Psych 135 Final
group decision-making summary
- Groups are susceptible to decision-making pitfalls (e.g. 'groupthink'), but group decisions can be better than individual decisions if steps are taken to avoid these pitfalls - Large number of strangers are often collectively 'wise' (wisdom of the crowd)
What might you experience after playing violent video games?
- Increase aggressive behavior - Desensitize (decreased physiological arousal to victims of aggression) - Increase aggressive thoughts - Increase aggressive emotions, especially anger Increase blood pressure and heart rate, physiological responses associated with fighting
What are some practical applications of social facilitation research?
- Study for tests that'll be taken in a group setting! Those who know the material well will do better on tests in the presence of other test takers because their dominant responses will be correct - Study alone when learning new information Learning complex material is easier without other people present - Collaborative workplaces (work effects) Workers with difficult or complex jobs may benefit by having their own private work area or office Traditional office spaces might be less convenient and expensive, it may foster better quality work
The good samaritan study
-Method: Asking people who are training to be Ministers to give speech about the "Good Samaritan" and told them they were running late; on there way to the speech they run passed someone who is in need -Result: Didn't notice person in need if they were in a rush. If they weren't, some stopped
briefly explain the strange situation
1) A mother and child enter an unfamiliar room with interesting toy.s While the infant explores the room and plays with the toys, a stranger enters and the mother leaves 2) When the mother returns to the room, she picks up the infant and comforts him if he is upset that she has left the room 3) The mother then puts the infant down, and he is free to return to playing with the toys, or he might react by crying and protesting the separation
Why is the presence of other people arousing?
1) Distraction-conflict theory Awareness of the mere presence of another person creates a conflict between attending to that person and attending to the task at hand; this conflict is arousing Non-social distractors leads to social facilitation-like effects - You see people do better on simple tasks vs complex novel task when you give people other distractions (another task) - Cockroaches might not understand the social aspect, but they might get aroused because there's someone watching 2) Evaluation apprehension Knowing that we are being evaluated leads to increased self-consciousness People are often very concerned about making a good impression, and their evaluation apprehension can intensify arousal and lead to more pronounced social facilitation effects
How does one prevent groupthink?
1) Encourage dissenting views - Avoid dominant, directive leader - Group leader should refrain from making opinion known at first - Seek outside opinion - Devil's advocate technique 2) Make sure all members are heard from - Have leader originally discuss decision with each member individually - Create subgroups 3) Allow anonymous input
How can you improve the chances of getting help when you need it?
1) Make your need clear - "I've twisted my ankle and I can't walk; I need help" - People might conclude an event isn't serious because of pluralistic ignorance. If you make it clear you're in need of help, you've removed pluralistic ignorance 2) Select a specific person - "you there, in the blue shirt, you can help me?" - Individuating someone - Counteracts diffusion of responsibility These 2 steps counteract the effects of pluralistic ignorance and diffusion of responsibility Power of the situation and how you interpret/shape the situation you're in helps provide or receive help when you're in an emergency
How can you improve the changes of getting help when you need it?
1) Make your need clear - "I've twisted my ankle and I can't walk; I need help" - People might conclude an event isn't serious because of pluralistic ignorance. If you make it clear you're in need of help, you've removed pluralistic ignorance 2) Select a specific person - "you there, in the blue shirt, you can help me?" - Individuating someone - Counteracts diffusion of responsibility These 2 steps counteract the effects of pluralistic ignorance and diffusion of responsibility Power of the situation and how you interpret/shape the situation you're in helps provide or receive help when you're in an emergency
How does the 'Outbreak' clip show groupthink?
1) The main character demands "unanimous, unwavering support on this one" and that "No member of this government is going to go sneaking off to the Washington Post, telling them how they were the sole voice of opposition" He is encouraging group members to be motivated to maintain group cohesion and encouraging self-censorship 2) Another symptom of groupthink is biased information processing The main character encourages biased info, processing by saying he wants them to find "An army of experts citing...lab experiments telling any idiot with a camera that there was no other way" to deal with the situation He is encouraging group members to seek out info, supporting the group's decision and to ignore info. Contradicting the group's decision
summary of stanford prison experiment
A psychologically compelling environment Loss of identity: individual identity blurred or not salient Absence of personal responsibility - Especially when vague instructions are given. Just told "do what it takes to make sure prisoners are in control" - Just like Abu Ghraib "do what it takes to make sure prisoners are able to get interviewed" - Diffusion of responsibility through chain of command (superintendent) - Military hierarchy - just doing what they were being told Perception that others are behaving normatively The power of the situation: putting "good people" in " bad situation" - Environments can transform "normal" people in powerful ways - Even in the absence of pre-existing differences in personality People readily conform to expected social roles These roles can shape our behaviors and attitudes
Aggression: Take home points
Aggression is complex Innate reactions (pain, frustration) Learned responses (modeling, desensitization) Media violence: difficult research topic: possibility of 3rd variables Exposure to virtual violence engenders desensitization to violence and willingness to aggress Surprising? Our brains predate virtual violence... Can be inconvenient because violent video games are fun, but we're wired up to learn from and shape from experience and stimulus. So, when it's regularly thrown at us, we're going to be shaped by it. Might be harmful sometimes and helpful other times
how might violent video games affect children's aggression?
Brain learns from experiences and if you have a vivid and simulated context, it might not be surprising that this has impact on you generally speaking. You can be regularly exposed and desensitized effect
Why are composite faces more attractive than individual faces?
By averaging faces together; the composite face is generally more symmetrical and free of any blemishes or other abnormalities Increases bilateral symmetry
How did JFK prevent groupthink during the Cuban missile crisis?
By encouraging vigorous debate and unbiased recommendations: - JFK frequently excused himself to avoid constraining the discussion - Outsiders were brought in frequently - "Devil's advocates" were appointed
How was Zajonc's Theory tested?
Cockroach experiment Examined the effects of social facilitation using cockroaches running mazes in the presence or absence of other roaches In the presence of spectator roaches, the test roaches ran faster through a simple maze towards the light but slower through a complex maze
What concepts did "Anybody's Son Will Do" illustrate?
Cognitive dissonance Conformity and obedience Persuasion Groupthink Deindividuation
why does the presence of other people inhibit altruistic behavior?
Diffusion of responsibility: We assume others have helped or will help Pluralistic ignorance: We see others not acting and take that as information (assume it must not be an emergency) ex) you're lost in the lecture but no one else has raised their hands and you're the only one confused. What's probably happening is that no one is raising their hand because of the same problem. Must not really be an emergency because otherwise, people would be asking more questions
Why do people and mice prefer odor of mates with dissimilar MHC genotype?
Dissimilar MHC mates produce heterozygous offspring with more robust immune systems Brain automatically pulls us closer to someone that might have different smell and healthier offspring *major histocompatibility complex (regulates what kind of bacteria grows on our skin. So changes how we smell) ex) t-shirt study
why do chimpanzees help each other even when there's no immediate benefit to themselves for doing so?
Empathy and altruistic behavior appear to be evolutionarily old tendencies - Comfort each other in distress - Help one another even though there's no benefit to doing so
if there is an escape situation, are people still altruistic?
Experiment: Participants watch a confederate perform a memory task where (s)he is shocked after each mistake Easy to Escape condition vs difficult to escape condition Those who reported feeling personal distress behaved altruistically when escape was difficult, but left more quickly when escape was easy Those who reported experiencing empathic concern (emphasized with their feelings eg "I felt bad for her") tended to behave equally altruistically (ie took many shocks for the confederate) regardless of ease of escape
What are some physical features that are considered to be attractive universally?
Faces: Symmetry Bodies: Women: waist-hip ratio (~.70) → not necessarily absolute size (health) but more the figure (hourglass) Men: waist-shoulder ratio (~.75) Seen as good fertility and good health Physical: Smell (body odor) prefer odor of potential partners with dissimilar MHC* genotype (related to immune function)
If we have identified an emergency and assumed responsibility but don't know how to help, what can we do?
First, decide what's wrong: Has the woman had a heart attack? Is she suffering a stroke? Second, what is the course of action?: Should you call an ambulance, administer CPR or try to get her out of the sun? It is worse to do nothing than something (even something small like advocating "someone call 911" or providing moral support)
Why does social loafing occur?
Free riders: People who gain from the group's effort but do little to contribute Sucker Aversion: People who don't want to be exploited by free riders and thus do little to contribute - Because people don't want to be sucker, they wait and see how much effort people put forward - When everyone does this, everyone's effort becomes less then if they had worked individually
group
Group- a collection of individuals who have relations to one another that make them more interdependent to some significant degree ex) people in elevator not a group because they're not interdependent. But once elevator breaks down, they must decide on join action (or whether to take joint action)and become interdependent = aka a group
Frustration-Aggression experiment (Harris)
Harris (1974) had confederates cut in line in public places (eg. grocery stores, movie theatres) - ½ time cut in front of 2nd person in line - ½ time cut in front of 12th person in line Results: people standing behind intruder more aggressive when confederate cut 2nd person in line (closer to goal
what is the Evolutionary reasoning for liking faces that have been averaged?
Human fetus is supposed to develop evenly and symmetrically Small changes in the fetus make it so that we're less symmetrical CUE FOR EVOLUTIONARY FITNESS We try to evolutionarily choose symmetrical faced people to have better fitnessed person and children because bilaterally symmetrical adults tend to be healthier --> a cue to an individual's ability to resist disease
How did Lenny Skutnik construe the specific event he was seeing as an emergency?
Identified the emergency: she was going to die Assumed responsibility: "If I didn't go and get her, she was going to die"
why might the rate of attractiveness become higher the later it gets at night in a bar?
If potential matters are not plentiful, we may shift our standards of attractiveness
what makes someone attractive?
In general, people tend to choose average face the more attractive Mathematically averaged faces → all composite faces
Attractiveness summary
Interpersonal attraction is not reducible to simple nature or nurture theories However, social psychologists have identified factors that strongly predict attraction: - Symmetry, averageness, proportion - Proximity - Social similarity - Genetic dissimilarity (MHC) - Perceived scarcity
why are scenarios with people helping each other out often ambiguous?
It can be very difficult to determine if someone has acted out of pure altruism (empathic concern) or more selfish motives (social rewards and relieving personal distress) Social motives or alleviating own distress or just truly altruistic?
What are some gender differences in types of aggression?
Large gender differences in violent crime rates Males much more likely to be involved in violent and criminal behavior Males also more likely to be the victims of violence Males may be more physically aggressive, but females may display more "relational aggression" Women may be aggressive in ways that are more covert and socially directed Spreading rumors, vicious insults, talking behind each other's backs, and so on Perhaps it's how our culture enacts to create aggression
examples of altruism
Lenny Skutnik and Arland Williams Air Florida Flight Wesley Autrey Man jumps onto track and helps man that had seizure. Pushed both underneath subway Couple that Nearly Drowned Man canoeing helped them
Why do we need a healthy relationship with others?
Like our biologically-based needs for food, air and water, human beings have a basic need to be embedded in healthy relationships Relationships help individuals and their offspring to survive (eg romantic bonds help parents produce and care for vulnerable offspring parent-offspring bonds help offspring survive until they can function independently; friendship facilitates cooperation, rather than aggression and competition, between unrelated individuals)
negative consequences of an unmet need to belong
Mortality, crime, and suicide rates are higher for divorced, unmarried, and widowed individuals Married people have greater subjective well being than unmarried people Social support contributes to good health by strengthening the cardiovascular, immune, and endocrine systems This has been shown in both correlational studies and in experiments that manipulate perceived social isolation and assess immune system function. There appears to be a causal relationship between loneliness and compromised physical health
is mathematical average-ness the only predictor for attraction?
No We choose other factors as well. Such as: - When people rate faces, they prefer faces that resemble their own - People with unusual features (eg striking eyes, 'bee-stung lips') are often viewed as attractive
who coined the term Social facilitation?
Norman Triplett (1898)
what are some conditions that promote deindividuation?
Physical anonymity - A lot of anti-social behaviors happen around Halloween when people put on masks - Some countries banned the Guy Fawkes masks because of the possible anti-social behavior that come with it - Lord of the Flies, Jack paints his face with mud and charcoal where it acts like a mask and frees him from any sense of guilt or remorse → promotes anti-social behavior later - Warfare and deindividuation: warriors in tribes that deindividuate themselves before battle by wearing war paint and war masks tend to engage in more brutal warfare practices even in military as well External focus - If you want to promote deindividuation, you want people to focus on the environment. When people focus inwards, you get opposite effect of individuation - Individuation Group size (diffusion of responsibility) - Larger groups = deindividuation - Huge mob celebrating can also lead to violence → music events came into physical violence or sports events where teams win or lose and violence occurs - Huge group = less individual focus, more anonymity, and diffusion of responsibility
How can we be sure that someone is helping for their actual pure altruism?
Remove possibility of social reward (make behavior anonymous); provide ways to alleviate personal distress without helping (eg. giving opportunity for them to leave) This way we can see if their action is from true selfless motives
how do researchers mathematically average faces?
Researchers create average faces by dividing grayscale images of individual faces into small squares (pixels). Each square was assigned a number based on the average brightness (shade of grey) it contained They averaged the shades of gray across two photos to create an averaged configuration of two faces and continued averaging even more individual faces with the newly created face - Averaged shades within a pixel Faces that are closest to average are judged to be more attractive
is aggression innate or learned?
Scientists do not agree on how much aggression is innate vs learned Consensus: Humans seem to have an inborn tendency to respond to certain provocative stimuli by lashing out When certain criteria are met, then aggression happens
characteristics of groupthink
Shallow examination of information Narrow consideration of alternative (tunnel vision) Sense of invulnerability/moral superiority (tunnel vision to scrutinize potential alternatives) Groupthink can be encouraged by a strong leader - Could discourage people from suggesting alternative courses of actions - Make group members falsely have confidence in group because no one is bringing up alternatives ex) Outbreak clip
What are examples of the universality of relationships in different cultures?
Siblings in different cultures all play, support, and fight with each other, although the specific kinds of play, support, and conflict may vary according to the culture Parents in different cultures show similar kinds of attachment behaviors, including patterns of touch and eye contact
Visuospatial Benefits of Video Game Play
Skills might be honed that translate effectively to real world : spatial skills, visual acuity, visual skills The things we practice and learn in video games impact how we perceive, think about, and behave in the real world Training your brain EVEN FOR SURGEONS... If you practice coordination and spatial navigation through games, you can improve how you apply it in context
What is a challenge that women have who are taking oral contraceptives?
Taking oral contraceptives makes them more attractive to someone with a similar MHC genotype because it reverses the hormone and partly mimics pregnancy Might shift your attraction to someone or preference so it might have it's demerits
What did the 'The wisdom of crowds' video demonstrate?
The average of multiple independent predictions tends to outperform any individual prediction
according to Zajonc, does the presence of others boost our performance or hinder our performance?
The dominant response controls whether we will do well or poorly. the presence of others can facilitate performance of easy tasks but may impair performance of difficult tasks
frustration-aggression theory
The perception that you are being prevented from obtaining a goal (frustration) will increase the probability of an aggressive response ex)If someone cuts in line, you'll get more angry if you're almost there to the cashier vs way before in line
Zajonc's Theory
The presence of others increases arousal, and arousal increases an individual's dominant responses
When are crowds wise?
There has to be... - Diversity of opinion/knowledge - Independence - Aggregation: Private judgement into collective knowledge If the crowd is large enough and not systematically biased, they will be accurate as a crowd, no matter how inaccurate the typical member is ex) Who wants to be a millionaire --> audience vote gets it more right than "smart friend" vote
give one historic example of groupthink. Why did groupthink occur?
Three are mentioned but you can choose one: 1) Kennedy administration's invasion of Cuba's Bay of Pigs without providing proper air cover 2) The Johnson administration's decision to increase the number of American soldiers fighting in Vietnam 3) The conclusion by U.S. naval high command that extra precautions were not needed at Pearl Harbor despite warnings of an imminent attack by the Japanese All this happened because of social pressure and failure to scrutinize the failures that could occur because they want to have harmony
The first social facilitation expermient
Triplett (1898) assigned groups of children to reel in fishing lines alone and beside another child and found faster times when the child was co-acting with another person Concludes that the presence of others facilitates performance
What was the initial research that catapulted experimentation on social facilitation?
Triplett (1898) observed that cyclists recorded faster times when competing against others than when racing alone Designed an experiment to test whether the presence of others facilitates human performance
How did the Stanford Prison experiment parallel with Abu Ghraib?
US Soldiers acted inhumanely to prisoners in Iraq (abuse photos) After this happened, people from administration said this is behavior or certain individuals (few bad apples that spoiled the bunch) Prison study is a memorable example and suggest that it's not only the case that there are a few apples. There might be a bad barrel Affects average people in shocking ways
arguments for the need to belong
Universal: all cultures have similar types of social relationships and dynamics Satiable: Relationships are something we desire when we don't have them, but like hunger, the need for relationships can be satisfied by finding new relationships - We can satisfy our social needs like drinking water. We don't have the same sense of motivation to make social bonds if they're met There are profound consequences for those with no relationships: There is a lot of evidence that being cut off from others is bad for mental and physical health
scent of attraction summary
We are attracted to MHC-dissimilar mates Women particularly so during ovulation All expressed in scent
When are people more likely to receive help than others?
When the person is similar to the rescuer People are most likely to help when the victim is clear and the need is unambiguous Bystanders help victims who scream and make their needs known more than twice as often as silent victims
what is the effect of proximity on relationships?
a large factor of whether we will become friends with a person or not ex) housing complex experiment - 17, ten unit apartment buildings and students were a bit far from the city. Randomly assigned - Asked who the people formed friendships with Result - People who lived next door to one another were four times more likely to become friends than people at opposite ends of the hallway - Residents near stairwells formed twice as many friendships with upstairs neighbors as those living in the middle apartments - Proximity promotes friendships because it brings people together
How many meaningful relationships are required to satiate our social hunger?
about 6 close friends
individuation
an enhanced sense of individual identity produced by focusing attention on the self, which generally leads people to act carefully and deliberately and in accordance with their sense of propriety and values
Mary Ainsworth's strange situation
an experimental method designed to measure the nature of attachment between mothers and babies Particularly interested in THE REUNION: when the parent comes back
Aside from humans, where else is social facilitation seen in?
animals!
instrumental aggression
behavior intended to harm another in the service of motives other than pure hostility (such as attracting attention, acquiring wealth, or advancing political or ideological causes) Hitman
hostile aggression
behavior intended to harm another, either physically or psychologically, and motivated by feelings of anger and hostility Hitting someone who hurt you
Is true altruism found in humans or non-human species?
both! ex) Prosocial Choice by Chimpanzees Monkeys work together to pull heavy basket towards themselves so they could get food together
Kitty Genovese Case
bystander effect (woman murdered; no one helped-less likely to help when others present) -caused by diffusion of responsibility
securely attached infants
comfortable moving away from their caregivers to explore the novel environment. They felt safe when their caregiver was there, even without direct contact
When is anonymous helping behavior prevalent?
common when people are made to feel empathic concern (eg by vividly imagining how the person in need of help must feel)
what did the Stanford prison experiment illustrate?
deindividuation and increased aggression Participants 'lost their identities' as members of a group (prisoner vs guard garb) They acted according to their roles and did things that they thought were totally out of character for them as individuals
True or False A highly cohesive group can produce good group decisions
false highly cohesive can produce poor group decisions because maintaining group harmony may be emphasized over making an accurate judgment
what are characteristics of the female and male walk?
females have a 'strut' while males have 'swagger' ex) Point Light Walter demo
What are possible reasons for gender differences in types of aggression?
hormone levels, social learning, or evolved tendencies - Evolutionary theorists believe males have more aggression for survival - Hormonally, women are more innately predestined to fix rather than wound - All possible things not 100% known
What are the three types of aggression?
hostile, relational, and instrumental aggression
empathic concern
identifying with someone in need, including feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing, accompanied by the intention to help the person
copycat violence
imitation of specific violent acts depicted in the media ex) Taxi Driver John Hinckley attempted to assassinate President Reagan after seeing the film
dominant response
in a person's hierarchy of possible responses in any context, the response he or she is most likely to make
when does social loafing happen?
in more collective/group tasks ex) Had a group of people cheer and clap The more people were participating, the less people did
How do you prevent social loafing?
make each individual's responsibility unique Give each individual a task that they consider worthwhile/important Increase commitment to and involvement in the group Increase identifiability: When people feel like their work is tracked, they're less able to loaf and take credit for other people's work
anxiously attached infants (ambivalent/resistant)
more distressed in novel environments and less comforted by contact with their caregiver when it occurred
propinquity
nearness --> we become more attracted to people with whom we interact regularly
relational aggression
nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people ex) Mean Girls
What are the some criteria for aggression? Why?
pain and discomfort AND hot weather Feelings of discomfort caused by the heat (or other sources of physical discomfort) may be misattributed to other people - Bad for heat because of physiological responses to heat (heart race, face flush, etc) may look like you're angry - People notice themselves getting worked up (palm sweaty etc) and attribute it to wrong thing. Might get annoyed by someone who's only a little bit annoying Another example of misattribution of arousal - Misattribution to wrong sources
what does the good samaritan study illustrate?
power of the situation in shaping helping behavior
Different attachment styles
secure, avoidant, anxious (ambivalent/resistant) Children with highly responsive, available caregivers tended to have secure attachment; those with less reliable caregivers tended to show anxious attachment; those with rejecting caregivers (insensitive) tended to have avoidant attachment
3 attachment types in adults
secure, avoidant, anxious-ambivalent Secure I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close Avoidant I am somewhat uncomfortable being close; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when anyone gets close, and often, love partners want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being Anxious-ambivalent I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't stay with me, I want to merge completely with another person, and this desire sometimes scares people away
what are motives for altruistic actions?
social reward, personal distress, empathetic concern Social Reward: a benefit, such as praise, positive attention, something tangible, our gratitude, that may be gained from helping others, thus a motive for altruistic behavior A lot of people from the examples got positive media attention Social rewards are ubiquitous and salient with social media → social motives for altruistic behavior Personal Distress: a motive for helping others in distress that may arise from a need to reduce one's own distress (Video) baby looking at toy baby. When toy is happy, baby is happy, When toy starts crying, actual baby starts crying and becoming sad The tendency to feel distress in response to the distress in others starts early in life: Eve newborn infants cry if they hear a recording of other newborns crying. Notice that in this video, Baby Reagan cries and appears distressed whenever the doll starts crying, but her distress and crying subside when her doll stops showing signs of 'experiencing' distress. This early-arising tendency persists later in life. One way to reduce the distress we feel in response to the observed suffering of others is engaging helping behavior to reduce their suffering One way to alleviate personal distress is by doing something to alleviate it. Kind of selfish because you're have altruistic behavior in order to stop your own suffering. Empathetic Concern: Identifying with someone in need, including feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing, accompanied by the intention to help the person. Only truly selfless motives.
social facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
attachment theory
the idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life A child's confidence in the safety provided by their caregiver is determined largely by how available and responsive their caregivers are to them As children form attachments with caregivers, they begin developing a working model of relationships They develop their understanding of how relationships work, including how much warmth and security relationships provide
Deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives Want to highlight group acceptance rather than reach the goal of the group
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them ex) true photo vs mirrored photo Others like true photo, we like mirrored photo because we're used to seeing us this way Similar people often end up in similar situations, and we like people who are similar to ourselves
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished ex) Bobo Doll Study Children had more interest in toy gun against Bobo when adults were aggressive vs other and picked up more aggressive language as well
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others ex) Every year complete strangers under kidney surgery to donate them Inconvenience and giving up internal organ for someone they've never met
what happens when our social needs aren't being met by current relationships?
we'll replace old social relationships with new ones ex) when people lose contact with family after entering prison, they'll create kinship like ties with other prisoners and start to feel better
avoidant attachment style infants
were least likely to seek out their caregiver following separation and sometimes even rejected attention when it was offered
when is it more likely for suicide baiting to occur?
when it's dark out and when there's more people there Antisocial behavior promoted by anonymity
When does groupthink occur?
when the main motivation for group members is cohesion or unanimity rather than developing the best plan or fully considering alternative actions
self-censorship
withholding information or opinions in group discussions so you don't stir the pot
