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Suggests that there is an optimal level of arousal for any task and performance suffers if arousal is too low or too high
Trichromatic Theory
Suggests that we have three types of color receptors that are sensitive to different parts of the spectrum
Law of Parsimony (or Occam's razor)
Suggests that we should keep theories simpler unless there's a good reason to make them more complex
Likelihood Principle
Suggests that we tend to perceive things in the way that is most likely based on our experience
Negative State Relief Model
Suggests that when people are in a negative stage, they help to relieve this state
Drive Theory
Suggests that when we feel a lack, this creates at tension or drive we feel unpleasant, so we try to reduce this drive and restore a state of contentment
Drive Theory of Social Facilitation
Suggests the presence of others increases arousal, causing our most likely response, either improvement or impairment
Principle of Social Proof / Social Validation Principle
Suggests we are more likely to comply if others have done so
Knowledge-Based Causal Attribution / Knowledge Structure Approach
Suggests we draw on background knowledge and common sense when explaining behavior
Social Comparison Theory
Suggests we evaluate ourselves by comparison to others by similarities
Self-Perception Theory
Suggests we learn about ourselves by observing our own behavior
Correspondent Inferences Theory
Suggests we should draw inferences only from behavior about personality only when the behavior is not expected in the situation and of the inference is clear (don't jump to conclusions)
Commitment and Consistency Principle
Suggests we tend to comply with a request consistent with our previous actions or how we see ourselves
Liking Principle
Suggests we tend to comply with people we like
Scarcity Principle
Suggests we want things more if they are rare, like short sales
Weight Normative
Supports fitting a BMI, which encourages weight cycling and disuasion of healthy decisions
Prepositional Calculus
System for categorizing different types of conditional reasoning, such as affirming the if or then or denying the if or then
Wells and Bradfield
Target store robbery occurs (fake) and people are told that the person killed a guard. Those who saw the video and we're given confirmation imagined memory of seeing the event
Attention Training
Teaching people to shift their attention from threatening social situations
Depersonalization
Technique used by doctors to objectify someone in a surgery to avoid stress
Tajfel et al (1971): meaninglessly grouped teens
Teens grouped into minimal, or meaningless, groups, displayed outgroup hate and ingroup love
Big 5 and Age
Teens have lowest agreeableness and conscientiousness. Personality becomes stable after age 30.
What are the four major lobes of the Cerebral Cortex, and what cortex does each house?
Temporal Lobe (Primary auditory cortex), Occipital Lobe (Primary Visual cortex) Parietal Lobe (Somatosensory cortex) Frontal Lobe (Primary Motor cortex)
Stimulus Descrimination
Tendency for a different enough CS to not produce a desired response
Wax Flexibility
Tendency for a person in a catatonic state to be able to be molded
Stimulus Generalization
Tendency for a similar CS to produce a similar response
Renewal
Tendency for an extinguished response to return in the environment it was learned
Extinction Burst
Tendency for an increased intensity or duration of behavior before extinction (soda machine button pressing)
Generation Effect
Tendency for generated material to be remembered better than reviewed material
Groupthink
Tendency for groups with certain qualities to display dysfunctional symptoms, leading to poor decisions
Own Race Bias
Tendency for identification of someone of a different race to be more difficult
Mood Congruence
Tendency for memory to be better if mood complements the piece being learned, like reading a sad book while being sad
State Dependent Memory
Tendency for memory to be better if one's internal state matches the state at time of encoding
Context Dependent Memory
Tendency for memory to be better if the context recalled in matches the context learned in, like a classroom
Encoding Specificity Principle
Tendency for memory to be better when conditions match the time of learning, like chewing gum, smell, temperature, etc
Social Loafing / Ringelmann Effect
Tendency for motivation to decline when in a group
Barnum Effect
Tendency for people to accept generalities as valuable information about personalities
Intern's Syndrome
Tendency for people to believe they have a disorder when they read about it
Effort Justification
Tendency for people to like the things they work hard for or suffer for
Mere Exposure
Tendency for people to like things more as they become familiar with them
Abstinence Violation Effect
Tendency for people to splurge when they violate their goal
Spreading Activation
Tendency for related concepts to be brought to mind when something is talked about, like thinking of an apple when people talk of fruits.
Boomerang Effect
Tendency for restrictive messages to cause a change opposite to the message
Response Set
Tendency to answer in a particular way that unrelated to the construct, like always answering C because it's your favorite letter
Anchoring (and adjustment) Heuristic
Tendency to be influenced by a starting point, usually a number
Ingroup Favoritism Bias
Tendency to favor one's own group over an outgroup
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Tendency to feel bad when our behavior and attitudes don't match up, prompting change in one or both of them
Fundamental Fixedness
Tendency to focus on an object's typical use, rejecting it's other possible uses, such as a wrench's ability to also be a hammer. This is learned, as children do not seem to have this.
Correspondence Bias
Tendency to infer that personality causes behavior even when the situation could have caused it
Authority Principle
Tendency to obey orders from authority figures
Spotlight Effect
Tendency to overestimate the attention we get from others due to only focusing on one's own thoughts
Serial Position Effect
Tendency to remember items at the. Ex inning and end of a list due to the Primary and Recency Effects. Calls longterm and shortterm memory into question
Set
Tendency to reuse solutions that worked on past problems even if they are not the most efficient means of solving newer ones
Perceptual Assimilation
Tendency to see what we expect to see in people
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to seek and approving audience
Outgroup Homogeneity Bias
Tendency to think outgroup members are more alike than your ingroup members
Better-Than-Average/Worse-Than-Average Effect
Tendency to think we are above/below average due to only having info about onesself
Illusion of Control
Tendency to think we have more control than we actually do
Acquiescence
Tendency to want to agree to questions, no matter the implication
Quest
Test for religiosity that views faith as a journey, high in change, questioning, and doubt. Controversial, as it implies doubt is permanent
Role Construct Repertory Test or REP Test
Test to identify personal constructs by think in general of three people and being asked to find how one differs from the other two
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
Tested cognitive flexibility. People with PFL damage did poorly as they continued to do something that did not work, a process called preservation
Projective Tests
Tests in which you must identify ambiguous stimuli (i.e. rorschach test)
Catharsis
The (mistaken) idea that being aggressive will get aggression out of one's system and so reduce future aggression
Stereopsis
The ability to use the difference in what the two eyes see to perceive depth
Priming
The activation or bringing to mind of thoughts and feelings
Neuron
The basic building block of the nervous system, responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting electrochemical information.
Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model
The best memory model with three stages: sensory memory, short term memory, and king term memory
Attitude Change
The biggest field in social psychology
Glial Cell
The cell that provides structural, nutritional, and other support for neurons, as well as communication within the nervous system; also called glia or neuroglia.
Resting Membrane Potential
The charge (when not altered by excitatory or inhibitory information) of the inside of the cell relative to the outside
Timbre
The component of sound that pertains to the shape of the sound wave. A piano has a different timbre than a saxophone, even if they are playing the same note
Dysexecutive Syndrome
The constellation of deficits associated with prefrontal damage
Negative Correlation
The data moves away from each other.
Positive Correlation
The data moves together.
Vigilance Decrement
The decline in performance over time for tasks that require constant attention
External Validity
The degree to which a result can be generalized to other populations (people), situations, and times
Erotic Plasticity
The degree to which one's sexual desires are changeable
Locus of Control
The degree to which we think our actions matter. Internal LoC is the idea that we have control over ourselves. External LoC is the idea that we have little control
Tympanic Membrane
The eardrum
Why do antidepressants take so long to work?
The effects occur 24 hours after taking the medicine but relief does not occur for 4-6 weeks later. This is due to the need for neurons to grow and prompt one to remember better times.
Conjunction Fallacy
The failure to realize that a conjunction (combination) of events cannot be more likely than either event alone
Saturation
The hue relative to the amount of white. Adding white reduces the saturation
Lexical Hypothesis
The idea that if any personality characteristic is important, people probably have a word for it
Phenomenological Perspective
The idea that subjective perceptions of reality are important
Eugenics
The idea that the human race could be improved by encouraging "superior" people to have more children and encouraging "inferior" people to have fewer children
Constructive Alternativism
The idea that there are different constructs that one might use to understand the world
Identity development and faith
The identity development model works with faith as well
Neurons
The individual cells of a nervous system
Lateral Inhibition
The inhibition of cells in the visual system by nearby cells, which heightens our ability to see contrast
Evaluating the Learning Perspective
The learning perspective emphasizes rigor and effects, but deemphesizes personal qualities
Decay (forgetting)
The less we use semantic networks the more they fade
REM sleep is associated with an increase in activity of what areas of the brain?
The limbic system (emotion, motivation, memory) and the visual cortex
Sleep Debt
The longer we stay awake, the more we are likely to fall asleep. Causes the mid afternoon dip, though clock dependent alerting keeps us up
Persona
The mask people present to others
Absolute Threshold
The minimum intensity necessary for a stimulus to be detected
Zimbardo's Prison Study
The mock prison study in which the kids being the guards became increasingly cruel to the kids playing the inmates
Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)
The most successful way to treat psychological disorders by a combination of Cognitive and behavioral techniques
Morality
The number of people who die from a particular condition
Morbidity
The number of people who have a particular condition
Frequency
The number of waves during a period of time. Low-frequency sounds are perceived to be low in pitch and high-frequency sounds are perceived to be high in pitch
Auditory Cortex
The part of the cortex involved in the processing of sound
Pinna
The part of the ear that can be easily seen. It helps to gather sounds
Axon
The part of the neuron that carries out outgoing messages to other cells
Cell Body (or soma)
The part of the neuron that performs the basic functions that keep the cell alive. The nucleus of the cell is also located in the cell body
Dendrites
The part of the neuron that receives incoming messages from other cells
Medial Geniculate Nucleus
The part of the thalamus involved in the processing of sound
Lateral Geniculate Nucleas (LGN)
The part of the thalamus involved in the processing of visual information
Optic Chiasm
The part of the visual system where information from the nasal half of the retinas crosses to the other side of the brain
Color Constancy
The perception that an object's color is constant even when the sensory information is changing
Perceptual Constancy
The perception that characteristics of objects are constant even when the sensory information is changing
Position Constancy
The perception that the position of objects is constant even when the sensory information suggests they are moving
Size Constancy
The perception that the size of objects is constant even when the sensory information suggests that size is changing
Negative Information
The presence of negative wording like "not," leading to slip ups
Message Framing
The presentation of a message in terms of gains verses in terms of losses
Milgram Shock Study
The study when people asking questions gave a confederate learner increasing shocks, despite not wanting to. They were obedient to the researcher.
Impact Bias
The tendency to overestimate the strength and duration of our emotional reactions
Sensory Adaption
The process by which our senses adjust to different stimulus intensities, such as our eyes adjusting to dim light
Transduction
The process of changing the information detected by the senses into action potentials that travel via nerves to the brain
What is psychology?
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Diffusion
The spreading out of particles, such as to produce an even concentration of the particles in a liquid
Stimulus intensity
The stronger the stimulus, the greater the learning effect
Organ of Corti
The structure in the auditory system that contains the hair cells
Cognitive Pyschology
The study of mental activity, including memory, problem solving and decision-making
Psychoneuroimmunology
The study of psychological factors with regard to the immune system
Principle of Closure
The tendency for areas between parts to be filled in so that we can perceive them as a whole
Diminishing Sensitivity
The tendency for gains and losses to have less impact farther from the reference point
Overjustification effect
The tendency for intrinsic motivation to fall as extrinsic motivation rises
Loss Aversion
The tendency for losses to have more impact than gains on us psychologically
State-Dependent Memory
The tendency for memory to be better if one's current internal state matches one's internal state when one learned
Mood Dependence
The tendency for memory to be better if one's current mood matches one's when one learned
Encoding Specificity Principle
The tendency for memory to be better if the current conditions match the conditions at encoding
Context-Dependent Memory
The tendency for memory to be better when the current context (situation) matches the context when one learned
Generation Effect
The tendency for memory to be better when we generate the material to be remembered rather than merely receiving the material
Delayed judgments of learning (JOL) effect
The tendency for metamemory to be more accurate when there is a delay after learning rather than when judgements are made immediately after learning
Word-Length Effect
The tendency for more short words than long words to fit in working memory
Phase Locking
The tendency for neurons to fire at the peak of sound waves
Ponzo Illusion
The tendency for objects to appear larger if they are placed farther down a set of converging lines
Principle of proximity
The tendency for parts that are close together to be perceived as a whole
Principle of Common Fate
The tendency for parts that are moving together to be perceived as a whole
Principle of Familiarity
The tendency for parts that collectively make a familiar whole to be perceived as a whole
Principle of Continuation
The tendency for parts that seem to be continuous to be perceived as a whole
Barnum Effect
The tendency for people to accept generalities as valuable information about personality
Perseveration
The tendency for people who have prefrontal damage to continue using a strategy that one worked after it is no longer correct
Belief-bias effect
The tendency for real-life information to interfere with logical reasoning
Recency Effect
The tendency for recent material to be better recalled, such as the last few items in a list
Principle of Similarity
The tendency for similar parts to be perceived as a whole
Figure-ground
The tendency for some parts to be perceived as the object we are viewing, but other parts to be perceived as the background
Menstrual synchrony
The tendency for the onset of menstrual periods to converge women who have close contact
Weapon Focus Effect
The tendency for weapons to draw attention, which impairs our ability to identify people holding weapons
Norm of Reciprocity
The tendency to behave toward others as they have behaved toward us
Mood Congruence
The tendency to better remember material that matches current one's mood
Reference Dependence
The tendency to evaluate gains and losses relative to a reference point, rather than in an absolute sense
Functional Fixedness
The tendency to focus on the typical use of an object and to fail to recognize other uses
Serial Position Effect
The tendency, when we learn a series of items, to remember items at the beginning of the series (the primary effect) and items at the end (the recency effect) but forget items in the middle
Carl Rogers
The therapeutic leader in the Humanistic perspective
Allostatic Load
The toll that chronic stress takes on the body
Prevalence
The total number of cases
Cognitive Dissonance
The uncomfortable feeling coming from conflicting beliefs and actions
Reinforcement Value
The value placed on a reward, which prompts action
Independent Variables
The variables that are manipulated in an experiment
Dependent Variables
The variables that are measured in an experiment
Interactionism
The view that behavior is caused by the combined effect of personality and the situation
Behaviorism
The view that psychology should focus exclusively on observable behavior
Jung's Theories
Theories until the next mentioned Neo-Freudian
Learning, Social Learning, and Cognitive Social Learning Perspective
Theory by behaviorists who suggest that personality is a construct of behavior
Deductive Reasoning
Theory driven reasoning that reasons from the general to the specific
Miller and Dollard's Social Learning Theory
Theory of rewards and likelihood
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
Therapy that disputes a client's irrational thoughts and encourages beneficial behavior, often by removing "must" from a person's thoughts
Existential Therapy
Therapy that encourages people to recognize there freedom and responsibility to make choices and pursue meaning
Person-Centered/Client-Centered/Rogerian Therapy
Therapy that feeds on a person's need for unconditional positive regard
Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy (IPSRT)
Therapy that improves interpersonal relationships. Effective during an episode
Cognitive Therapy
Therapy using cognitive techniques
Criteria for Abnormality
There are 6 criteria for abnormality on different scales as followed:
Yerkes-Dodson Law
There is an optimal arousal level for all tasks and if it is too high or low, performance suffers
Religiosity and Prejudice
There is little to no relationship between religiosity and racism, but there is a relationship between religiosity and disapproval of homosexuality, though this is disapproval, not hate
Lang and Melamed (1969)
To stop a child from vomiting, a child was shocked when he gagged. It was positive punishment
Religion and helping
There seems to be a positive relationship between helping and devout people. The correlation isn't strong, but it is strong that religious people are more altruistic
Gestalt Psychologists
These psychologists are well known for their work on perception, especially work that suggests that the whole is more than the sum of parts, but they also conducted research on creative problem solving
For drugs that affect behavior/moods, how can they act on neurotransmitters to achieve this effect?
They can be agonists (acts as a neurotransmitter), antagonists (blocks binding to receptors), affect the rate of enzymatic breakdown and/or reuptake, or affect the amount of neurotransmitters released.
Karsakoff' Syndrome
Thiamine deficiency that damages the thalmus
Male-Female Differences
Things like evolutionary psychology and sexual economics theory
Influences
Things that affect our behavior
Adolescent Brain Changes
Things that happen to the brain only during the times of Youth
Reducing Factors
Things that reduce our memory of past events
Elaborative Rehearsal
Thinking about the material, such as generating
Counterfeit Thinking
Thinking about what might have happened instead of what did happen
Counterfactual Thinking
Thinking about what might have happened rather than what actually happened
Psychomotor Retardation
Thinking and moving slowly
Imposter Phenomenon
Thinking one's success was not based on ability. May cause someone to think that they don't deserve something and self-handicap, sabotaging success
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Thinking or acting in eccentric, ways, limited or inappropriate emotions, and suspicion of others
Ruminative Response Style
Thinking style focusing on thinking more about the bad in life, more common in women, increasing their chances of depression
Hindsight Bias
Thinking you knew what was going to happen after the event
Shadow
To repeat a message
Baumeister et al (1998): radishes and sweets
Those asked to eat radishes and avoid eating sweets gave up quicker with math problems than did those asked to eat the sweets. Explains ego depletion
Health at Every Size
Those who ate whatever they wanted but listened to their body and acted in healthy ways did not lose weight but had higher body satisfaction and much less dropout as well as better health.
Langer (1975): raffle tickets
Those who chose their raffle tickets asked for more money to buy it off of them, illustrating illusion of control
Owls
Those who do better at night
Larks
Those who do better in the morning
Convert Communicators
Those who overcome a problem. They tend to be more persuasive
Craik and Tulving (1975)
Those who thought about words rather than just reading them remembered them more accurately
Berglar and Jones (1978): tests of achievement vs. chance
Those who took a test were told success was based off of accident or knowledge. For those told it was an accident, they took a performance impairment drug as an excuse and for those told it was knowledge, they took a performance enhancing drug to do better
Dopamine Hypothesis
Thought that dopamine levels influence schizophrenia
Bjork and Kornell (2008)
Thought there had to be a time where cramming beats spacing, spacing won every time
Warf's Linguistic Determinism
Thoughts are limited based on language
Automatic Thoughts
Thoughts that spring to mind easily, perpetuated by continuous distortions of reality
Ossicles
Three tiny bones in the middle of the ear that transfer the vibrations and... yeah theres more but i dont wanna write k ya
Sleep Apnea
Throat closes during sleep, causing waking. C-Pap machines fix this
What is the pattern on REM sleep over our lifespan?
Time spent in REM during sleep decreases as we age
Operationalization
Translating one's ideas about a concept into something that can be studied, i.e. church attendance for religiosity
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)
Treatment using magnetic fields to produce electric currents in the brain areas associated with mood
DJ and Randy Gardner
Two people what aged awake for a long time, but found it was due to quick sleeps
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
Two routes to change, one of which involving more thinking than the other. They are as followed:
Sleep needed
Typically 7.5 to 8.5 hours
Backward Conditioning
US presented before CS, leading to weaker learning
weather forecasters and bad weather
US: bad weather UR: anger CS: forecasters CR: anger at weatherman
coyotes attacking sheep
US: poison UR: dizziness and nausea CS: smelling sheep CR: running away
Unconditional Positive Regard
Unconditional care and approval
Goal of humanistic therapy
Unconditional positive regard
Tardive Dyskinesia
Uncontrollable facial movements after taking medication long term
Dyskinesia
Uncontrollable movements
Dystonia
Uncontrollable muscle contractions
Fundamental Attribution Error
Underestimation of the role of external forces in other people
Variable Ratio Reinforcement
Unpredictable and based on behavior
Variable Interval Reinforcement
Unpredictable and based on time passing
Positive Illusions
Unrealistically positive self-views and biases that seem to support such views
Wolfgang Kohler
Used chimpanzees to show how quickly insight comes
Wolf et al (1964)
Used shaping to teach an autistic boy to put on his glasses
Second-Order/Higher-Order Conditioning
Using a CS to condition another CS
Testing Effect
Using a network strengthens it
Aversion Treatment
Using aversive things to stop a behavior
Random Assignment
Using chance methods to assign participants to experimental or control conditions.
Problem Solving
Using cognition to think through problems that have no clear answer
Analogy Approach
Using knowledge about familiar problems to solve unfamiliar ones
Belief-Bias Effect
Using real world scenarios to bias logic, like if someone has the highest score, they won a sport. Of course they won for that, but affirming that they won would lead to incorrect reasoning as you cannot affirm the if.
Acronym
Using the first letter of words to create a new one
Deductive Validity
Validity that describes correct reasoning, even if it does not apply to the real world
Self-Esteem
Value one places on oneself
Fundamentalism
View or test to measure the view that God provided a set of true beliefs and practices that should be followed faithfully
Situationalism
View that behavior is caused by circumstance. Untrue, however.
Herpes Samples Encephalitis
Viral brain infection that damages the temporal lobes and hippocampus
What do Visual task absorption and Auditory task absorption lead to, respectively?
Visual task absorption: leads to inattentional deafness Auditory task absorption: leads to inattentional blindness
Flashbulb Memory
Vivid or detailed memory formed when hearing something important or surprising. Controversial, but may exist
Loose Associations / Loosening of Associations
When a person's language moves from topic to topic with no connection between ideas
Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve
We lose a lot of what we learn rather quickly, what stays with us will usually stay for the rest of our lives
Reciprocity Principle
We tend to behave towards others as they behaved toward us
Weapon Focus Effect
Weapons draw attention, impairing identification ability. Pickel noted the effect was similar if the crook had an abnormal weapon as well
Hue
What is typically meant by the term color
Attentional Focus
What one is currently attending to, decreasing perceived symptoms of other things. Taking your mind off stress helps
Function of Religion
What religion does for someone psychologically.
Conscious Mind
What we are currently thinking about
Manifest Content
What we see in a dream
Cognitive Conceit
When 100% sure, you are always 15% unsure
Superconditioning
When a CS beats out an inhibitory stimulus due to being a stronger indicator of an event
Clanging
When links to language are based off of sound rather than meaning
Overshadowing
When one stimulus overwhelms another
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
When people become depressed in the shorter days of the winter but get better in the summer
Finchem et al (2010)
When people were randomly assigned to prayer groups, those with a pre-written prayer reading had higher fidelity with their partners when praying for them
Blocking
When precious association blocks a new one from being learned
Alda and Harvard's Memory Lab
When shown a picnic and pictures of things that did not happen, Alda's memory was altered
interference (forgetting)
When two similar ideas fill the same slot
Pluralistic Ignorance
When we don't know what to do, we look to others for advice
Affirming the Antecedent
With regard to conditional reasoning, reasoning from information that the IF part of the proposition is true
Affirming the Consequent
With regard to conditional reasoning, reasoning from information that the THEN part of the proposition is true
Latane and Darley (1968): smokey test room
While kids were asked to take a test in a room that slowly filled up with smoke, those buy themselves reported the incident quickly and more commonly, but those with confederates who did not report it also had a low chance of reporting the smoke
Thomas and Cooper (1978): real mystical experiences
While most people say they've had a mystical experience, most aren't real ones.
Denying the Antecedent
With regard to conditional reasoning, reasoning from information that the IF part of the proposition is false
Aronson and Miller (1959): women and sexual material
Women were forced to read mild or severe sexual content and then forced to listen to a bland lecture. Those who read the explicit material liked the info more due to effort justification
Central Executive
Working Memory Model component that determines what's being worked on and where it should be processed
Episodic Buffer
Working Memory Model component that incorporates nfo from the other two systems (auditory and spacial)
Phonological Loop
Working Memory Model component that stores auditory info and the rehearsal process
General Anxiety Disorder
Worrying about nothing and then finding something to worry about due to the original anxiety
William James
Wrote the first psych textbook and advocated for Functionalism, the idea that the function of behaviors should be studied
Can memory be improved?
Yes indeedy dandy
Is bipolar disorder hereditary?
Yes. Highly so
Is personality measurement hard?
Yes. This is due to most measurements being too general
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
a clear fluid similar to blood plasma that surrounds the brain and spine. It is found in the subarachnoid space
Aging and memory declines
You forget more as you age, but not as much as you think
Phineas Gage
You know him by now
SCN
Your sleep wake cycle. It is a 25 hour clock
Nerve
a bundle of axons
Hypnosis
a cooperative social interaction; changes perception, memory, behavior. Relaxation, altered consciousness, sensory changes, etc. Some medical benefits, and hospitals use it on occasion
Huntington's Disease
a disease in which neurons degenerate
Variable
a factor that can change in ways that can be observed, verified, or measured
Theory
a hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon
Phineas Gage
a man was shot in the frontal lobe by a tamping rod. He recovered soon, but he had severe mental abnormalities. Before, he was a very nice model citizen, but after he was like an animal, sometimes appearing in freak shows to earn money. He could function normally, but lacked the control over his base emotions.
Harvard Corpus Calossum Cut
a man with a cut corpus calossum operated normally, but with two brains. His left brain processed speech and thus he could say what his right eye saw, but not the other way around. When shown pictures of peoples' faces made out of fruit, his left brain saw fruit, but his right saw faces, showing that the left brain is logical while the right is artistic.
Statistics
a math used to organize, summarize, and interpret data
Neuron
a nervous system cell comprised of smaller, individual parts alongside the normal cellular components
illusory correlation
a perceived correlation that does not exist
consciousness
a person's subjunctive experience of the world and the mind
Replicate
a repeat/duplicate in a study to establish validity in findings
autonomic nervous system
a set of nerves that carry involuntary and autonomic commands that control blood vessels, body organs and glands
somatic nervous system
a set of nerves that conveys information between voluntary muscles and the central nervous system
empirical method
a set of rules and techniques for observation
Endorphins
a substance produced by the body to control pain, like body-made morphine
All-or-None Law
action potentials do not vary in size. They are like a gun; they fire, or they do not
operant conditioning
active learning
Left Side
academic side that excels at reading and math
correlation- strength
accuracy of predictions -closer |r| to 1 - if r=0, no correlation
Sodium Potassium Pump
actively pumps in 2K+ ions and out 3Na+ ions to decrease charge
Cognitive Revolution
addition of mental processes, increasing interest in physiology
Dawes
advised care when dealing with psychology so that it does not devolve into skepticism
Nerve Entrance
all 31 nerve pairs enter the spinal cord at some point, but they do so at different intervals
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
all nerves throughout the body, excluding the ones in the brain and the spinal cord
Psychoanalytic theory
an approach that emphasizes the importance of unconsciousness mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviors
humanistic psychology
an approach to understanding human nature that emphisizes the positive potential of human beings
hindbrain
an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into an out of the spinal cord
action potential
an electrical signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron's axon to a synapses
Case Study
an in-depth investigation of a person or population of similar peoples
Nervous System
an interacting networks of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body
double blind observation
an observation whose true purpose is hidden from the observer and person being observed
Youth
an old concept that explains why kids to stupid things. Youths are still in development.
Medulla (oblongata)
area above spinal cord in charge of life-sustaining functions, like breathing, coughing, heart rate, and vomiting
Wernicke's Area
area in left temporal lobe in charge of comprehending speech
Midbrain
area just above hindbrain
Kohlberg
argued that children develop from thinking conventionally (approval) to post-conventionally (morality)
McKay
argued that injecting beliefs into psychology devalues it
Excitatory Info
depolarizing information that fires the signal
regression toward the mean
average results are more typical than extreme results
Threshold of Excitation
charge of around -55mV. When a neuron gets to here, it passes the point of no return, and fires
Resting State Potential
charge of neuron in resting state before being fired. Usually around -70mV
Occipital Lobes
back lobes involved in visual processing and contain the primary visual cortex
Behavior and Genetics. How do genes affect behavior?
behavior is determined through polygenic inheritance, though we also determine how we behave.
John Watson
behaviorist: believed goal of behaviorists is discovering fundamental principles of learning
B. F. Skinner
behaviorist: believed psych should restrict itself to studying outwardly observable behaviors that can be measured
Ivan Pavlov
behaviorist: discovery of classical conditioning (ie: dog salivation)
Recognition
being able to recognize something in a set of similar unfamiliar things
Carl Rogers
believed in unconditional positive regard for patients in client centered therapy. Was an advocate for the humanistic approach, one that pushed for people to do what felt good and right.
Hormones
blood-born chemical messages
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
Lesions
brain damage used to study how the brain works
Hobson: sleep "by the brain"
brain initiates sleep, maintains sleep
Hobson: sleep "for the brain"
brain primary beneficiary of sleep
Amygdala
brain structure in charge of emotions, mainly fear
Hypothalmus
brain structure involved with drives, like hunger and sex. It has A LOT of connections to the pituitary gland
Pons
bridge of fibers crossing from one side to the other. It controls arousal and sleep. Planned actions pass through here
Axons
carries information to other neurons, muscles, or glands
Blindsight
caused by damage to primary visual cortex. This disorder causes blindness, yet people can still see things presented to them. This is due to the fact that the cortex damaged is only the primary one, not the only one.
Intensity
caused by frequency and or multitude of neuron signals
chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CFE)
caused by repeated concussions, can lead to dementia
Glia
cells that take care of neurons
Gene Therapy
changing one's genes to treat diseases
Hormones
chemical messengers circulating in the blood, triggered by the hypothalamus
Neurotransmitters
chemical signals released from vesicles in a neuron's axon that bond to the receptors on a dendrite
what are the specialties in psychology?
clinical, counseling, experimental, school, educational, developmental, biological, health, social/personality, industrial/organizational, forensic, human factors
Interneurons
connect sensory and motor neurons to other interneurons
corpus callosum
connection between the two hemispheres of the brain
Central Canal
connection of the ventricles that runs down the center of the spinal cord to disperse CSF
Peripheral nervous system
connects the central nervous system to the bodies organs and muscles
super ego
conscience-> harsh task master, develops differently for boys and girls
reinforcement
consequence of target behavior
reliability
consistency in measurement; how consistency is in our measurements
Reflexes
controlled by the spinal cord
Frontal Lobe
controls self-control, ability to consider negative consequences, ability to over-ride emotional impulsiveness,
Right side of the brain
controls the left side of the body
Left side of the brain
controls the right side of the body
source monitoring error
correct memory but cannot remember source of memory
limitations of correlations
correlation does not imply causation a) direction of effect b) lurking or third variables
Steinberg
created a driving game focused on speed, giving points to those who passed through yellow lights and penalties to those who drove through red lights. It showed that adults and teens behaved the same, however, teens were far more likely to take risks with peers in the car.
G. Stanley Hall
created first psych lab and the APA
Francois Magendie
cut spinal nerve cells in puppies to determine that posterior roots carried sensory signal and anterior roots carried motor signals. PUPPIES.
Counseling Specialty
deal with less severe cases of mental problems, like family problems
Executive Function
decisions about problem solving involving self control
punishment
decreases frequency of target behavior
Craik and Tolving
deeply thinking about things helps us to remember them better
Hobson: Sleep "of the brain"
defined by brain activity
operational definition
defining something by the way we measure it
Descriptive Research
describes phenomena
Baumeister and Vohr
determined that Sprecher's ideas are true to many theories, such as supply and demand or power differences
Sprecher et al
determined that men prefer youth and beauty while women prefer wealth and stature
William James
developed functionalism - studies how behaviors help individuals adapt to the environment
Edward Titchener
developed structuralism - the study of the parts of the conscious experience, relying on introspection
Gardner
different types of intelligence
Charles Bell
discovered sensory and motor neurons by stimulating spinal nerve anterior and posterior roots, guessing that the anterior root is the motor neuron
Experimental Research
discovers if one variable actually causes the other. Has high internal validity but low external validity
Domhoff's view of dreams
dreams are meaningful and can be studied scientifically -continuity principle: waking life influences dream -men's dreams: more aggressive; people who live in city diff. than rural people
activation synthesis view
dreams are random and meaningless (most psychologists today hold this view)
Freud's view of dreams
dreams symbolic to protect dreamer -manifest content (what literally happens) vs. latent content (symbolic)
Adrenal Medulla
ecretes epinephrine (adrenaline), and norepinephrine
Electrophoresis
electric charge that pulls DNA across a gel to map out a specific person's DNA
epigenetics
environmental influences that determine whether or not genes are expressed, or the degree to which they are expressed, without altering the basic DNA sequences that constitute the genes themselves
Mary Whiton Calkins
first woman president of APA
Solvable problems
for example, solving hunger is impossible, reducing hunger is possible
Diffusion and Electrostatic Pressure
forces that would equalize charge in a neuron, however are repressed by the neuron
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
formed from glutamate, main inhibatory neurotransmitter in CNS
Role of the Hippocampus
forming new explicit memories
Wilhelm Wundt
founded psychology
Benefit of Science
frees us from the bonds of personal experience
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
humanistic psychology perspectives
Inhibitory Info
further polarizing information that moves the cell further from firing
case method
gathering information by studying one person
Stanovich
gave three criteria for science
caffeine
half life- 6 hours
Right Side
handles spacial skills, like music and art
Easterlin (2003)
happiness list
Meditation
heightened awareness, control/contain attention, grounding self. Improves concentration, attention, working memory, emotional control, stress. Increased gray matter after short and long term use.
what's the #1 predictor for marriage satisfaction?
how conflict is handled
DNA Fingerprinting
identifying a person by their DNA by electrophoresis
is hypnosis a different state of unconsciousness OR social role playing?
if social rp, people who are hypnotized and people pretending should act the same way
Aristotle
impact of physiology on the emergence of psych, introduced scientific method to psych
Socio-emotional Network
implements the amygdala, focus on the present rather than the future
Confound
inaccurately describing one variable as being caused by another. Usually caused by multiple explanations existing for one problem
Hydrocephalus
increased CSF in brain which can lead to irreparable damage
Down Syndrome
intellectual impairment caused by 3 copies of chromosome 21, though effects vary
Demand Characteristic
internal validity problem in which a participant actively seeks to perform the behavior a researcher is looking for, skewing the results
Experimental Bias
internal validity problem in which an experimenter changes behavior subtly to prompt people to behave differently to encourage the wished result
Placebo Effect
internal validity problem in which effect-less factors cause participants to feel like they received the actual effects
Social Desirability
internal validity problem in which people react other than their thoughts imply to avoid being judged
Regression to the Mean
internal validity problem that deals with being abnormally good or bad, causing a person to perceive a change that never existed. However, people will always return to their mean.
what is biological perspective?
investigates brain structures or neurochemicals
Hippocampus (the sea horse)
involved in memory creation
Acetylcholine (ACh)
involved in muscle movement and without it, muscle movement stops and death occurs. Botox is a toxin that disrupts it.
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
involved with arousal and alertness. Damage causes coma
CNS main downfall
it cannot heal
Evans, Capecchi, and Smithies
knocked out DNA in mice to cause different problems, paving the way for Gene Therapy
Implicit LTM
knowledge that we can not verbalize, ex) balance while riding a bike
Forebrain
largest, forward-most region
Social Learning/Observational Learning Theory (Behaviorism+)
learn by watching others get reinforced
Milgram's studies
learner/teacher pair, shocks -65% keep shocking
Acetylcholine
learning, memory, muscle contractions Too little causes Alzheimer's disease
Broca's Area
left frontal lobe area in charge of communicating thoughts
Adrenal Cortex
located above the kidneys, this gland secretes cortisol, a stress-relieving hormone, and Androstenedione, a hormone that produces sex hormones
The The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
located in the hypothalamus, govern the timing of the circadian rhythms, influenced by light cues. Without environmental cues, circadian rhythms drift out of sync.
Serotonin
low levels can cause depression, so medication is often issued to prevent reuptake and increase exposure of this neurotransmitter
Norepinephrine
low levels cause depression, high levels cause arousal, and really high levels cause anxiety and PTSD
Socio-Emotional Network
made of the amygdala, which is involved with fearful and angry emotions, this network causes quick actions based on immediacy and emotion. It is heightened by peer presence.
Cognitive Control
made up of the frontal lobes, this network is involved with logical processing and is slower, causing it to lose out to the socio-emotional network.
MRI
magnet scan of the brain to see its structure
Glutamate
main excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS
Frontal Cortex
makes rational decisions and considers the future
systematic empiricism
making observations in a meticulous way to examine reality
Jimmie G.
man with Korsakoff's syndrome who was stuck in 1970 due to inability to make memories past that point
Faith and Science
many religious thinkers believe science is the proper outcome of using God-given talents and thus perfectly acceptable in faith
Functional MRI (fMRI)
maps bloodflow at a higher resolution than a PET to show function
Pituitary Gland
master gland that influences many other glands
Strength (r)
measure of accuracy of predictions
Meninges
membranes that surround the spinal cord and brain to protect it
Korsakoff's Syndrome/ Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
memory disorder caused by damage to the hypothalmus and thalmus due to malnutrition or alcoholism. Sufferers have hard times making new memories
Echoic Memory
memory from hearing, lasts for about 5 seconds
Iconic memory
memory from vision, lasts 1 second, Sperling Study
introspection
method that asks people to report on the contents of their subjunctive experience
Brainstem
midbrain and hindbrain collectively, excluding cerebellum
diffusion of responsibility
more people around, individual feels less responsible
Grey Matter
nerve cell bodies
Semantic Networks
networks that are connected with similar ideas
Youth Hippocampus
neural growth occurs between hippocampus and frontal lobes
Oxytocin
neuro-transmitter in the brain, increases feelings of trust and generosity in the brain,
Without Reuptake
neurotransmitters are broken down
Synaptic Pruning
new dendrites form by heavily used axons but older, unused connections are severed
do people break up before marriage? (PREP)
no counseling- 25% do control- 20% do PREP- 5% do
C. Stephan Evans
no one approaches psychology free of prejudice
Karl Popper
objectivist (believed in absolute truth), human finitude, everything in science is subject to revision and rejection
becoming widow
permanent decline in happiness/health
Neuron permeability
permeable to Cl- ions to decrease charge
internal validity
our confidence that A causes B
Publicly verifiable knowledge
over time, science is self-correcting
classical conditioning
passive learning
Lord et al
people are more accepting of their own viewpoints
Absolute Refractory Period
period after a neuron has fired in which it cannot possibly fire again
Relative Refractory Period
period after the absolute refractory period in which a neuron requires greater stimulation to fire again
narcolepsy
persistent daytime sleepiness; sleep during emotional situations
personality vs social psych
personality: internal causes on behavior social psych: external influences on behavior
cannon-bard theory
physiological change and emotion happen simultaneously
two factor theory
physiological change for emotion is all similar
James-Lange theory
physiological changes then emotion (unique response) -spinal cord injury -> not as emotional
ego
plays unfair referee-> wants to gratify id
Nucleus Accumbens
pleasure center of the brain involved in rewards and addictions
Lymbic System
pocesses emotions (amygdala and hippocampus)
Synapse
point between two neurons, where they communicate
Joseph and Akeleitis
pointed out split brain patients often conflict with themselves because their brains are unaware of their actions
Heritability
portion of a trait's variability due to genes, like variability of tennis skill not due to training
emotion
positive or negative experience associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity
Behaviorism
predominant in USA in the 20th century, directed toward observable behavior
positive punishment
presenting something aversive following target behavior
positive reinforcement
presenting something desired following target behavior causing target behavior to be more likely to happen
Blood-Brain Barrier
protects the brain from blood chemical, maintained by astrocytes
Good Side to Youth Changes
quicker learning, better bonds, trying new things, but the brain does not develop in a vacuum. Teens must be brought up in the way they want to be
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
radioactive sugars show where brain activity occurs during thought or activity
Phineas Cage
recovered from the passage of an iron bar through his head, went from very friendly to very angry, damaged frontal lobe
mind
refers to the private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories and feelings
Dopamine
regulatory neurotransmitter. Deficiency can cause Parkinson's Disease and too much causes Schizophrenia
shaping
reinforcing successive approximations of target behavior until full target behavior is reached
Efferent/Motor Neurons
relay brain information to muscles to produce motion. They relay "effort"
Afferet/Sensory Neurons
relay sensory information to the brain from the world around us, i.e. burning your hand
temporal lobe
responsible for hearing and language
Thalmus
routes sensory information, except smell, to the cortex
Endocrine System
sends non-neurotransmitter chemical message in the form of hormones
Hyperpolarization
state after a neuron has fired in which it is incredibly negatively charged
Monozygotic (Identical) Twins
share 100% of the genes and are invaluable to study
Dizygotic (Fraternal) Twins
share 50% of the genes and are good to study
Temporal Lobes
side lobes involved in auditory processing and contain the auditory cortex. The left side controls language cognition
Concordance Rate
similarity of a trait between people, mostly twins
spinal reflexes
simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions
Axon
singular outgoing stem from the soma that sends signals
Dendrites
small outcroppings from the soma that allow signals to be received
two subdivisions of the Peripheral nervous system
somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
Wernicke's Aphasia
speech impairment in which you can speak, but you don't understand others. Causes word salad
Broca's Aphasia
speech impairment in which you cannot speak your mind. Caused by damage to Broca's Area
Myelination of Frontal Cortex
speeds info movement during youth period
Corpus Callosum Thickens
speeds info transfer between brain hemispheres during youth period (Female's have bigger corpus callosums, but this does not increase multitasking ability)
Muller's Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies
stated that the sensations we feel are based off of specific nerves carrying the signals, though today we know it is due to where the nerves connect to the brain
Inferential Statistics
statistical analysis such as ANOVA that calculates p-value
Chromosomes
strands of DNA in a helical form
Elbert et al
study done with violins to show that violin players had slightly different rain functionality
Biopsychology
study of biological influences on thinking, emotion, and behavior
Adoption Study
studying a family with an adoptive child. This helps to show if a trait is learned, like if the adoptive parents have a disorder that the child then has. It could not be caused by genetics.
what is behavioral perspective?
studying behavior, not thoughts or feelings
Family Study
studying the family of a person with a genetic condition to determine how the condition is spread
Twin Study
studying twins to determine if a disease is genetic. If one twin has the disease and the other does not, it may help prove that the disease is not genetic
Two main sections of the forebrain
subcortial cerebral cortex
Antagonist
substance that inhibit neurotransmitters
Agonist
substance that mimics or enhances neurotransmitters, sometimes blocking reuptake to keep the effect
synaptic pruning
synapses that are not used die off
negative punishment
taking away something desired (ex. time-outs)
Naturalistic observation
technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments
Meta Analysis
technique that allows for combining results from different studies
structuralism
the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind
what are spurious correlations?
the appearance of an association between A and B that is actually due to C
The Axon Hillock
the area of an axon attached to the soma. When the threshold of excitation is reached here, the signal is fired
Demand Characteristics
the aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects
Neuron
the basic unit of information processing
Cell Body/Soma
the body of the cell that keeps the neuron alive with normal cellular functions, i.e. respiration
three parts of a neuron
the cell body the dendrites the axon
Corpus Collosum
the connection between the brains that allow for communication. Splitting this causes a split brain, in which the hemispheres operate independently of each other
External Validity
the degree to which findings can be generalized across populations, peoples, and times
validity
the degree to which we measure what we want to measure
resting potential
the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neurons cell membrane
the forebrain
the highest level of the brain; controls complex cognitive, emotional sensory, and motor functions.
unconsciousness
the part of the mind that operates outside of awareness but that influences thoughts and feelings and actions
Evolutionary Psychology
the idea that psychological differences arose from evolution. This is controversial not due to evolution but instead that it implies some peoples are better than others and advocates for not controlling yourself.
Behavioral Genetics
the influences of genes on behavior
synapse
the junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another
the cell body
the largest part of the neuron that cooridnates the information processing tasks and keeps the cell alive
Hemispheric Separation and Specialization
the left hemisphere processes info from the right side and vice versa
correlation
the measure of association between two variables
Action Potential/ Nerve Impulse/ Spike
the message sent by the neuron, signaled by changes in charge between the inside and outside of the neuron
Neuron Doctrine
the nervous system is comprised of individual cells called neurons
behavior
the observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals
Synapse
the part of a neuron connection where an axon's end meets a dendrite's beginning
functionalism
the study of the purpose that mental processes serve
Localization of Function
the principle that states that different areas of the brain control different functions
P-Value
the probability that a finding was by chance or by actual correlation
Reuptake
the re-absorption of neurotransmitters by the axon for reuse
statistical significance
the sample averages are reliable and their difference is large
Psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
cognitive philosophy
the scientific study of mental processes, including memory, perception, thought, and reasoning
Signal Propogation
the signal starting at the axon bounces down the axon in segments, but it cannot go in reverse
Modern View of Soul
the soul is a separate entity from the body
hysteria
the temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experience
Philosophical empiricism
the view that all knowledge is acquired through experience
Nativism
the view that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn
Saltatory Conduction
the way signals jump down the axon, between nodes of ranvier
Levels of Analysis
the world can be studied from different levels, and while each has its own questions and methods, success in one does not invalidate the other, i.e. physics discoveries does not invalidate theology, and vice versa
Explicit LTM
things we can verbalize, ex) First pres. of USA
Multiple Sclerosis
thinking disease in which the body attacks and dissolves the myelin around neurons, leading to slow signal processing (drop from 200mph to 2mph)
Sperry and Gazaniga
those with a split brain could only communicate what their right eyes saw, as it was processed in their left brains and thus could be communicated
External Validity
to what extent do our findings apply outside of the lab
Nature vs. Nurture
today, focuses on interaction b/w environment and genetics
Parietal Lobes
top lobes involved in somatosensory processing and contain the somatosensory cortex. More space is devoted to the things you process more with touch, such as your face and hands.
cognitive dissonance
uncomfortable to have beliefs and behaviors that don't match
id
unconscious pleasure principle-> greedy, demanding
Structural Techniques
used to learn about brain structures
Functional Techniques
used to study how the brain reacts when people do things
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
using plymerase to duplicate DNA
Empirical evidence
verifiable evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation
Amygdala
very important to making spontaneous decisions
Dopamine
very important to the experience of pleasure, teens get an extra boost, allows teens to learn quickly
Hippocampus
very involved in storing and accessing memory
REM sleep behavior disorder
voluntary muscles not paralyzed; mostly men, middle-aged
lucid dreams- La Berge
we can take control of some aspects of our dreams in REM
why do we sleep?
we don't know
weight normative
weight within certain range; harmful; # on scale
what is cognitive perspective?
what people are thinking or feeling -most dominant perspective
Significant
when a p-value is less than .05, meaning the finding was actual and not chance
retroactive interference
when new information messes with old information
Fallon and Rozin (1985)
women want to be even thinner than men's prefered body
Word Salad
words are jumbled together and make no sense due to you not hearing yourself
Short term Memory
working memory, lasts about 15-20 seconds, limited capacitor,
Cerebellum
wrinkled structure in the back of the brain in charge of coordination and movement learning
Cortex
wrinkled top of brain divided into two independent hemispheres and several lobes
CAT/CT scan
x-ray scan of the brain to see its structure
Sensitivity in Youths
youths are especially susceptible to dopamine and oxytocin. This is why teens have bigger bursts of pleasure than adults and why they make connections with bad people respectively
mueller and oppenheumer test
• UCLA students • Heard four seven minute presentations ○ Bats bread vaccines and respiration • Tested one week later • Two independent variables ○ Type of note taking § Longhand § Laptop ○ Study § 10 minutes to study right before the test § No study time before the test • DV variable is the test performances • People wo used long hand notes and got to study before test did a lot better than everyone else • Laptop people take every word down