psych 105 exam 3

Review the work that was done by Alfred Kinsey

ALFRED KINSEY and colleagues (1948, 1953) were among the first to try to scientifically and objectively examine human sexuality in America. Using the SURVEY METHOD, Kinsey and his team collected date on the sexual behaviors of 5,300 white males and 5,940 white females. Their findings were surprising; both men and women masturbated, and participants had experiences with premarital sex, adultery, and sexual activity with someone of the same sex. Perhaps more shocking was the fact that so many people were willing to talk about their personal sexual behavior in post-World War II America. At that time, people generally did not talk openly about sexual topics. The Kinsey study was groundbreaking in terms of its data content and methodology, which included actual checks and assurances of confidentiality. The Kinsey data have served as a valuable reference for researchers studying how sexual behaviors have evolved overtime. However, Kinsey's work was not without limitations. For example, Kinsey and his colleagues utilized a biased sampling technique that resulted in a sample that was not representative of the population. It was a completely white sample, with an overrepresentation of well-educated protestants. Another criticism of the Kinsey study is that it failed to determine the context in which organisms occurred. Was a partner involved? Was the orgasm achieved through masturbation? Subsequent research has been better designed , including samples more representative of the population. The National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) was conducted which examined the sexual activities of a represenative sample of some 3,000 Americans between the ages of 18 and 59. A more recent study included a sample of approximately 5,800 men and women between the ages of 14 and 94 years. TEST PREP END OF CHAPTER 10: SEX refers to a sexual act or the classification of male or female. GENDER refers to masculinity and femininity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics. The 23RD PAIR OF CHROMOSOMES provides specific instructions on whether a zygote will develop into a male or female, that is, the genetic sex of the individual. The sensitivity of a fetus to HORMONES produced during its early development can play a role in the development of intersexuality (referring to having 'conflicting or ambiguous biological indicators' of male or female in sexual structures and organs-hermaphedite). A psychologist refers to biological characteristics when discussing a client's SEX, but when talking about sexual attitudes and behaviors, a psychologist is referring to SEXUALITY. The general beliefs, in American culture, that men are assertive and logical, and women are caring and emotional represent GENDER ROLES. The acquisition of gender roles can occur through OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING, as explained by social-cognitive theory. That is, we are shaped by models in our environment. Sexual Arousal begins in the EXCITEMENT phase, when psychical changes begin to take place. A family friend confides that he has always has the feeling he was born in the body of a female and that he has started cross-sex hormone treatment. Your friend would be considered TRANSSEXUAL by the APA. Having older brothers in a family seems to be associated with homosexuality in men. One explanation for this is the maternal immune hypothesis, which suggests that MOTHERS DEVELOP AN ANTI-MALE ANTIBODY WHILE PREGNANT. Research regarding the sexual response cycle indicates: MEN AND WOMEN EXPERIENCE A SIMILAR PATTERN OR CYCLE. Explain how gender roles are acquired through culture and learning: GENDER refers to the dimension of masculinity and femininity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics. It is often used in reference to the cultural roles that distinguish males and females. We generally learn gender roles by observing other people's behavior and by internalizing cultural beliefs about what is appropriate for men and women.

Review the information on anxiety and the related disorders (panic attacks, phobias, OCD, generalized anxiety disorder, etc.)

ANXIETY is an unpleasant emotional state characterized by physical arousal and feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry.- Physically and mentally alert. People who suffer from ANXIETY DISORDERS have extreme anxiety and/or irrational fears that are debilitating. Anxiety disorders are relatively common in both sexes, but they are more apparent in women by an approximate 2:1 ratio. To differentiate between normal anxiety and anxiety disorder we look at the degree of dysfunction the anxiety causes, how much distress is creates, and whether it gets in the way of everyday behavior (interfering with relationships, social interactions, work, and time management, for example). EX: too nervous to take a test, and as a result you don't go. GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER: Anxiety and worry that are out of the proportion to the actual event or situation. Varies by culture. 2.9% prevalence in adults. Anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, global, and persistent symptoms of anxiety. -when one source of worry is removed, another takes its place. Like other disorders, the anxiety must cause substantial distress in social settings or work environments to merit a diagnosis. Suggested that there is a hereditary component to generalized anxiety disorder. This genetic factor appears to be associated with irregularities in parts of the brain associated with fear, such as the amygdala and hippocampus. Environmental factors such as adversity in childhood and overprotective parents also appear to be associated with the development of generalized anxiety disorder. What you may not know is that a person experiencing a PANIC ATTACK may behave similarly to someone having a heart attack-trembling and sweating, gasping for breath, or complaining of heart palpitations. A Panic Attack is a sudden, extreme fear of discomfort that escalates quickly, often with no evident cause, and includes symptoms such as increased heart rate, sweating shortness of breath, chest pain, nausea, lightheadedness, and fear of dying. A diagnosis of PANIC DISORDER requires such attacks to occur unexpectedly and have no obvious trigger. People with panic disorder often make decisions that are maladaptive, like purposely avoiding exercise or places that are unfamiliar. Panic Disorder is a biological cause, researchers have identified the hypothalamus to be responsible for panic attacks, which is involved in the fight or flight response. A smaller amygdala could lead to dysfunction in the autonomic nervous system (which directs the fight or flight response). Panic Disorder affects about 2-3% of the population. Panic disorder runs in families, with heritability estimates around 40-48%. This means that over 40% of the variation of the disorder in the population can be attributed to genetic factors and the remaining 60% is due to environmental factors- 40% due to genes and 60% due to environmental factors. Heritability explains the variation and risk AMONG individuals in a population. Women are twice as likely to be diagnosed with panic disorder. Proposed that learning/Classical Conditioning can play a role in the development of panic disorder. EX: NS is the shopping mall, US is an unexpected panic attack, and the UR is the fear resulting from the panic attack. The mall would become the conditioned stimulus, such that every time the person thinks of the shopping mall, she responds with fear (now the conditioned response). Also suggested that there is a cognitive component of panic disorder, with some individuals misinterpreting physical sensations as signs of major physical or psychological problems. EX: many people have strange sensation when their heart skips a beat, but they realize it is probably not serious, perhaps just too much coffee. A person with panic disorder might interpret that sensation as an indication of an imminent heart attack. Panic attacks can occur without apparent triggers. This is not the case with a SPECIFIC PHOBIA, which centers on a particular object or situation, like rats or airplane travel. A person with a specific phobia feels extreme anxiety about a particular object or situation. Fears center on anything from dogs to dental procedures. Phobias can be explained using the principles of learning. Classical conditioning may lead to the acquisition of a fear, through the pairing of stimuli. Operant conditioning could maintain the phobia, through negative reinforcement; if anxiety (the unpleasant stimulus) is reduced by avoiding a feared object or situation, the avoidance behavior is NEGATIVELY REINFORCED and thus more likely to recur. Observational learning can also help explain the development of a phobia. Simply watching someone else experience a phobia could create fear in an observer. Some research demonstrates that even rhesus monkeys become afraid of snakes if they observe other monkeys reacting fearfully to a real or toy snakes. Humans seem to be biologically predisposed to fear certain threats such as spiders, snakes, foul smells, and bitter foods. -Excessive, intense, irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity that is actively avoided or endured with marked anxiety. -feared situation or object can provoke a full-fledged panic attack. -About 13% of the population experiences a specific phobia. -More than twice as many women as men suffer from a specific phobia. -Generally, the objects or situations that tend to produce specific phobias tend to fall into 4 categories: 1. Fear of particular situations- heights, dark, claustrophobia. 2. Fear of features of natural environment- thunder storms. 3. Fear of injury or blood- guts and gore. 4. Fear of animals and insects- snakes and spiders. A person with AGORAPHOBIA feels extremely anxious in public settings. This disorder is characterized by a distinct fear or anxiety related to public transportation, open spaces, retail stores, crowds, or being alone and away form home in general. A person with this avoids these situations and fears they will be unable to escape. This may also result in panic like symptoms. Typically, people with this need someone with them to accompany them on their outgoings, because they feel they will not be able to cope on their own. SOCIAL ANXIETY is where one fears the judgement and scrutiny of others in social situations. You can predict a person with agoraphobia will feel distressed walking through a shopping mall, and a there is a good chance that someone with social anxiety will feel very uncomfortable at a cocktail party. -One of the most common psychological disorders. More prevalent in young men and women. -Spotlight effect: People tend to think they are noticed more than they really are.- Each of us views ourself as the center of our own universe while others do not. -Some individuals in Japan suffer from TAIJIN KYOFU, a cultural syndrome characterized by an intense fear of offending or embarrassing other people with one's body odor, stomach rumblings, or facial expressions. The fear is associated with causing distress in others, as opposed to oneself, which is typical of social anxiety disorder in Western cultures. Collectivist cultures value social harmony over individual needs, so causing discomfort in others is worse than personal humiliation. OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD) is a psychological disorder characterized by unwanted thoughts, or obsessions, and repetitive, ritualistic behaviors known as Compulsions. Suggested that the symptoms of OCD are related to abnormal activity of neurotransmitters. Reduced activity of serotonin is thought to play a role, though other neurotransmitters are also being studied. Appears to be a genetic basis for OCD. If a parent, sibling, or offspring who shares about 50% of one's DNA has an OCD diagnosis, the risk of developing OCD is twice as high as someone whose first degree relatives do not have the disorder. Learning can play a role in PTSD-"I didn't die because i touched all the things in my room just the right way". <Melissa's compulsions were negatively reinforced by the reduction in her fear. The negative reinforcement led to more compulsive behaviors, those compulsions were negatively reinforced, and so on. PTSD: -Re-experiencing the trauma. -Originally PTSD was associated with military combat, but it can also develop in survivors of other severe trauma. -Core symptoms have been identified. -Likelihood of developing PTSD linked to personal or family history and or magnitude of trauma experienced. Anxiety disorders are a group of psychological disorders associated with extreme anxiety and/or irrational fears that are debilitating. Panic disorder includes worries about experiencing unexpected panic attacks or losing control. Specific phobias include a distinct fear or anxiety in relation to an object or situation. Agoraphobia is a distinct fear or anxiety related to situations such as public transportation, open spaces, retail sites, crowds, or being alone and away from home. Social anxiety disorder is a type of phobia in which a person has a distinct fear or anxiety regarding social situations, particularly the idea of being scrutinized by others. Someone with generalized anxiety disorder experiences an excessive amount of worry and anxiety about many activities relating to school, family, health, and other aspects of daily life. Anxiety disorders can develop as a result of environmental factors and genetic predisposition, and are more prevalent in women. They can be culture specific and/or learned.

Review info on cognitive therapies including REBT (Albert Ellis) including the goal of this therapy

After identifying a client's maladaptive thoughts, a therapist begins to help change the way one views their world and their relationships. This is the basic goal of COGNITIVE THERAPY, an approach advanced by psychiatrist Aaron Beck. Beck believes that distorted/automatic thought processes lie at the root/heart of psychological problems/disturbances. These distortions in thinking cause individuals to misinterpret events in their lives. Beck identified a collection of common cognitive distortions or errors associated with psychological problems, such as depression. One such distortion is OVERGENERALIZATION, or thinking that self-contained events will have major repercussions in life. For example, a person may assume that just because something is true under one set of circumstances, it will be true in all others ('I have had difficulty working for a male boss, so i will never be able to work effectively under a male supervisor'). Another common cognitive distortion is dichotomous thinking, or seeing things in extremes ('I can either be a good student, or I can have a social life'). One goal of cognitive therapy is then to help clients recognize and challenge cognitive error such as overgeneralization. Beck suggests that cognitive schemas underlie these patterns of automatic thoughts, directing the way we interpret events. The goal is to restructure these schemas into more rational frameworks, a process that can be facilitated by client homework. For example, a therapist may challenge a client to test a hypothesis related to her dysfunctional thinking. ('If you are truly the worst student in the world, then do you think you would have made it to college?') Client Homework is an important component of cognitive therapy. So too is psychoeducation, which might include proving resources or links to resources that help clients understand their disorders and thus adopt more realistic attitudes and expectations. Becks cognitive therapy aims to dismantle or take part the mental frameworks harboring cognitive errors and replace them with beliefs that nurture more positive, realistic thoughts. Dr Foster calls these frameworks 'paradigms' and he also tries to create a more holistic change in thinking. "I tell people that thoughts, behaviors, and words come from beliefs, and when a belief's not working for you, lets change it" Foster says. "To modify a belief doesn't mean all or none" he says, "but when we outgrow a belief, that is a wonderful time for transformation". Other major figure in cognitive therapy is psychologist Albert Ellis. Like Beck, Ellis was trained in psychoanalysis but was disappointed by its results, so he created his own treatment approach: RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY (REBT). The goal of REBT is to help people identify their irrational or illogical thoughts and convert them into rational ones. An REBT therapist uses the ABC model to understand a client's life. Point A represents an AACTIVATING EVENT in the clients life (my boss fired me). Point B stands for IRRATIONAL BBELIEFS that follow (I will never be able to hold a steady job). And Point C represents the EMOTIONAL CCONSEQUENCES (I feel hopeless and depressed). Therapy focuses on addressing point B, the irrational beliefs causing distress. If all goes well, the client successfully reaches point D: DDISPUTING FLAWED BELIEFS (losing one job does not spell the end of my career), and that leads to point E: an EEFECTIVE NEW PHILOSOPHY (I can apply for another job), a mature and realistic perspective on life. According to Ellis, people tend to have unrealistic beliefs about how they and others should act. This inevitably leads to disappointment, as no one is perfect. The ultimate goal of REBT is to arrive at self-acceptance, that is, to change these irrational thoughts to realistic ones. Thought REBT, one develops a rational way of thinking that helps reduce suffering and amplify enjoyment: "the purpose of life", as Ellis was known to say, "is to have a f***ing good time". Important to focus on cognitive processing as well as behavior. Thus, REBT focuses on changing both cognitions and behaviors, and assigning homework to implement the insights clients gain during therapy. Ellis took a hardline with clients, forcefully challenging them to provide evidence for their irrational ideas (where is it written that you have to be beautiful in order to be happy?) Ellis and Beck's approaches are commonly referred to as COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY. Both are action oriented, as they require clients to confront and resist their illogical thinking. The goal of cognitive therapy is to identify potentially maladaptive thinking and help individuals change the way they view the world and relationships. Beck believed patterns of automatic thoughts and cognitive distortions, such as overgeneralization (thinking that self-contained events will have major repercussions in life), are the root of psychological disturbances. The aim of cognitive therapy is to help clients recognize and challenge cognitive distortions and illogical thought in the short term, action oriented, and homework intensive therapy sessions. Albert Ellis created REBT to help people identify their irrational or illogical thoughts and convert them into rational ones.

Review depression and bipolar disorder info including manic episodes

DEPRESSION: emotions that tend to violate criteria of normal moods in quality, intensity, and duration. MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER: A major depressive episode is evident if 5 or more of the symptoms listed below 1) occur for atleast two weeks straight and represent a change from prior functioning, 2)cause significant distress or impairment, and 3) are not due to a medical or drug-related condition: -depressed mood, which might result in feeling sad or helpless -reduced pleasure in activities almost all of the time, -substantial loss or gain in weight, without conscious effort, or changes in appetite -sleeping excessively or not sleeping enough -feeling tired, drained of energy -feeling worthless or extremely guilt ridden -difficulty thinking or concentrating -persistent thoughts about death or suicide Someone with 5 or more of these symptoms would feel very distressed and experience problems in social interactions and at work. In order to be diagnosed, the person must have experienced at least one major depressive episode. Some suffer from only one episode, others suffer from recurrent episodes. Approx 3-6% of women experience depression starting pregnancy or within weeks or months of giving birth; this is known as PERMPARTUM ONSET. Grief/sadness from a death generally decreases with time, but the sadness associated with a major depressive episode tends to remain steady. Major depressive disorder is one of the most common and devastating psychological disorders. Lifetime Prevalence is 17%, meaning 1 in 5 people experience a major depressive episode atleast once in life, and 6-7% of Americans are affected by major depressive disorder today. Women are more likely to be affected than men and rates of this disorder are already 1.5 to 3 times higher for females beginning in adolescence. Women are twice as likely as men to be affected by major depression. Major depressive disorder prevents one from going to work or performing day to day activities for an average of 35 days a year. Depression is one of the most common disorders in the world, yet the symptoms experienced, the course of treatment, and the words used to describe it vary from culture to culture. Chinese report it to be a physical symptom like effect, feeling dizzy and tired. Thailand, depression is described through physical and mental symptoms, such as headaches, fatigue, daydreaming, social withdraw, irritation, and forgetfulness. Increases risks of suicide and health complications. Around 9% of adults in 21 countries confirm they have harbored serious thoughts of suicide atleast once, and around 3% have attempted suicide. Approx. 90% of people who commit suicide had a psychological disorder, most commonly depressive disorder and/or substance abuse disorder. Runs in families, with a heritability rate of approx. 40-50%. This means about 40-50% of the variability of major depressive disorder in the population can be attributed to genetic factors-people who have a first degree relative with this disorder are 2 to 4 times more likely to develop it than those that are unaffected. Also evidence that hormones play a role in depression. People with depressive disorders may have high levels of cortisol, a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands. Women appear to be affected by stress-induced brain activity and hormonal fluctuations. Hormonal changes associated with pregnancy and childbirth seems to be linked to major depressive episodes before or after delivery. For women suffering from these symptoms, there appear to be problems with the Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal System (HPA System). HPA system gets effected in general. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS in people, people feel too powerless to change things for the better, and therefore become depressed. Depression is connected with negative thinking. Product of a 'cognitive triad"-a negative view of experiences, self, and the future. EX: student fails one exam, thinks she's a terrible student and that leads her to think that she's gonna fail the course reinforcing her belief that she's a poor student, and perhaps evolving into a broader belief that her life is a failure. The way people respond to to their experience of depression may impact the severity of the disorder. People who repeatedly focus on this experience are much more likely to remind depressed and even descend into deeper depression. Women tend to ruminate or constantly think about their negative emotions more than men, rather than using active problem solving. Not every thinker develops depression, and depression can lead to negative thoughts. The extreme energy, or euphoria and confidence Ross felt were most likely the result of MANIC EPISODES, also known as mania. Manic episodes are often characterized by continuous elation that is out of proportion for the situation. Other features include irritability, very high and sustained levels of energy, and an "expansive" mood, meaning the person feels more powerful than he really is and behaves in a showy or overconfident way. During one of these episodes, a person exhibits three or more of the symptoms listed below, which represent deviations from normal behavior: -grandiose or extremely high self esteem -reduced sleep -increased talkativeness -a flight of ideas or the feeling of racing thoughts -easily distracted -physical agitation -displaying poor judgement and engaging in activities that could have serious consequences (risky sexual activities, excessive shopping sprees). There are various types of BIPOLAR DISORDER. To be diagnosed with BIPOLAR 1 DISORDER, a person must experience atleast ONE MANIC EPISODE, substantial distress, and great impairment. BIPOLAR 2 DISORDER requires atleast ONE MAJOR DEPRESSIVE EPISODE as well as a HYPOMANIC EPISODE. HYPOMANIA is associated with some of the same symptoms as a manic episode, but it is not as severe and does not impair one's ability to function. People cycle between extreme highs and lows of emotion and energy that last for days, weeks, or even months. There are events of mania at one end, and when that ends one experiences deep sadness, emptiness, and helplessness. The first episode tends to be triggered by some sort of life event, such as a first love. Subsequent episodes do not seem to be as closely linked to such events. Bipolar disorder is uncommon, about 0.8% of the American population will receive a diagnosis of Bipolar 1, and 1.1% Bipolar 2 disorder. Typically occurs in person's early 20's. Less common than major depression. No gender difference in prevalence. Strong genetic connection (40-70% twin studies). Symptoms of major depressive disorder include feelings of sadness or hopelessness, reduced pleasure, sleeping excessively or not at all, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, or difficulties thinking or concentrating. The hallmarks of major depressive disorder are the substantial severity of symptoms and impairment in the ability to preform expected roles. Biological theories suggest that feelings of learned helplessness and negative thinking may play a role. Its not just one factor involved in major depressive disorder, but rather an interplay of several. A diagnosis of Bipolar 1 disorder requires that a person experiences atleast one manic episode, substantial distress, and great impairment. Bipolar 2 disorder requires atleast one major depressive episode as well as a hypothamic episode, which is associated with dome of the same symptoms as a manic episode, but is not as severe and does not impair one's ability to function. People with bipolar disorder cycle between extreme highs and lows of emotion and energy that last for days, weeks, or even months. Individuals with major depressive disorder on the other hand, tent to experience a persistent low mood, loss of energy, and feelings of worthlessness.

Review the information on the defining/key features of the eating disorders

EATING DISORDERS: -serious dysfunctions in eating behavior that can involve restricting food consumption, obsessing over weight or body shape, eating too much, and purging -usually begin in the early teens and typically affect girls ANOREXIA NERVOSA: An eating disorder identified by significant weight loss, an intense fear of being underweight, a false sense of body image, ad a refusal to eat the proper amount of calories to achieve a healthy weight -extreme low body weight in relation to age, sex, development, and physical health -extreme fear of gaining weight and getting fat -in some cases women experience an absence of menstrual periods, a condition called Amenorrhea. -other symptoms include brain damage, organ failure, infertility, and thinning of the bones. -Anorexia is associated with the highest death rates of all psychological disorders. Approx. 20% of those deaths are suicide. -Although mostly women and adolescent girls are affected, men can also be affected by it (men involved in wrestling, running, or dancing, who are required to maintain a certain weight). BULIMIA NERVOSA: An eating disorder characterized by extreme overeating followed by purging, with serious health risks. -While binge eating, a person feels a lack of control and thus engages in purging behaviors to prevent weight gain (for example-self induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercising). -can lead to cardia failure due to loss of electrolytes form vomiting. -23% of deaths associated with bulimia result from suicide. BINGE-EATING DISORDER: An eating disorder characterized by episodes of extreme overeating, during which a larger amount of food is consumed than most people would eat in similar amount of time under similar circumstances. -psychological effects could include feelings of embarrassment about how much food has been consumed, depression, and guilt after overeating.

Review the info on schizophrenia, especially the negative and positive symptoms and which are the most common

Features of SCHIZOPHRENIA are disturbances in thinking, perception, and language. People with schizophrenia experience PSYCHOSIS, a loss of contact with reality that is severe and chronic. Psychotic symptoms include DELUSIONS, which are strange or false beliefs that a person maintains even the presented with contradictory evidence. Common delusional themes include being persecuted by others, spied upon, or ridiculed. Some people have grandiose delusions; they may believe they are extraordinarily talented or famous. Others are convinced that radio reports, newspaper headlines, or public announcements are about them. People with schizophrenia may also experiences HALLUCINATIONS, auditory are the most common, often they manifest as voices commenting on what is happening in the environment or using threatening, judgmental language. POSTIIVE SYMPTOMS are excesses or distortions of normal behavior, and include delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech-all of which are generally not observed in people without psychosis. NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS on the other hand, refer to the reduction or absence of normal behaviors. Common negative behaviors are social withdrawal, diminished speech or speech content, limited emotions, and loss on energy and follow-up. Flat effect- no emotion. Alogia-poverty speech. Avolition- lack of interest. POSITIVE: excesses or distortions of normal behavior. NEGATIVE: reduction in normal behaviors and mental processes. Biological, psychological, and Social factors. Highly heritable, with genetic factors accounting for around 80% of the risk developing this disorder. Schizophrenia is not caused by a single gene, but by a combo of many genes interacting with the environment. DIATHESIS STRESS MODEL: suggests that developing schizophrenia involves a genetic predisposition AND environmental triggers. DOPAMINE HYPOTHESIS: The synthesis, release, and concentration of dopamine are all elevated in people with schizophrenia and are suffering from psychosis. So when they experience delusions, it is possible they are trying to make sense of the salient experiences on which they are focused. Hallucinations might result from placing too much importance on some of their "internal representations". ENVIRONMENTAL TRIGGERS AND SCHIZOPHRENIA: Suspected that schizophrenia is linked to a virus in utero, such as HPV. Several illnesses a woman can contract while pregnant may increase her baby's likelihood of getting schizophrenia later in life. -Complications at birth, social stress, cannabis abuse related to slightly increased risk on schizophrenia onset. -Suffering ceases to be suffering at the moment it finds meaning. -Schizophrenia is not the result of poor parenting, nor is it a product of classical or operant conditioning. Incidence of different types of hallucinations in schizophrenia: -Auditory hallucinations are the most common of the four -Delusions= 81% of people with schizophrenia -Hallucinations= 58% -Disorganized Thoughts= 22% -Flat affect= 65% -Alogia/poverty of speech= 30% -Avolition/loss of interest= 85% Schizophrenia is a disabling disorder that can involve delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, abnormal psychomotor behavior, diminished speech, limited emotions, or loss of energy. Delusions are strange and false beliefs that a person maintains even when presented with contradictory evidence. Hallucinations are 'perception-like experiences' that the individual believes are real, but not evident to others. Schizophrenia is a complex psychological disorder that results from biological, psychological, and social factors. Because this disorder springs from a complex interaction of genes and environment, researchers have a hard time predicting who will be affected. The diathesis-stress model takes these factors into account, with diathesis referring to the inherited disposition, and stress referring to the factors in the environment (internal and external). Genes, neurotransmitters, differences in the brain, and exposure to a virus in utero are all possible biopsychosocial influences in the develop of schizophrenia. CHAPTER 13 TEST PREP: The 3 D's used to distinguish abnormal behavior are deviance, distress, and dysfunction. DYSFUNCTION is the degree to which a behavior interferes with one's life or ability to function (washing one's hands to the point of making them raw). DISTRESS is feeling regularly upset or uncomfortable because of unwanted behaviors or emotions (continually feeling sad or hopeless). DEVIANCE is the degree to which a behavior is considered to be outside of the standards or rules of a society (removing one's clothes in inappropriate settings). Although classifying mental disorders through the DSM is helpful to mental health professionals, its use has been criticized because the manual labels individuals, which only heightens problems with stigma. Melissa experienced recurrent, all-consuming thoughts of death and disaster. These OBSESSIONS were accompanied by her COMPULSIONS, which including reapplying deodorant and taking her clothes on and off up to 2o times a day. To help explain the causes of psychological disorders, researchers often use the BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL perspective, which examines the complex interaction between biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. A woman is extremely anxious when she is out in public alone. She no longer uses public transportation, refuses to go to the mall, and does not like being away from home. Perhaps she should get evaluated to see if she has AGORAPHOBIA. A man with a diagnoses of SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER exhibits a distinct fear or anxiety related to social situations, particularly the idea of being scrutinized by those around him. This fear often stems from his preoccupation with offending someone. While walking to class, you notice a woman who is short of breath, clutching her chest, and appears light headed. You're concerned she may be experiencing a heart attack. She tells you she knows its not her heart, but that she suffers from PANIC ATTACKS, which involve sudden, extreme fear that escalates quickly. A neighbor describes a newspaper article she read last night about a man in his twenties who has been known to lie and con others, be aggressive and impulsive, and show little empathy or remorse. There are long standing traits of his, so it is possible he has ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER. SEROTONIN plays a role in the etiology of Major Depressive Disorder One of the major distinctions of Bipolar 2 Disorder is that, unlike Bipolar 1 Disorder, it involves ATLAS ONE MAJOR DEPRESSIVE EPISODE AS WELL AS A HYPOMANIC EPISODE One symptom that both major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder share is PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SLEEP IRRITABILITY is a symptom of a manic episode A man with schizophrenia has hallucinations and delusions, and seems to be out of touch with reality. A psychologist explains to his mother that her son is experiencing PSYCHOSIS. A woman in your neighborhood develops a reputation for being emotionally unstable, intense, and extremely needy. She also doesn't seem to have a sense of herself and complains of feeling empty. She struggles with intimacy and her relationships are unstable. If these are long standing traits, she might be evaluated for BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER. What is wrong with the following statement: My friend is schizophrenic? This statement does not follow the suggestion of "people first language". Instead, it is defining an individual be her disorder. People are much more than their diagnoses. The diagnosis does not describe who your friend is, but only what is causing her distress and discomfort. How can classical conditioning be used to explain the development of panic disorder? Classical conditioning can play a role in the development of a panic disorder by pairing an initial neutral stimulus (a mall) with an unexpected panic attack (the unconditioned stimulus). The panic attack location then becomes a conditioned stimulus. When the location is visited or even considered, a panic attack can happen (now the conditioned response). How does negative thinking lead to depression? Cognitive therapist Beck suggested that depression is a product of a cognitive triad, which includes a negative view of experiences, self, and the future. Negative thinking may lead to self-defeating behaviors, which in turn reinforce the beliefs. Briefly summarize the theories of the etiology of schizophrenia: Schizophrenia is a complex psychological disorder that results from biological, psychological, and social factors. Because this oder springs from a complex interaction of genes and environment, researchers have a hard time predicting who will be affected. The diathesis-stress model takes these factors into account, with DIATHESIS referring to an inherited disposition (schizophrenia) and STRESS referring to the stressors in the environment (internal and external). Genes, neurotransmitters, differences in the brain, and exposure to a virus in utero are all possible biological factors. Neurotransmitters are also thought to play a role in schizophrenia. The DOPAMINE HYPOTHESIS for example suggests that the synthesis, release, and concentrations of dopamine are all elevated in people who have been diagnosed with schizophrenia and are suffering from psychosis. There are several environmental triggers thought to be involved in one's risk for developing the disorder as well as the severity of symptoms (for example, complications at birth, social stress, and cannabis abuse are related to a slightly increased risk of schizophrenia onset).

Know about the social learning theory (as it relates to gender), operant conditioning principles, and gender schema theory

GENDER SCHEMAS: These rules provide the framework for GENDER SCHEMAS, which are the psychological or mental guidelines that dictate how to be masculine or feminine. Gender schemas also impact how we process information or remember events. For example, M and H found that children were more likely to remember events incorrectly if those vents violated gender stereotypes. If they saw a little girl playing with a truck and a little boy playing with a doll, they were likely to recall the little girl having the doll and the boy having the truck when tested several days later. One of the stories told of little girl who was trying to help an adult male overcome his fear of walking on a high wire. Yet many children inaccurately remembered the little girl being afraid, or thought that the man was protecting her. Apparently, their gender schemas incorporated the assumption that men are brave, and this interfere with their ability to recall the story correctly. OPERANT CONDITIONING: Operant Conditioning is also involved in the development of gender roles. Children often receive reinforcement for behaviors considered gender-appropriate and punishment (or lack of attention) for those viewed as inappropriate. Parents, caregivers, relatives, and peers reinforce gender-appropriate behavior by smiling, laughing, or encouraging. But when children exhibit gender-inappropriate behavior (a boy playing with a doll, for example), the people in their lives might frown, get worried, or even put a stop to it. Through this combo of encouragement and discouragement a child learns to conform to society's expectations. Gender Typing is 'the developing of traits, interests, skills, attitudes, and behaviors that correspond to stereotypical masculine and feminine social roles'. These gender roles be acquired through observational learning, as explained by SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY. We learn form our observations of others in our environment, particularly by watching those of the same gender. Children also learn and model the behaviors represented in electronic media and books. Gender roles are learned through reinforcement, punishment, and modeling. Men tend to demonstrate more physical aggression (such as hitting) than females. Females exhibit more relational aggression, or aggressive behaviors that are indirect and aimed at relationships, such as spreading rumors or excluding certain group members. What causes these differences in males and females? One hormonal candidate is testosterone, which has been associated with aggression and as discussed earlier, exists at higher levels in males. Studies of identical twins suggest that approximately 50% of aggressive behavior be explained by genetic factors. This implies that a significant proportion of gender differences in aggressive behavior results from an interaction between environmental factors and genetics. In addition, researches have noted that boys tend to be more aggressive when raised in nonindustrial societies; patriarchal societies, in which women have less power and are considered inferior to men; and polygamous societies, in which men can have more than one wife. Why are these males more aggressive? Evolutionary psychology would suggest that competition for resources (including females) increases the likelihood of aggression. One thing to keep in mind is overall, the variation within in a gender is much greater than the variation between all/genders: "Males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables." This hypothesis states that males and females exhibit large differences in only a few areas, including some motor behaviors (throwing distance), some characteristics of sexuality (frequency of masturbation), and to a moderate degree, aggression. These physical and behavioral differences between males and females are interesting, but keep in mind that sex development does not always occur along a strictly "male" or "female" path.

Review the sex differences reported among males and females (drug/alcohol related, intelligence related, sexual attitudes, etc.)

In DRUG USE: Men overall have higher rates. Women are faster from onset to dependence-telescoping, and more Rx drug use. EFFECTS: Females are more subjective effects. Expectancies. MOTIVES: Women use more to cope whereas Men more for enhancement and conformity. In ALCOHOL USE: Involved in 2/3 of hookups- differentiates Friends With Benefits. Why is it a problem?-Someone that is drunk or drugged cannot give consent for sex. PUBERTY is a period when notable changes occur in physical development, ultimately leading to sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce. During this time, the PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS develop. In addition, one of the most significant changes for males is spermarche, or first ejaculation (often occurring during sleep). The equivalent for females is menarche, or first menstruation. Adult male brains on average, are approximately 10% larger than dust female brains. There are also structural disparities in the brain; for example, the cerebral hemispheres are not completely symmetric, and males and females differ somewhat in these asymmetries. MRI analyses point to sex differences in the brain networks involved in SOCIAL COGNITION and visual-spatial abilities. Some distinctions between male and female brains are believed to be influenced by hormones secreted prenatally, suggesting they have a biological basis. In COGNITION/INTELLIGENCE RELATED: Despite these contrasts in brain size and structure, males and females do not differ significantly in terms of general intelligence, a pairing many researchers find remarkable: "Apparently, males and females can achieve similar levels of overall intellectual performance by using differently structured brains in different ways". Researchers do find different patterns of neurological activity in males and females, but remember that brains can change in response to experience, a phenomenon called neuroplasticity. Sex differences may be due to changes in synaptic connections and neural networks that result from the different experiences of being male and female. Functional differences between male and female brains? One important area of difference is mental rotation; studies suggest men are better than women at MENTALLY ROTATING OBJECTS. With practice, women may be able to catch up. In one study, women who practiced mentally rotating objects while playing computer games showed greater improvement on measures of mental rotation than did the men. Another area of difference is verbal competence. In childhood, girls tend to perform better on tests of verbal ability, but the discrepancies are so small that they don't provide useful information for making educational decisions. Differences in cognitive development between boys and girls are "minimal", and these disparities are only responsible for a small proportion of the variability in children's scores on cognitive tasks. Research suggests that some cognitive gender disparities carry over into adulthood, with women outperforming men in verbal tasks and men showing greater spatial and mathematical abilities. These differences in men and women have declined over the past several decades, suggesting changes in sociocultural factors, such as greater availability of advanced math courses and more support for men and omen to pursue careers that interest them. When it comes to mathematics performance in children, gender is not the best predictor, ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS such as mother's education, the learning environment of the home, and effectiveness of the elementary school are "far stronger predictors". During sex, men and women experience a similar pattern or cycle of excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution, but the duration of these phases varies from person to person.

Review the reforms made in the care for mental illness (asylums, etc.) as well as info on deinstitutionalization

In the 16th century, religious groups began creating ASYLUMS, or special places to house and treat people with psychological disorders. At the time, these represented prisons-people chained, starved, and subject to the cold. During the French Revolution (late 1700s), Phillipe Pinel, french physician, removed the inmates' chains and insisted they be treated more humanely. The idea of using "moral treatment" or respect and kindness instead of harsh methods, spread throughout Europe and America. During the mid- to late 1800s, an American schoolteacher named Dorothea Dix vigorously championed the "mental hygiene movement", a campaign to reform asylums in the US. Appalled by what she witnessed in American prisons and "mental" institutions, including the caging of naked inmates, Dix helped establish and upgrade over 30 state mental hospitals. Despite the good intentions of reformers like Pinel and Dix, however, many institutions eventually deteriorated into warehouses for people with psychological disorders: over-crowded, understaffed, and underfunded. In the early 1900s, psychiatrists began to realize that mental health problems existed outside asylums, among ordinary people who were capable of functioning in society. Rather than drawing a line between the sane and insane, psychiatrists began to view mental health as a continuum. They started developing a system to classify psychological disorders based on symptoms and progression, and this effort ultimately led to the creation of the first DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS (DSM). The 1950s and 1960s saw a mass exodus of patients out of institutions in the United States and back into the community. This DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION was partially the result of a movement to rude the social isolation of people with psychological disorders and integrate them into society. This was also made possible by the introduction of medications that reduced some symptoms of severe psychological disorders. Thanks to these new drugs, many people who had previously needed constant care and supervision were able to function in society. They began caring for themselves and managing their own medications- an arrangement that worked for some but not all, as many former patients ended up living on the streets or in prison. By 2007, approx. 2.7 million inmates in American jails and prisons were suffering from mental health problems, representing more than one half of the inmate population. In spite of the deinstitutionalization movement, psychiatric hospitals and institutions continue to play an important role in the treatment of psychological disorders. Trephination: Stone age: holes drilled in skulls to create exit routes for evil spirits. One theory suggests that during the stone age, trephination, in which holes were drilled through the skull, was used to open up the skull to allow evil spirits to exit the body. Pinel was horrified by the conditions of the asylums in Paris. He removed the inmates chains and instead they be treated more humanely. In the mid-to late 1800s, Dix supported the "metal hygiene movement", a campaign to reform asylums in America. Appalled by the conditions she witnessed in "mental" institutions, Dix helped establish and upgrade many state mental hospitals. A movement to reduce the social isolation of people with psychological disorders, deinstitutionalization resulted in patients integrating into the community.

Review the information on abnormal psychology, approaches to disorders, and comorbidity

The academic field devoted to the study of psychological disorders is generally referred to as ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY. Researchers and scholars in abnormal psychology typically have backgrounds in clinical psychology, or psychiatry if they obtained medical degrees. Psychologists and other mental health pros determine if a behavior is ABNORMAL using a variety of criteria. Perhaps the most straightforward criterion is TYPICALITY (or lack of thereof). An atypical behavior is rarely seen, or infrequent. Most people experience sadness, even deep sadness at times, but suicidal thoughts are unusual. Although the typicality criterion is useful, it is not enough to confirm the existence of a psychological disorder. A child prodigy who learns to play the piano like a virtuoso by the age of 5 is atypical, but his rare talent does not indicate a psychological disorder. We should also consider MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIORS, or actions that run counter to one's best interests. The degree of risk associated with these maladaptive behaviors (both to oneself and others) is often used by professionals to determine if a person needs to be admitted to a hospital. However, maladaptive behavior is not always a sign of abnormality. People without disorders exhibit maladaptive behaviors all the time. Just think of the child who occasionally has a tantrum, or the adult that drowns his sorrows in alcohol one night. To arrive at a more definitive determination of ABNORMAL: BEHAVIOR, mental health professionals typically rely on three criteria (in addition to typicality): DYSFUNCTION, DISTRESS, and DEVIANCE, or the "3 D'S". DYSFUNCTION indicates the degree to which a behavior interfere with daily life and relationships. Ross's depression sometimes rendered him unable to get out of bed; this type of behavior certainly has the potential to interfere with daily life. But dysfunction alone does not confirm the presence of a psychological disorder. If you stay up all night to meet a deadline, you might experience temporary dysfunction in memory and attention, but that doesn't mean you have a disorder. The second D is DISTRESS. Feeling regularly upset or uncomfortable because of unwanted behaviors or emotions is another feature of abnormality; and its not always evident from the outside. Prior to his suicide attempt, Ross appeared to be happy, but inside he was suffering. There are times however where distress doesn't accompany a disorder. When Ross experiences the euphoric highs of bipolar disorder, he may not have been distressed at all. People with psychological disorders do not always have the insight to recognize that a problem exists. DEVIANCE, or the degree to which a behavior is considered to be outside the standards or rules of a society. Behaving in a way that doesn't conform to social expectations might be indicative of a psychological disorder. Individuals who are euphoric might talk too loudly in a library or church where people are expected to be quiet, or become so disinhibited that they walk around naked in public. Once again, the presence of this sole criterion does not necessarily indicate a psychological disorder. Their behavior was deviant, but not necessarily suggestive of a psychological disorder. Homosexuality was once considered a psychological disorder, but this notion was overturned in 1970s and in 1980s by psychiatrists and other mental health professionals in part because cultural norms had changed. The meaning of 'abnormal' is relative to place and time. Normal- teary farewell to a close friend who is moving away. Abnormal- Ross's profound sadness including suicidal thoughts. We must understand culture and other social influences when trying to understand concepts like normal and abnormal. Some disorders and symptoms are unique/specific to certain cultures. However, schizophrenia is evident across all cultures throughout the world-universal disorder. The 3 D's are useful, but be mindful of their limitations. The same could be said of other mental health concepts (normal, abnormal, and so forth), because their meanings may vary overtime, across cultures, and even within the same culture. Stigma attached to psychological disorders-people laugh about people with psychological disorders. STIGMA is a negative opinion or attitude about groups of individuals based on certain traits or characteristics they have. People with psychological disorders are usually NOT violent, other factors such as lower socioeconomic status, male gender and substance abuse may be better predictors of violence. 50% of the population in the US, at some point over the course of their lives, experience symptoms that meet the criteria of a psychological disorder-nearly half of the population meet criteria for a mental disorder in their life. Keep in mind that various psychological disorders are chronic (a person suffers from them continuously), others have a regular pattern (symptoms appear every winter, for example), and some are temporary. Many people suffer from more than one psychological disorder at a time, a phenomenon called COMORBIDITY. 22% of population are recorded to had received two diagnoses in the course of a year, and 23% three diagnoses. -occurence of two or more disorders at the same time. The MEDICAL MODEL explains psychological disorders from a biological standpoint, focusing on genes, neurochemical imbalances, and problems in the brain. Some theories propose that cognitive factors or personality characteristics contribute to the development and maintenance of disorders. Others focus on the ways learning and childhood experiences might lay their foundation.-'Its all in your head'. Social Factors, like poverty and community support systems, can also play a role in the development and course of these conditions. BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE: Psychological disorders result from a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. For example, some disorders appear to have a genetic basis, but their symptoms may not be evident until social or psychological factors come into play. UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: _The dividing line between normal and abnormal behavior often determined by social or cultural context. EX: women being stoned by family for being raped. -Patterns of behavioral or psychological symptoms must represent a serious departure from the prevailing social and cultural norms. EX: in time of war we label some people 'soldiers', and it becomes socially acceptable of them to kill many people, but if someone who isn't at war or a soldier were to kill people, we call them 'psychopaths'. -Standard descriptions of the DSM 5 must be used. -We forget that the brain is an organ. When other organs fail we accept a doctors Dx and move on Not true with mental health Dx. What is ABNORMAL though?: -defining abnormal behavior> continuum, dimension, or spectrum (all means same thing, think of normal curve). -There is a continuum for behaviors and feelings, ranging from normal to abnormal. -CULTURALLY defined- culture and other social influences impact the definition of "normal". A psychological disorder is a set of behavioral, emotional, or cognitive symptoms that are significantly distressing in terms of social functioning, work endeavors, and other aspects of life. Abnormal behavior often falls along a continuum and is based on the 3 D's: DYSFUNCTION, DEVIANCE, DISTRESS. This continuum includes what we would consider normal at one end and abnormal at the other end, and is determined in part by one's culture. Although a classification system is important for communication and treatment planning among professionals, one of its limitations is how it leads to labeling and the creation of expectations. Because of the stigma associated with psychological disorders, once given a diagnosis, the effects can be potentially long lasting. Some critics suggest there it too much emphasis on the medical model, which may ignore the importance of psychological and sociocultural factors. Psychological disorders can be explained in terms of underlying biological causes, psychological influences, and sociocultural factors. Biological causes include genetic predispositions for disorders as well as neurochemical imbalances. Psychological influences include cognitive factors and developmental experiences. Sociocultural factors, such as poverty and support systems, may also impact the development and course of psychological disorders. The biopsychosocial perspective provides a model for explaining the causes of psychological disorders, which are complicated and often the result of interactions among biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

Review the info on systematic desensitization, operant and classical conditioning therapies, token economy, and virtual reality therapy

Therapists often combine anxiety hierarchies (a list of activities or experiences ordered from least to most anxiety provoking) with relaxation techniques in an approach called SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION, which takes advantage of the fact that we can't be relaxed and anxious at the same time. Therapist begins by teaching clients how to relax their muscles. One technique for doing this is Progressive Muscle Relaxation, which is the process of tensing and then relaxing muscle groups, starting at the head and ending at the toes. Using this method, a client can learn to release all the tension in his body. Once a client has learned how to relax, its time to face the anxiety hierarchy. Starting with the least feared scenario at the bottom of the anxiety hierarchy, if she can stay relaxed through the first step, then she moves to the second item in the hierarchy. IF starts to feel uncomfortable as they move up, the therapist directs client back down as many steps till she is comfortable again. Doesn't happen in one session, but over the course of many sessions. VIRTUAL REALITY THERAPY: Spider world, a 3 dimensional virtual reality program (stimulation) that creates very realistic sensation of seeing, and even touching large spiders. Once experimental, virtual reality treatment has been shown to be effective in treating PTSD in combat veterans -The goal of exposure therapy (virtual or otherwise) is to reduce the fear response by exposing clients to situations they fear. When nothing bad happens, their anxiety diminishes and they are less likely to avoid the feared situations in the future. Effective in treating various phobias, including aviaphobia (airplane travel), arachnophobia (fear of spiders), and social phobia. Virtual reality therapy is usually combined with other forms of therapy, and in the case of aviaphobia, this approach may be just as effective as regular exposure therapy. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THERAPY/Aversion Therapy: Exposure therapy focuses on extinguishing or eliminating associations, but there is another behavior therapy aimed at producing them. It's called AVERSION THERAPY. Seizing on the power of CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, aversion therapy seeks to link problematic behaviors, such as alcohol overuse, drug use, or fetishes, to unpleasant physical reactions like sickness and pain The goal of aversion therapy is to get people to have an involuntary unpleasant physical reaction to a desired behavior, so that eventually the undesired behavior becomes a conditioned stimulus to the conditioned response of feeling bad. EX: Antabuse, drug that has helped some w/ alcoholism stop drinking. Antabuse interfere with the body's ability to break down alcohol, so combining it with even a small amount of alcohol brings on an immediate unpleasant reaction (vomiting, throbbing headache, etc). With repeated pairings of alcohol consumption and physical misery, drinkers are less inclined to drink in the future. But aversion therapies like this are only effective if the client is motivated to change and comply with treatment. OPERANT CONDITIONING THERAPY/Behavior Modification: Draws on the principals of OPERANT CONDITIONING, shaping behaviors through reinforcement. Therapists practicing behavior use positive and negative reinforcement, as well as punishment, to help clients increase adaptive behaviors and reduce maladaptive behaviors. For behaviors that resist modification, therapists might use successive approximations (method of shaping that uses reinforcers to condition a series of small steps that gradually approach the target behavior) by reinforcing incremental changes. Some will incorporate observational learning (learning by imitating and watching others) to help clients change their behaviors. The two behavior therapies here rely on classical conditioning techniques. In exposure therapy, a therapist might use an approach known as systematic desensitization to reduce and unwanted response, such as fear of needles, by pairing it with relaxation. In aversion therapy, an unwanted behavior such as excessive drinking is paired with unpleasant reactions, creating an association that prompts avoidance of that behavior. One common approach using behavior modification is the TOKEN ECONOMY, which harnesses the power of positive reinforcement to encourage good behavior. Token economies have proven successful for a variety of populations, including psychiatric patients in residential treatment facilities and hospitals, children in classrooms, and convicts in prisons. In a residential treatment facility, for example, patients with schizophrenia may earn tokens for socializing with each other, cleaning up after themselves, and eating their meals. Tokens can be exchanged for candy, outings, privileges, and other perks. They can also be taken away as a punishment to reduce undesirable behaviors. Critics contend that token economies manipulate and humiliate the people they intend to help (giving grown men and women play money for good behavior is degrading). But from a practical standpoint, these systems can help people adopt healthier behaviors. Unlike the reward systems patents might use to encourage good behavior at home, token economies tend to be implemented in institutions, such as schools. Dr Foster, for example, sometimes works with children who are acting out in the classroom. To reinforce positive behaviors, he might arrange for a school counselor or teacher's aide to provide rewards such as candies, stickers, the privilege of handing out papers, or whatever happens to be reinforcing for that particular child. Using the learning principles of classical condoning, operant conditioning, and observational learning, behavior therapy aims to replace maladaptive behaviors with more adaptive behaviors. It incorporates a variety of techniques, including exposure therapy, aversion therapy, systematic desensitization, and behavior modification. Behavior therapy covers a broad range of treatment approaches, and focuses on observable behaviors in the present.

Review info "hook-ups" and the hormones involved for males and females

A person's sex (male or female) depends on both genes and hormones. sex determination refers t the designation of genetic sex, which guides the activity of hormones that direct the development of reproductive organs and structures. From the moment a zygote is formed, genetic sex is constant. In other words, the composition of the 23rd pair of chromosomes remains female (XX) or male (XY). We should note, however, that the structure and function of reproductive organs do not always match the original genetic sex (XX or XY). The development of reproductive anatomy is influenced by a variety of factors, including interactions among genes and the activity of hormones produced by the sex glands (also known as gonads) of the fetus. In a genetic male, the presence of the Y chromosome causes the gonads to become testes. If the Y chromosome is not present, as in the case of a genetic female, then the gonads develop into ovaries. Both the testes and ovaries secrete hormones that influence the development of reproductive organs: ANDROGENS in the case of TESTES and ESTROGEN in the case of the OVARIES. Testosterone for example, is an androgen that influences whether the fetus develops male or female genitals.

Review the info on compulsions and obsessions

An OBSESSION is a thought, urge, or image that recurs repeatedly, is intrusive and unwelcome, and often causes feelings of anxiety and distress. Melissa's recurrent, all consuming thoughts of disaster and death are examples of obsessions. People with obsessions stop these unwanted thoughts and urges, or atleast ignore them, often attempting to 'neutralize' them with a replacement thought or activity. This isn't always helpful, because the replacement can become a COMPULSION, which is a behavior or 'mental act' repeated over and over. For melissa, these compulsions eventually took over her life. EX: in the morning, she would reapply deodorant and put her clothes on and take them off up to 20 times- because if she didn't execute these procedures just right, she feared something dreadful was bound to happen. People with OCD experience various types of obsessions and compulsions. In many cases, obsessions focus on fears or contamination of germs or dirt, and compulsions revolve around cleaning and sterilizing. One OCD person washed her hands till they bled cause she feared her germs would kill somebody. Other common compulsions include repetitive rituals and checking behaviors. EX: Melissa locks her car when she parks it, not once, not twice, but over and over again to make sure it is locked. OCD COMPULSIONS often aim to thwart unwanted situations, and thereby REDUCE anxiety and distress. Compulsive behaviors of OCD are either "clearly excessive" or not logically related to the event or situation the person is trying to prevent. Obsessive or Compulsive behaviors or symptoms must be significantly distressing or disabling to be considered abnormal and qualify as a disorder. This is certainly the case with OCD, in which obsessions and/or compulsions are very time-consuming (taking more than 1 hour a day) and cause a great deal of distress and disruption in daily life. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) includes obsessions and/or compulsions that are very time-consuming (taking more than 1 hour a day) and cause a great deal of distress and disruptions in everyday life. An obsession is a thought, urge, or image that occurs repeatedly, is intrusive and unwelcome, and often causes feelings of intense anxiety and distress. Compulsions are behaviors or "mental acts" that a person repeats over and over in attempt to neutralize obsessions. Sociocultural factors, learning theory, and biological causes are all involved in the course and maintenance of OCD.

Review the information on personality disorders, specifically BPD and Antisocial

Approx. 1 in 10 adults in the US has a personality disorder. People with PERSONALITY DISORDERS exhibit 'an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress and impairment'. A person with a personality disorder exhibits behaviors that deviate substantially in the following areas: 1) cognition, including perception of self, others and events; 2)emotional responses, 3) interpersonal experiences, and 4)impulse control. In order to be diagnosed, one must struggle in atleast two of the four categories. In addition, these problems must be resistant to change and have far-reaching consequences for interpersonal relationships. Cluster A: -paranoid personality disorder -schizoid personality disorder -schizotypal personality disorder Cluster B: -Antisocial personality disorder -Borderline personality disorder -Histronic personality disorder Cluster C: -Avoidant personality disorder -Dependent personality disorder -Obsessive compulsive personality disorder ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER: People with ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER may seek personal gratification even when it means violating ethical standards and breaking laws. They sometimes lie or con others, and exhibit aggressive, impulsive, or irritable behaviors. These individuals also have a hard time feeling empathy, and may not show concern for others or feel remorse upon hurting them. Other common behavior patterns include carelessness in sexual relationships, and use of intimidation to control others. Around 1% of American adults are diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder, which is more common in men than in women. Heredity does appear to play role, as first degree biological relatives with the disorder are more likely to have the disorder than those of the general population. However, no single gene has been implicated in the development of antisocial behavior patterns. Like most mental health problems, antisocial personalty disorder seems to result from a complex interaction of genes and environment. Some studies point to irregularities in the FRONTAL LOBES, a region of the brain that is crucial for executive functioning. For example, reduced tissue volume in the prefrontal cortex (11% less than expected) is apparent in some men with antisocial personality disorder. The fact that the prefrontal cortex plays a roll in controlling arousal may explain why people with this disorder tend to seek out stimulation, including aggressive and antisocial activities. -High rates of alcoholism and other forms of substance abuse -Rarely make it into treatment with a very high percentage in prison. -SERIAL KILLERS/PSYCHOPATHS: -antisocial gone awry -extreme manipulation- thrive on it -often charming and charismatic -many have wives and 'normal lives' -tend to see themselves differently-typically see themselves as better than everyone else -complete lack off empathy -cannot put themselves in someone else's shoes BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER (BPD): Borderline Personality Disorder is distinguished by an incomplete sense of self and feelings of emptiness. People with this disorder may exhibit intense anger, have difficulty controlling their anger, and get into physical fights. They can be impulsive during sexual activity, substance abuse, and spending money, and may threaten or attempt suicide on a recurring basis. Developing intimacy may also be a struggle, and relationships tend to be unstable, tainted with feelings of mistrust and the fear of being abandoned. People with the disorder may see the world in terms of black and white, rather than different shades of gray. This tendency to receive extremes may lead a person to become over-involved or totally withdrawn in relationships. According to DSM5, individuals with the disorder experience emotions that are unstable, intense and inappropriate for the situation at hand. They may feel extreme anxiety and insecurity, concern about being rejected one moment, and worried about being too dependent in the next. Depressed moods are common, along with feelings of hopelessness, pessimism, and shame. The person may act without thinking and frequently change plans. 75% of people diagnosed with BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER are female, suggested that some traits associated with this disorder have a genetic component. There is also evidence that childhood trauma sets the stage of development of the condition. A biosocial development model has been proposed, indicating an early vulnerability that includes impulsive behavior and increased "emotional sensibility". If the environment is right, the susceptibility can lead to problems with emotions, behaviors, and cognitive processes. Personality disorders stem from well-established personality characteristics. People suffering from these disorders have traits that are relatively easy to characterize. -most serious and disabling of the personality disorders -cutting, threats and attempts of suicide are common -highest prevalence in women, also people in low income groups -men with this aren't going to treatment -Higher prevalence in low income groups About 2.7% of the general population meet criteria for BPD. In SUD treatment, 27.7% meet criteria for BPD -Alcohol 14.3% -Cocaine 16.8% -Opioids (heroin and Rx opioids) 18.5% BPD inpatients are 2x as likely to be prescribed opioid pain killers than those with other personality disorder. BPD individuas use up to 50% of emergency room services. People with antisocial personality disorder may seek personal gratification even when it means violating ethics and breaking laws. They sometimes deceive others, and exhibit aggressive, impulsive, or irritable behavior. These individuals lack empath, and may not show concern for others or feel remorse upon hurting someone. Borderline personality disorder is distinguished by an incomplete sense of self and feelings of emptiness. Those affected may exhibit intense anger, have difficulty controlling their temper, and get into physical fights. They can be impulsive, especially where sexual activity, substance abuse, and spending money are concerned. Suicide threats and attempts may occur repeatedly. Both disorders may result in issues connected to intimacy and trust.

Review the info on psychoanalysis, motivational interviewing, behavior therapies, cognitive therapies, and humanistic therapies

Sigmund Frued, the father of PSYCHOANALYSIS proposed that human are motivated by two animal like drives: sex and aggression. But acting on these drives is not always compatible with social norms, so they create conflict and get pushed beneath the surface/repressed. These drives don't just go way, they simmer death our conscious awareness, affecting our moods and behaviors. When we can no longer keep them at bay, the result may be disordered behavior, such as that seen with phobias, obsessions, and panic attacks. To help patients deal with these drives, Frued created PSYCHOANALYSIS, the first formal system of psychotherapy, which involved multiple weekly sessions. Psychoanalysis attempts to increase awareness of unconscious conflicts, thus making it possible to address and walk through them. Dreams, according to Freud, are a pathway to unconscious thoughts and desires brewing beneath our awareness. The overt material of a dream (what we remember upon waking up) is called Manifest Content, which can disguise a deeper meaning. Or Latent Content, hidden from awareness due to potentially uncomfortable issues and desires. Fried would often use dreams as a launching pad for Free Association, a therapy technique in which a patient says anything and everything that comes to mind, regardless of how silly, bizarre, or inappropriate it is. Fried believed the seemingly directionless train of thought would lead to clues about the patient's unconscious. Piecing together the hints he gathered from dreams, free association, and other parts of therapy sessions, Freud would identify and make inferences about the unconscious conflicts driving the patient's behavior. He called this investigative work INTERPRETATION. Fried would share his interpretations, increasing the patent's self awareness and helping her come to terms with conflicts, with the aim of moving forward. Unconscious conflict behaviors considered by psychoanalysts is 1)RESISTANCE, a patients unwillingness to cooperate in therapy (forgetting appointments, coming late, falling asleep during free association, or becoming angry/agitated at certain topics). And 2)TRANSFERENCE, a type of resistance that occurs when a patient reacts to the therapist as if she is dealing with her parents or other important people from childhood (referring to therapist as favorite uncle, never liked letting her uncle down, so refuses telling therapist things that would disappoint her uncle). Transference is good, Freud would sit off to the side in therapy to encourage transference, remaining neutral allows a patient to project his unconscious conflicts and feelings onto Freud. Freuds theories are under sharp criticism. They are not evidence based, no scientific data to back them up-unable to confirm they are tapping into the unconscious thought of an individual because it is made up of thoughts, memories, and desires which what we are unaware. Also, not everyone is a good candidate for psychoanalysis; one must be very verbal, have time during the week for multiple sessions, and the money to pay for this therapy. HUMANISTIC THERAPY: Humanistic perspective emphasizes human potential, self-awareness, and freedom of choice. Recognized humans have a basic desire to form close relationships, treat others with warmth, and mature as individuals - Assumptions: o Most important factor in personality is the individual's conscious, subjective perception of self o People are seen as basically good and motivated by need for psychological growth o Based on empathy, unconditioned positive regard, genuineness, and active listening - Types: o Person-centered therapy (Carl Rogers) Rogers Legacy: -people get stuck in a life of "destination addiction" o house, car, money, dream vacation, relationship -to experience life the "good life" o stay flexible and open to what life brings o live fully in the moment o there are multiple paths to happiness -Humanistic Therapy emphasizes the positive nature of mankind unlike psychoanalysis, which tends to focus on the distant past, humanistic therapy concentrates on the present, seeking to identify and address current problems. Rather than digging up unconscious thoughts and feelings, humanistic therapy emphasizes conscious experience: Whats going on in your mind right now? -The focus in Person Centered Therapy is not therapeutic techniques; the goal is to create a warm and accepting relationship between client and therapist. This therapeutic alliance is based on mutual respect and caring between the therapist and the client, and provides a safe place for self-exploration. Sitting face to face with a cliental the therapists main job is to be there for that person through EMPATHY (ability to feel what a person is experiencing by attempting to observe the world through the client's eyes), unconditioned positive regard (acceptance of a client no matter how mean the client is being), GENUINENESS (being authentic, responding to a client in a way that is real rather than hiding behind a polite/professional mask; making the client feel secure enough to open up), and ACTIVE LISTENING (picking up on the content and emotions behind words in order to understand a clients point of view reflection or echoing the main point of what a client says). MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING: Helps clients commit to change; Motivational interviewing helps clients overcome mixed feelings or reluctance about committing to change - Assumptions: o Clients self- motivated statements (self -talk) are encouraged and strengthened o Therapists use of empathetic understanding and reflective listening helps client exploration of personal values ad motivations for change - Type: o Applied to individual psychotherapy, martial counseling, parenting, education, business, and community and international relations - Stages of Change: o Pre-contemplation: denial stage "someone else's fault" o Contemplation: no longer can say there's no problem (can last for a day to few years) o Preparation: making some small changes (ex: getting rid of a bong) o Action: active modification of behavior o Maintenance: sustained change; new behavior replaces old BEHAVIORAL THERAPY: Focuses on directly changing maladaptive behavior patterns by using basic learning principles and techniques, also called behavior modification - Assumptions: o Maladaptive behaviors are learned, just as adaptive behaviors are learned. Basic strategy involves unlearning maladaptive behaviors and learning more adaptive behaviors instead - Types: o Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning -Using the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observation learning, Behavior Therapy aims to replace maladaptive behaviors with those that are more adaptive. If behaviors are learned, who says they can't be unlearned? To help a person overcome a fear or phobia, a behavior therapist might use EXPOSURE, a technique of placing clients in the situations they fear-without any actual risks involved. The reduced anxiety accompanied with a fear (running away from rats, going places the rat can't) will negatively reinforce his avoidance behavior. After a positive experience with a fear (a gentle friendly rat), the clients anxiety diminishes and he learns the situation does not have to be anxiety provoking, ideally the avoidance and anxiety behavior are extinguished. This process is called EXTINCTION. The theory behind this response prevention technique is that if you encourage someone to confront a feared object or situation, and prevent him from responding the way he normally does, the fear response eventually diminishes or disappears. COGNITIVE THERAPY: - Type of therapy aimed at addressing the maladaptive thinking that leads to maladaptive behaviors and feelings - Assumptions: o Psychological problems are due to distorted thought processes o Recognize and alter these unhealthy thinking patterns - Types: o Rational emotive behavior therapy (Ellis) o Cognitive therapy (Beck) Insight therapies include psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapy, and humanistic therapy, which aim to increase awareness of self and the environment. Behavior therapies focus on behavioral change, with the belief that the key to resolving problems is not understanding their origins, but changing the thoughts and behaviors that precede them. Biomedical therapy targets the biological basis of disorders, often using medications. All these approaches share a common goal: they aim to reduce symptoms and increase the quality of life for individuals, whether they seeks help for debilitating psychological disorders or simply want to lead happier lives. Psychoanalysis, the first formal system of psychotherapy, attempts to increase awareness of unconscious conflicts, making it possible to address and work through them. The therapists goal is to uncover these unconscious conflicts. Humanistic therapy concentrates on the positive aspects of human nature: our powerful desires to form close relationships, treat others with warmth and empathy, and grow as individuals. Humanistic therapists concentrate on current problems and the everyday factors that may contribute to them. Instead of digging up unconscious thoughts and feelings, humanistic therapy emphasizes conscious experience. Person centered therapy focuses on achieving ones full potential. The focus is not therapeutic techniques, but rather creating a warm and accepting client-patient relationship using a non directive approach. Sitting face to face with the client, the therapists main job is to be there for the client through empathy, unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and active listening, all important components of building a therapeutic alliance. The main goal of treatment is to reduce the incongruence between the ideal self and the real self.

Review the information on the DSM-5 and how it is used

Most mental health pros in North America use the DIAGNOSTIC and STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS (DSM-5). This manual was conceived and designed to help ensure accurate and consistent diagnoses based on the observation of symptoms. Although the DSM is published by the American Psychiatric Association- different from the American Psychological Association, also abbreviated APA- it is used by psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, and a variety of other clinicians. When the DSM-5 was comprehensively revised in 1994, it included classifications for 172 psychological disorders. The DSM-5 revision lists 157 disorders and presents some new ideas on how to think about them. The psychological disorders are presented in 20 chapters, with content organized around developmental changes occurring across the lifespan. Some disorders were removed from the manual (sexual aversion disorder) and others were added (hoarding disorder). Another major change is that several axes, or dimensions, previously used as additional info are now integrated within the diagnostic criteria for some disorders. Importance? Classifying mental disorders help therapists develop treatment plans, enables clients to obtain reimbursement from their insurance companies, and facilitates research and communication among professions. But there is a downside to classification. Anytime someone is diagnosed with a mental disorder, he runs the risk of being labeled, which can lead to the formation of expectations-not only from other people, but also from himself. DSM 5: Describes more than 260 specific psychological disorders. It was first published in 1952 and is currently in it's 5th edition. It includes criteria that must be met to take a diagnosis, and typical course for each material disorder. The DSM 5 is a work in progress based on most recent research (evolving over time, 10 years)-Example, homosexuality in first 2 editions, autism spectrum disorder, gambling disorder, and internet gambling disorder added in newest edition.

Review info in textbook on self-help therapies

Other group setting for interpersonal growth are SELF HELP GROUPS. Among the most commonly known are ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS (AA), Al-Anon, Parents without Partners, and Weight Watchers. Members of self help groups provide SUPPORT (not therapy) to each other while facing bereavement, divorce, infertility, HIV/AIDS, cancer, and other issues. Typically sessions are not run by a psychiatrist, psychologist, or other mental health professional, but by a mental health advisor or PARAPROFESSIONAL trained to run the groups. A typical AA leader for example is a recovering alcoholic who grabs the complexities of alcoholism and recovery, but it not necessarily a health professional. Family members often participate in these groups, because when it comes to relating to other people, there is always room for growth. Any family therapist could tell you that. Some of group therapy's benefits include cost-effectiveness, identification with others, accountability, support, encouragement, and a sense of hope. Challenges include potential conflict among group members and discomfort in expressing oneself in the presence of others. Bust such feelings are not necessarily bad when it comes to therapy, because they often motivate people to reevaluate how they interact with others, and perhaps try new approaches.

Review info on pharmacological/biomedical therapies; specifically, the current medication treatments for anxiety, bipolar, schizophrenia, and depression

PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY is the scientific study of how these medications alter perceptions, moods, behaviors, and other aspects of psychological functioning. MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER is commonly treated with ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS, a category of psychotic medication used to improve mood (and to treat anxiety and eating disorders in individuals). All these antidepressants are thought to work by influencing the activity of NEUROTRANSMITTERS that are hypothesized to be involved in depression and other disorders. SSRI's include brands such as Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft. SSRIs also impede reuptake, but this class of drug inhibits the reuptake of SEROTONIN specifically. Weight gain, fatigue, hot flashes and chills, insomnia, nausea, dry mouth, dizziness, sedation, and sexual dysfunction are all possible side effects. Some research suggests that they work no better than a placebo (a pretend treatment used to explore the effectiveness of a true treatment-placebo effect is the tendency to feel better if we believe we are being treated with a medication) when it comes to treating mild to moderate depression. Improvement is generally noticed within 3-5 weeks after treatment has started. BIPOLAR DISORDER is treated with MOOD STABILIZING DRUGS, which helps smooth the mood swings of people with bipolar disorder, leveling out the dramatic peaks (mania) and valleys (depression). Lithium is used to treat it. Lithium is a naturally occurring substance Li. on the periodic table. Lithium also seems to be effective in lowering the risk among people with bipolar disorder, who are 20 times more likely than people in general to kill themselves. Mild side effects such as hand tremors, thirst, and nausea may occur. Anticonvulsant medications are also used to treat bipolar, certain anticonvulsant medications may increase the risk of suicide or possible suicide masked as violent death through accident or injury. The hallucinations and delusions of people with disorders like SCHIZOPHRENIA are treated with ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS. Antipsychotic drugs are designed to block neurotransmitter receptors. Two kinds of medications can be used in these cases: TRADITIONAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC MEDICATIONS and ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTICS. Both types seek to reduce dopamine activity in certain areas of the brain, as dopamine is a neurotransmitter believed to contribute to the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia. Antipsychotics accomplish this by acting as dopamine antagonists, meaning they pose as dopamine, binding to receptors normally reserved for dopamine. The main difference between the two antipsychotics is that the atypical antipsychotics also interfere with neural pathways involving other neurotransmitters such as serotonin. Atypical antipsychotics are the go to, traditional antipsychotics caused shaking, restlessness, and bizarre grimaces. Atypical antipsychotics do not cause those side effects. But there are other potential side effects, such as weight gain, increased risk for type 2 diabetes, sexual dysfunction, and heart disease. These drugs reduce the symptoms in 60-85% of patients, they are not a cure for schizophrenia. ANTI ANXIETY DRUGS are used to treat the symptoms of ANXIETY and anxiety disorders including panic disorder, social phobia, and generalized anxiety disorder. Most of todays anti anxiety medications are Benzodiazepines, such as Xanax or Ativan, or "minor tranquilizers". Valium is one of the most commonly used in minor tranquilizers, and it was the first psychotropic drug to be used by people who weren't necessarily suffering from serious disorders. Valium and Xanax are the most abused anti anxiety drugs. Key benefit on benzodiazepines is that they are fast acting. But they are also dangerously addictive, and mixing them with alcohol can produce a lethal cocktail. Benzodiazepines ease anxiety by enhancing the effect of the neurotransmitter GABA. GABA works by decreasing or stopping some neural activity. By giving GABA a boost, these drugs inhibit the firing of neurons that normally induce anxiety reactions. BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES: -3 basic biological approaches for psychological disorders 1. Use of drugs or psychotropic medications -Most popular biomedical therapy 2. Use of electroconvulsive therapy 3. Use of surgery psychopharmacology is the scientific study of how psychotropic medications alter perception, mood, behavior, and other aspects of psychological functioning. Psychotropic drugs include antidepressant, mood stabilizing, antipsychotic, and anti anxiety drugs. When severe symptoms do not improve with medication and psychotherapy, other biomedical options are available: Electroconclusive therapy (ECT), which causes seizures in the brain for cases of severe depression. And neurosurgery, which destroys some portion of the brain or connections between different areas of the brain, only as last resort. The common goal of biomedical interventions is to treat the biological basis of psychological disorders through physical interventions. CHAPTER 14 TEST PREP: Which of the following changes did Pinel introduce when he reformed the treatment of individuals with psychological disorders? HE REMOVED THE INMATES CHAINS AND LISTENED TO THEIR COMPLAINTS. Although most therapies share the common goal of reducing symptoms and increasing quality of life, they do this in various ways. One dimensions in which they may differ is theoretical perspective. Psychotherapists who aim to increase awareness of self and the environment tend to use INSIGHT THERAPY. Free association and interpretations are used by PSYCHOANALYSTS in their treatment of patients. What are some weaknesses of Freud's theories? IT IS DIFFICULT TO TEST THROUGH EXPERIMENTATION A friend told you about his therapist, who is non directive, uses active listening, and shows empathy and unconditional positive regard. It sounds as if your friend's therapist is conducting PERSON-CENTERED THERAPY. Systematic desensitization uses HIERARCHIES that represent a gradual increase in a client's anxiety. Which of the following statements would not be among Beck's collection of cognitive errors? GETTING FIRED ONCE DOES NOT MEAN MY CAREER IS OVER. The key advantage of behavior therapy is that it TENDS TO WORK QUICKLY. Which of the following claims about group therapy is true? SEEING OTHERS IMPROVE OFFERS HOPE AND INSPIRATION. One specific type of group therapy is FAMILY THERAPY. The goal is to understand each family member's unique role in and integrated system, often exploring relationship problems rather than symptoms of particular disorders. HUMANISTIC therapy emphasizes the positive nature of humans. With a focus on the present, it seeks to identify current problems and emphasizes conscious experience. PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY is the scientific study of how medication alters perceptions, moods, behaviors, and other aspects pf psychological functioning. Overall, psychotherapy is cost effective and helps to decrease disability, hospitalization, and problems at work. Which of the following factors seems to reduce its effectiveness? LIMITATIONS ON CHOICE OF THERAPIST AS MANDATED BY A HEALTH INSURANCE POLICY. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a technique that essentially causes SEIZURES in the brain. Compare cognitive behavioral therapy to insight therapies. Cognitive behavior therapy is an action oriented type of therapy that requires clients to confront and resit their illogical thinking. Insight therapies aim to increase awareness of self and the environment. These approaches share common features: the relationship between the client and the treatment provider is of upmost importance, as is a sense of hope that things will get better. And these approaches generally seek to reduce symptoms and increase the quality of life, whether a person is struggling with a psychological disorder or simply wants to be more fulfilled. How would a behavior therapist help someone overcome a fear of rats? Exposure is a therapeutic technique that brings a person into contact with a feared object or situation while in a safe environment, with the goal of extinguishing or eliminating the fear response. An Anxiety hierarchy (a list of activities ordered from least to most anxiety provoking) can be used to help with exposure. Aversion therapy is an approach that uses principles of classical conditioning to link problematic behaviors to unpleasant physical reactions.

Review the information on how people can develop phobias

Phobias can be caused by stressful situations, certain experiences, or frightening events. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING may lead to the acquisition of a fear, through the pairing of stimuli. Operant conditioning could maintain the phobia, through negative reinforcement; if anxiety (the unpleasant stimulus) is reduced by avoiding a feared object or situation, the avoidance behavior is NEGATIVELY REINFORCED and thus more likely to recur. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING can also help explain the development of a phobia. Simply watching someone else experience a phobia could create fear in an observer. Some research demonstrates that even rhesus monkeys become afraid of snakes if they observe other monkeys reacting fearfully to a real or toy snakes.

Review the study regarding handedness and sexual orientation in men

Researchers have also studied the brains of people with different sexual orientations, and their finding are interesting. It's discovered that a "small group" of neurons in the hypothalamus of homosexual men was almost twice as big as that found in heterosexual men. He didn't suggest this size difference was indicative of homosexuality, but he did find it intriguing. Also noted that these differences could have been the result of factors unrelated to sexual orientation. More recently, researchers using MRI technology found the corpus callous to be thicker in homosexual men. With the help of MRI and PET, some researchers are studying the neurobiological foundations of sexual orientation, trying to determine if there are similarities in functioning and connectivity between between those attracted to women (homosexual women and heterosexual men), as well as between those attracted to men (homosexual men and heterosexual women). Hormones (estrogens and androgens) secreted by the fetal gonads play a role in the development of reproductive anatomy. One hypothesis is the presence of androgens (the hormones secreted primarily by the male gonads) influences the development of a sexual orientation toward women. This would lead to heterosexual orientation in men, but homosexual orientation in women. Because it would be unethical to manipulate hormone levels in pregnant women, researchers rely on cases in which hormones are elevated because of a genetic abnormality or medication taken by a mother. For example, high levels of androgens early in pregnancy may cause girls to be more "male-typed", and promote the development of a homosexual orientation. Interestingly, having older brothers in the family seems to be associated with homosexuality in men, particularly in right-handed men. Why would this be? Evolutionary theory would suggest that the more males there are in a family, the more potential for "unproductive competition" among the male siblings. If sons born later in the birth order were less aggressive, the result would be fewer problems among siblings, especially related to competition for mates and resources to offspring. A homosexual younger bother would be less of a threat to an older brother than would a heterosexual younger brother. How does right-handedness play a role? Researches suggest that handedness might be related to the production of an anti-male antibody produced by the mother during pregnancy: "Some mothers eventually become 'immunized' to a factor or substance important in the male fetal development". The maternal immune hypothesis suggests that mothers develop an antibody that crosses the placenta and affects the development of the brain structures influencing sexual orientation (for example, the hypothalamus). Although subsequent research has reported the birth order effect, the handedness link has been more difficult to replicate. And, despite numerous attempts to identify genetic markers for homosexuality, researchers have had very little success. Some suggest that the search for genes underlying homosexuality is misguided. Why do we spend so much time and money seeking biological explanations for a "valid alternative lifestyle"?

Know the difference between a person's sex, gender, gender identity, androgyny, gender roles, gender stereotypes, and sexual orientations (all of them).

SEX: the classification of someone as male or female based on biological characteristics. CHROMOSOMES: One chromosome from each parent combines to determine genetic sex. -XX (female) -XY (male) GONADS: Presence of Y chromosome causes gonads to become testes. If Y chromosome is not present, gonads develop into ovaries. PRIMARY SEX CHARACTERISITCS: Testes secrete androgens that influence the development of male genitals. The absence of this signal leads to the development of female genitals. SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISITCS: Prompted by hormonal changes, these characteristics appear at puberty and are only indirectly involved with reproduction. Sex can refer to a sexual act such as intercourse or masturbating. Sex also refers to the classification of someone as male or female based on genetic composition and structure and/or function of reproductive organs. Sexuality refers to sexual activities, attitudes, and behaviors. The 23rd pair of chromosomes, the sex chromosomes, provides specific instructions for the zygote to develop into a male or a female (the biological sex of the individual). The egg from the mother carries an X Chromosome, and the sperm from the father carries either an X chromosome or Y chromosome. GENDER: The dimension of masculinity and femininity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics. Gender Differences: MEN -"thing oriented" -Rely on vasopressin-boosts energy, attention, aggression (along with testosterone). And leads to laser like focus on their beloved. -Have more permissive attitudes (greater acceptance of casual sex)- Have more sexual partners, earlier onset of sexual behavior, more frequent masturbating and viewing of porn. -Value youth and physical attraction -Assert their opinions -Offer criticism -Engage in aggression WOMEN -"people oriented" -Rely on oxytocin and estrogen-To feel "in love" they need both dopamine and oxytocin released. And they rely on oxytocin more-Happens through touching, including hugging, cuddling, sex. Released after a 20 second hug, and leads to feeling of trust and bonding. Need to form social bonds. -Look for financial security, high statues, access to resources -Agree with person they are talking to -Offer praise -Elaborate on other's comments Gender refers to the dimension of masculinity and femininity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics. It is often used in reference to the cultural roles that distinguish males and females. We generally learn by observing other people's behavior and by internalizing cultural behaviors about what is appropriate for men and women. ANDROGYNY: Those who cross gender-role boundaries and engage in behaviors associated with both genders are said to exhibit ANDROGYNY. An androgynous person might be nurturing (generally considered a female quality) and assertive (generally considered a masculine quality), thus demonstrating characteristics associated with both genders. But concepts of masculine and feminine- and therefore what constitutes androgyny- are not consistent across cultures. In North America, notions about gender are revealed in clothing colors; parents frequently free boys in blue and girls in pink. In the African nation of Swaziland on the other hand, children are dressed androgynously, wearing any color of the rainbow. GENDER ROLES: Men are typically perceived as masculine, and women are assumed to be feminine. But concepts of of masculine and feminine vary according to culture, social context, and the individual. We learn how to behave in gender appropriate ways through the GENDER ROLES designated by our culture (although some behavioral differences between males and females are apparent from birth). Gender roles are demonstrated through the actions, general beliefs, and characteristics associated with masculinity and femininity. This understanding of expected male and female behavior is generally demonstrated by around age 2 or 3. So too is the ability to differentiate between boys and girls, and men and women. -1 year: can distinguish faces by gender. 2 years: can label other genders, can sort objects into gender categories. 3 years: can identify own gender. 3-6 years: develop gender constancy and rigid gender stereotypes. 8-9 years: begin to be more flexible in gender stereotypes. GENDER IDENTITY: A person's GENDER IDENTITY is the feeling or sense of being either male or female, and compatibility, contentment, and conformity with one's gender. Gender identity is often reinforced by learning and parental stereotyping of appropriate boy/girl behaviors, but doesn't always follow such a script. An environment that does not specify strict gender roles results in children developing more fluid ideas about gender-appropriate behavior. Thus, if a child is growing up in a single-parent home, she will likely see her parent taking on the traditional gender roles of both males and females, and will be more comfortable stepping outside the boundaries prescribed by such roles. Variations in Gender Identity: TRANSGENDER INDIVIDUAL: People whose gender identity and expression do not typically match the gender signed to them at birth. They're anatomically "normal"-they're biologically male or female. TRANSEXUAL INDIVIDUAL: Individual who seeks or undergoes a social transition to the other gender, and who make changes to his or her body through surgery and medical treatment. Sometimes societal expectations of being male or female differ from what an individual is feeling inwardly, leading to feelings of discontent. Transgender refers to the mismatch between a person's gender assigned at birth and his or her gender identity. Some transgender people try to resolve this discontent through medical interventions. A Transsexual person seeks or undergoes a social transition to an alternative gender by making changes to his or her body through sex reassignment surgery and/or medical treatment. GENDER STEREOTYPES: Gender stereotypes, which begin to take hold around age 3, are strong ideas about the nature of males and females-how they should dress, what kinds of games they should like, and so on. Decisions about children's toys, in particular, follow strict gender stereotypes (boys play with trucks, girls play with dolls), and nay crossing over risks ridicule from peers, sometimes even adults. Gender stereotypes are apparent in toy commercials and pictures in coloring books. They also manifest themselves in academic settings. For example, many girls have negative attitudes about math, which seem to be associated with parents' and teachers' expectations about gender differences in math competencies. Children, especially boys, tend to cling to gender stereotypes very tightly. You are much more likely to see a girl playing with a boy toy rather than a boy playing with a girl toy. Society, in turn is more tolerant of girls who cross gender stereotypes. SEXUAL ORIENTATIONS: SEXUAL ORIENTATION is the "enduring pattern" of sexual, romantic, and emotional attraction that individuals exhibit towards the same sex, opposite sex, or both sexes. When attracted to members of the opposite sex, sexual orientation is HETEROSEXUAL. When attracted to members of the same sex, sexual orientation is HOMOSEXUAL. When attracted to members of the same sex and members of the opposite sex, sexual orientation is BISEXUAL, although most people tend to prefer one sex or the other. Those who do not feel sexually attracted to others are referred to as ASEXUAL- 1% of the population is constituted to be asexual. "There is a universe of orientations and identities, and each person gets to put him or herself in the constellation. In America, the most common terminology refers to a homosexual man as gay and homosexual woman as a lesbian. But sexual orientation is not a trait or characteristic one possesses. It is a label that reflects the relationships someone establishes and the qualities of those relationships, including degree of intimacy, mutual goals, commitment, and affection. -According to the most recent estimates about 7% of women and 5% men report having engaged in homosexual behavior. Huge variation; depends on measurement. Some say as high as 35%. Female is the default. Guys were born with a female brain. Y chromosome. So what happened?- testosterone, aggression, sex organs, communication centers, and brain is masculinized. At birth we are fundamentally different. Evident in pursuits; girls gaze at people, boys gaze at objects.