Psych 202 Exam #3

Define personality.

A distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior, mannerisms, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual over time and across different situations. The pattern consists of many distinctive traits, habitual ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling.

Learning model of addiction

A study of addicts and their non abusing siblings who had similar brain abnormalities associated with self-control reveals that learning experiences, culture, and the environment can encourage or discourage abuse and addiction. 1. Addiction patterns vary according to cultural practices. 2. Policies of total abstinence tend to increase rates of addiction rather than reduce them. 3. Not all addicts have withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking a drug. 4. Addiction does not depend on the drug alone, but also on the reason for using the drug.

Distinguish between gender identity, gender typing, and gender schemas.

Gender Identity: A fundamental sense of being male or female. Gender Typing: Process of socializing children into their gender roles. Gender Schema: A mental network of beliefs, metaphors, and expectations about what it means to be male or female.

Discuss the relative influence of parents on a child's personality.

-Shared environment of the home has little if any influence on personality. -Few parents have a single child rearing style that is consistent over time and that they used with all of their children. -Even when parents try to be consistent, there is still little effect -Reciprocal determinism suggests parents and children continually influence each other. -As soon as children leave home, starting with preschool, parental influence begins to wane

List and discuss the motor reflexes and sensory abilities of newborns and infants

Motor Reflexes come standard with this model. Autonomic behaviors that are necessary for survival Perceptual Abilities also come standard with this model. All the basic senses are operational but not fully developed. Newborn can also recognize caregiver/parents on the basis of smell, sight, and sounds. Experience shapes development.

Describe the factors in the theory of antisocial personality/psychopathic disorders.

-Abnormalities in the Central Nervous System: Lack of capacity for empathy or remorse, doesn't respond normally to the threat of punishment, emotional flatness. -Impaired Frontal Lobe Functioning -Genetic Influences -Environmental Events: genes interact with social environmental experiences to produce impulsive, violent individual. -Cultures That May Foster APD: rewards ruthlessness behavior in work and politics, where corporate psychopaths fit, rewards slaughter of innocents for purposes of political or religious genocide

Give some examples of how cultural norms influence behavior.

-Cleanliness standards vary by culture. -Helpfulness- American children scored least altruistic and most egotistic; culture values individual achievement and self-advancement. -Punctuality/tardiness Individualistic Cultures: Time is linear, schedules and punctuality is valued: Northern Europe, Canada, and the United States. Collectivist Cultures: Time organized along parallel lines with need of friends and family superseding appointments: Mexico, Southern Europe, the Middle East, and South America

Describe the three problem personalities described in the text.

-borderline personality disorder: A disorder characterized by extreme negative emotionality and an inability to regulate emotions; it often results in intense but unstable relationships, impulsive- ness, self-mutilating behavior, feelings of emptiness, and a fear of abandonment by others. -psychopathy:A personality disorder characterized by fearlessness; lack of empathy, guilt, and remorse; the use of deceit; and coldheartedness. In the DSM, it is one symptom of antisocial personality disorder -antisocial personality disorder(APD): A personality disorder char- acterized by a lifelong pattern of irresponsible, antisocial behavior such as lawbreaking, violence, and other impulsive, reckless acts, and lack of remorse for harms inflicted.

Describe which therapies and which therapeutic structures work best for specific problems.

-Depression: Cognitive therapy's greatest success, compared to drug treatment, patients are less likely to relapse when treatment is finished. -Suicide Attempts: cognitive therapy did well in at least one study. -Anxiety Disorders: PTSD, agoraphobia, specific phobias -exposure techniques Panic disorder- cognitive behavioral therapy Generalized anxiety disorder-cognitive behavioral therapy OCD- cognitive behavioral therapy -Anger and Impulsive Violence: Cognitive therapy reduces negative emotions and behavior, and teaches people how to express anger more constructively. -Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies Do Well for: Chronic pain, Chronic fatigue syndrome, Headaches, Irritable bowel, Smoking, Eating disorders, Insomnia, Other health problems. -Child and Adolescent Behavior Problems: Behavior therapy worked better than any other treatment regardless of the child's age, the practitioner's experience, and the nature of the specific problem. -Relapses: Cognitive-behavioral therapy effective for reducing relapses in depression, substance abuse, sexual offending, and even schizophrenia. -Limitations of Cognitive and Behavior Therapies: Cognitive-behavioral therapy designed for specific, clearly identifiable problems. People who want to introspect about their lives do better with other therapies. Not good for clients who are not motivated to do the "homework" involved.Not good for clients with personality disorders. -Motivational Interviewing: Increases motivation to overcome problems like drinking, smoking and binge eating. Client put into a state of cognitive dissonance. ( rewind to Chapter Seven). Followed by cognitive and behavioral therapies. Complex -Problems and Personality Disorders: Often respond better to long term psychodynamic therapy than to short term therapy.

Discuss harmful environmental influences during prenatal development.

-Father's Side -- Age of Father a risk: Older fathers risk for the following increases: Schizophrenia, Autism, Bipolar Disorder Younger fathers - risk for the following increases: Premature births, Lower birth weights. Fathers exposed to workplace solvents and chemicals: more miscarried/stillborn infants, baby more likely to develop cancer later in life. -Mother's side -- Rubella (German Measles) causing deafness, but Vaccination prevents. X-rays, radiation, and toxic chemicals. Lead --> attention problems and lower IQ scores Sexually Transmitted Diseases-> Mental problems, blindness, HIV and other physical problems. Cigarette Smoking-> sudden infant death syndrome, hyperactivity, learning difficulties, and antisocial behavior. Chronic or severe maternal distress-> Greater risk of later cognitive and emotional problems as well as other adult diseases. Legal and Illegal Drugs: cocaine, heroin, antibiotics, antidepressants, antihistamines, tranquilizers, acne medication, prescription opiate pain killers, diet pills-> Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS).Includes smaller size and mental retardation, exposure to alcohol can also impair later mental abilities, attention span, and academic achievement.

List and discuss the stages of prenatal development

-Germinal Stage -Implantation of the Zygote (0 - 2 weeks). "Birds and the Bees" activity happens here at conception the sperm unites with the ovum. Zygote (fertilized egg) attaches itself to the wall of the uterus and divides into two parts (embryo and placenta/umbilical cord). -Embryonic Stage- 3rd to 8th week.Embryo develops rudimentary forms of organs and systems. Testosterone secreted to create the anatomically correct male. -Fetal Stage - 9th week on. Fetus continues to develop organs and systems.

Describe the stages of language development.

-Infant starts the game out with cooing and crying. Given their prenatal experience, infants are already prepared for their native language. Pitch, intensity, and emotion are closely monitored. Parentese/ Babytalk - helping infants acquire language. -4-6 Month Accomplishments, Recognize their own names, Recognize words spoken with emotion (Mommy, Daddy), Recognize the sounds of their native language. - 6 months - 1 year Accomplishments, Child figures out the sound structure of their native language: They will pay more attention to words or sentences that violate expectations of what and sentences should sound like, Babbling begins, Starts to name things at about 1 year, Have mental images for familiar people and objects, Gestures appear by one year. -18 months - 2 years Accomplishments, Telegraphic speech appears, Two to three word combinations, Omits articles, auxiliary verbs, and word endings: "Go there," "my toy," "send money", rapid acquisition of new words.

Describe physical changes to the adolescent brain.

-Major pruning of neural connections. -Remodeling the structures. -Prefrontal cortex develops (impulse control and planning): (Limbic System) - emotional processing; Myelinization: Provides fatty sheath of insulation for some cells; Strengthens the connection between emotional limbic system and the reasoning prefrontal cortex; Process continues through teens to mid-20's. -Full neurological and cognitive maturity does not happen until about age 25.

Describe the following procedures used in attempts to control brain activity: prefrontal lobotomy, electroconvulsive therapy, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and transcranial direct current stimulation.

-Prefrontal lobotomy: Cut fibers from prefrontal lobes to other areas; Aim: Reduce emotional symptoms without impairing intellectual ability; never scientifically tested and led to many apathetic and withdrawn patients. -Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): "Shock Therapy" Brief brain seizure is induced; World Psychiatric Association has endorsed ECT as safe and effective for: People with crippling depression and suicidal tendencies, People who have not responded to other treatments; improvement is usually short-lived and depression returns after termination of treatment; When used to treat Schizophrenia and Alcoholism, it is very ineffective; However, shows some promise when dealing with students who arrive late to lectures. -Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Pulsating magnetic coil held to stimulate left prefrontal cortex; For severe depression. -Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS): Electrodes on temples, Mild current - 1/400 of ECT.) These techniques are promising, but only have a temporary effect, no one know why it works and controlled follow-up studies need to be done.

Provide evidence in favor of an innate language capacity in humans.

-Regardless of culture, children go through the same stages of linguistic development. -Children combine words in ways that adults never would. -Adults do not consistently correct their children's syntax. -Children who are not exposed to adult language may invent a language of their own.

Describe how gender identity, gender typing, and gender schemas develop.

1) At 9 months, the child can discriminate male from female faces. 2) 18-20 months, child has concept of gender labels. 3) Once the child can label self-as a boy or girl (shortly before 2), they change their behavior to conform to the category they belong to. 4) At age five, children develop a gender schema. 5) Between five and seven, gender schemas are most rigid. ("Gender Police" at its worse). 6) Older children construct more personal and flexible schema based on their experiences and cognitive sophistication.

Evaluate Piaget's theory of cognitive development in light of subsequent research

1) Cognitive abilities develop in overlapping waves rather than steps or stages. 2) Children reveal cognitive abilities much earlier than Piaget thought possible. 3) Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought. Develop a Theory of Mind and a System of beliefs about: how their minds work, how other people's minds work, and how people's behavior is affected by beliefs and emotions. 4) Cognitive Development is influenced by culture. -Piaget overestimated the cognitive skills of adults.

Describe the "big five" personality traits.

1) Extroversion versus Introversion- Extroversion = outgoing; Introversion = shy Neuroticism versus Emotional Stability 2) Neuroticism = "negative emotionality" - the tendency to negative emotions; Anxiety, instability, inability to control impulses, and negative emotions; negative emotions = anger, guilt, contempt and resentment; Worriers, complainers and defeatists even when things going well. 3) Agreeableness (Agreeable versus Antagonism)- Capacity for friendly relationships or the tendency to have hostile ones; good natured versus irritable; cooperative versus abrasive; secure versus suspicious 4) Conscientiousness versus Impulsiveness- Responsible vs. undependable; Persevering vs. quick to give up; Self-disciplined vs. impulsive. 5) Openness to Experience versus Resistance to new experience- Curious and imaginative versus conforming and predictable.

Using the vulnerability-stress model, describe the four factors that account for depression.

1) Genetics - Since depression is moderately heritable, there is probably genetic involvement. but researchers have not been able to find the specific genes; Genes that regulate serotonin (a neurotransmitter) may be affected. 2)Life experiences - Repeated exposure to violence is associated with depression; Maltreatment in childhood mechanism; Prolonged stress leads to increased cortisol which affects the hippocampus and amygdala, cause mood and memory abnormalities; Physical abusive domestic relationships increased the rates of depression for women. 3)Attachment issues - Many depressed people have history of relationship separations, loss, rejections and insecure attachments; People who suffer the loss of a beloved life time partner may also fall into prolonged depression. 4)Cognitive habits - Cognitive biases associated with depression interact with further severe life stress to cause further depressive episodes. Depressed people with low self-esteem are especially vulnerable; Focus inward and brood/ruminate about negative feelings; Trouble preventing thoughts from entering and remaining in working memory; Non depressed people when confronted with stressful event are more likely to: try to distract self, look outward, seek solutions to stressful event; Women more prone to this style; Longer and more intense periods of depression

List and explain the goals and principles of the schools of psychotherapy: Humanist and Existential Therapy Family and Couples Therapy.

1) Humanist and Existential Therapy: An extension of humanist philosophical approach, these therapies capitalize on our human nature which is basically good but can get warped by self-imposed limits. The goal of existential therapy is to help clients cope with the inescapable realities of life and death, and the struggle for meaning. 2) Family and Couples Therapy: Since disorders develop in a social context and are sustained by the dynamics of the social context, the context (family) is treated. Family Therapy treats the whole family. Family Systems Perspective to treat individuals. Couples Therapy: moving away from the fix all the differences between the partners, learn to accept and live with the qualities that aren't going to change; all therapeutical theories represented.

Describe two basic types of culture.

1) Individualistic culture: influence on the concept of "Self"; Independence of the individual takes precedence over the needs of the group; "Self" regarded as autonomous; Self = collection of individual personality traits or occupation; Sense of self remains stable across situations. 2)Collectivist culture's influence on the concept of "Self"; Group harmony more important than the individual; "Self" is defined in terms of relations; Sense of self varies across social situations.

Compare the parenting styles of power assertion and induction in getting children to be good and learn self-control.

1) Power Assertion- Effects on children: ~Culture and Context important~Loving family relationships or Hostile and conflict ridden relationships, How the child interprets the fairness or unfairness of the parent is critical. When power assertion is simply parental bullying, cruel insults, and physical punishment: aggressiveness and poor impulse control, reduced empathy, child becomes angry and resentful. Often transmitted to the next generation: The way to discipline children is through aggression. 2) Induction- Parent appeals to the child's own resources, helpful nature, affection for others, and sense of responsibility; Explains how the actions of the child might hurt somebody else; Appeals to the child's helpful inclinations; Conclusion: Induction superior compared to power assertion parenting style.

List and explain the stages of Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

1) Sensorimotor Stage (birth to two years): Child learns though concrete actions (looking, touching, putting everything into their mouths, etc.) Thinking is just coordinating sensory information with bodily (motor) movements. Object Permanence: Understanding that something will continue to exist even if you cannot see it. 2)Preoperational Stage (two to seven years): Use of symbols and language accelerates, Lacks operational thinking (reasoning). Egocentric - can only see the world from their own frame of reference. Cannot grasp the concept of conservation. 3) Concrete Operations Stage (seven to twelve years) Can engage in concrete operations (rather than abstract thinking)Now understands the principles of: Conservation, Reversibly, Cause and Effect; Can categorize things; Can order things serially (e.g. smallest to largest, shortest to tallest); Can do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division; Has problems/makes errors when asked to think about abstract things, e.g. " patriotism." 4) Formal Operations Stage (twelve years on): Can engage in abstract thinking (like in college?); Can reason about situation they have not experienced first hand; Can think about future possibilities; Can systematically search for solutions to new problems.

List and explain the goals and principles of the schools of psychotherapy: psychodynamic therapy and behavior and cognitive therapy.

1)Psychodynamic Therapy: Explores the unconscious dynamics of personality to promote insight. Principles: Concentrate on deep unconscious processes rather than on superficial symptoms and conscious beliefs of other therapies; Encourage discussion of past experiences; Focus on the identification of recurring themes and patterns; Explore fantasies; Focus on patient's contradictory emotions and feelings. 2)Behavior and Cognitive Therapy: Focus is on changing current behavior and beliefs rather than insight into past conflicts, Substitute constructive thinking for self-defeating belief; graduated exposure, flooding, systematic desensitization, self-monitoring, skills training, and attentional breathing are all techniques that are used

Identify the stages of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

1)Trust vs. Mistrus - Baby- Person needs to develop trust to get along with others in the world. 2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - Toddler - learns to be independent without feeling too ashamed for their actions. 3) Initiative vs. Guilt - Preschool - Acquiring new skills but needs to control impulses. 4) Competence vs. Inferiority - School - Learning the skills of adult life without feeling inadequate. 5) Identity vs. Role Confusion - Adolescence - What am I going to be? An identity crisis leads to either a strong sense of self, or confusion and indecision about life. 6) Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young Adulthood - Have to be able to share yourself and make commitments. 7) Generativity vs. Stagnation - Middle Years - Continue to grow and be productive, or slip into selfishness and stagnation. 8) Ego integrity vs. Despair - Old Age - Seeking wisdom, spiritual tranquility, and acceptance.

Discuss the uses of antipsychotic drugs, antidepressants, minor tranquilizers, and lithium carbonate in treating emotional disorders.

1. Antipsychotic Drugs: Psychotic symptoms are associated with an excess of the neurotransmitter dopamine; Chemical Action: Reduce or block sensitivity of brain receptors that responds to dopamine, reduce levels of serotonin, and reduces symptoms like agitation and delusions, and can shorten the schizophrenic episode. 2. Antidepressant Drugs: Biological Connection in Depression: deficient production of serotonin and/or norepinephrine; Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors (Nardil) chemical Action: Elevate the levels of norepinephrine and serotonin by inhibiting or blocking the enzyme that deactivates norepinephrine and serotonin; Tricyclic antidepressants (Elavil) chemical Action: Elevate the levels of norepinephrine and serotonin by preventing the reabsorption (reuptake) of the neurotransmitter back into the sending neuron; older antidepressants have been found effective for severe depression. Antidepressant drugs are non addictive but can have unpleasant side effects 3. Tranquilizers: Chemical action: Increases activity of neurotransmitter GABA, temporarily helps people suffering from an acute anxiety attack. Beta-blockers are used as an "off label" treatment of anxiety. 4. Lithium Carbonate: Treatment of bipolar disorder, chemical action of this salt to reduce symptoms is unknown, have to carefully monitor because of toxicity.

Describe the five basic symptoms of schizophrenia.

1. Bizarre delusions 2. Hallucinations 3. Disorganized, Incoherent Speech 4. Grossly Disorganized or Catatonic Behavior. 5. Negative Symptoms

List the three factors thought to contribute to schizophrenia's development.

1. Genetic Predisposition 2. Prenatal Problems or Birth Complications 3. Adolescent abnormalities in brain development.

Summarize the problems inherent in treating psychological disorders with drugs.

1. Placebo Effect 2. High relapse and dropout rates. 3. Disregard for effective non-medical treatments. 4. Dosage problems and Unknown risks over time 5. Untested "Off-label" Use

Discuss the circumstances in which therapy can be harmful.

1. The use of empirically unsupported, potentially dangerous techniques. 2. Inappropriate or coercive influence by therapist which creates new symptoms for the client. 3. Prejudice or cultural ignorance on the part of the therapist. 4. Sexual intimacies or other unethical behavior on the part of the therapist.

Summarize the criticisms of psychodynamic theories in general.

1. Violates Principle of Falsifiability- impossible to confirm or disconfirm 2. Drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients is risky- an easily overgeneralize and Freud did not confirm his ideas with larger samples of people. 3. Basing theories of development on retrospective accounts (and fallible memories of adults) is also risky- memory is often inaccurate

Describe the social-cognitive learning approach to personality

A view that holds that traits result from a person's learning history and his or her expectations, beliefs, perceptions of events, and other cognitions. Reciprocal determinism: Interaction between environment and aspects of the individual, explains how can you have a core set of stable traits while still have your behavior vary across situations; combines nature and nurture Nonshared environment: Explains what makes kids in the same family turn out so differently; there are an assortment of experiences, including chance events, that are unique for each child (e.g. an inspiring teacher); Outside situations, peer groups, may differ between siblings

Discuss the ways in which abnormal behavior has been defined.

Abnormal behavior simply refers to statistically rare behaviors, while some mental disorders (e.g. anxiety and depression) are common. Person is not aware of the consequences of their actions and can not control their behavior. "Any condition that causes an individual great suffering, does not go away after a reasonable length of time, is self-destructive, seriously impairs the person's ability to work or get along with others, or causes the person to endanger others in the community."

Summarize the principles of humanistic psychology proposed by Maslow.

Abraham Maslow (Striving for self-actualization)- -Emphasis on positive aspects of human nature: joy, laughter, love, happiness; peak experiences -A rare moment of rapture cause by: achievement of excellence and/or the experience of beauty. -The Self-actualized Person: Personality development is a progression toward the state of self-actualization. Striving for a life that is meaningful, challenging and productive. Studied "healthy" individuals rather than patients to understand personality.

Summarize Freud's view of personality development.

At each stage of early childhood development, common specific events normally produce frustration, conflict, and anxiety. How the person deals with these issues become the foundation for their adult personality. Oral Stage(0-1 years old)- child is very dependent on others Anal Stage(2-3)- self-control is imposed on the body Phallic Stage(3-6)- most crucial stage in personality formation; genitals are the focus of sensations Latency Stage(end of phallic to puberty)- learning to live in society Genital State(puberty)- sexual energy reemerges in genitals but stronger

Ainsworth's study on separation

Ainsworth's Proposed Relationship Between Mother's Behavior and Infant's Attachment Pattern: The way in which the mother treats the baby during the first year. Mother's Behavior = sensitive and responsive, then Infant's Attachment Style = securely attached. Mother's Behavior = uncomfortable or insensitive, then Infant's Attachment Style = insecurely attached.

phobias

An exaggerated fear or a specific situation, activity, or thing. Social Phobias: Fear of situations in which you are observed by others, worry that you will say or do something that will humiliate or embarrass you, leading to rejection. Thought of a new situation is so fear producing that the person avoids the situation and thus increases their isolation and maintaining their fear. Agoraphobia: The most disabling phobia.Fear of being trapped in a crowed public place where help may not be available if the person might have a panic attack. Underlying fear: fear of being away from a safe place or person, May begin with a panic attack that is so scary the person wants to avoid any situation where that might occur again. ---> "the fear of fear" rather than simply a fear of specific places.

Explain the basic principles of Freud's psychoanalytic approach to the study of personality, and list the emphases shared by modern psychodynamic theories.

Argues that personality if formed through conflicts among 3 fundamental structures of human mind: ID, ego, and superego Emphasis on intrapsychic (within the mind or self) dynamics Motion and balance of system under the action of outside and internal forces

List and explain the fundamental principles of Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Assimilation: Fit new information into our present system of knowledge or categories. Accommodation: The child changes or modifies their existing category because of undeniable new information.

Summarize the principles of humanistic psychology proposed by Rogers.

Carl Rogers (The fully functional person): How you behave depends on your subjective reality, not the external world around you. -Tried to understand the "fully functional person" who: Experiences congruence (Harmony between their self-image and their true feelings, perceptions and wishes); Trusting, warm, and open to experience. -Unconditional Positive Regard: Important element in developing a fully functional person; Love and support for who we are without conditions (Parent can correct child's behavior without withdrawing love); Learn that behavior, not the child, is what is "bad." -Conditional Positive Regard: "I'll love you if you behave well and I won't love you if you behave badly."; Lead to suppression or denial of parts of their personality that are unacceptable to those they love. -Suppression leads to Incongruence: Sense of : Being out of touch with your feelings, not being true to yourself, low self-regard, defensiveness, unhappiness; Scores high on "neuroticism".

Summarize the study of core personality characteristics

Central (global) Traits: Characteristic ways of behaving; Individual possesses 5-10 central traits; Example: Some people see the world as a hostile and dangerous place. Secondary Traits: Changeable aspects of personality; Covers preferences (e.g. food, music), habits, opinions. Factor Analysis: Items on personality tests are statistically grouped into clusters that seem to be measuring underlying common factors; identifies clusters of correlated items.

Discuss the competing views on dissociative identity disorder's existence.

DID/MPD is "Real" Camp - DID originates in childhood as a way of coping with unspeakable, continuing trauma; "Splitting" of personalities occurs so that one personality handles every day experiences and the other copes with the traumatic experiences; Usually revealed through hypnosis or similar therapeutic technique. The DID "Is Not Real" Camp - "Dissociative amensia" - very little or any empirical evidence to support the existence of the mechanism which is suppose to cause victim to repress the ordeal and create multiple selves; There is evidence that clinicians may have been actively creating personalities through suggestion and intimidation; Before 1980, few cases of MPD reported in the world; After 1980, tens of thousands of cases, and almost all are in North America (we could try to blame it on tv); After the 1990's, with numerous lawsuits and scientific testimony that patients were influenced by their therapists, the number of cases dropped.

major depression vs bipolar disorder.

Depression that disrupts usual functioning; Symptoms: sad ,despair and hopelessness, lose interest or pleasure in usual activities, unable to "get going", feelings of worthlessness, diminished ability to concentrate, indecisiveness, low self-esteem, thoughts of death, physical changes, eating disturbances, sleep disturbances, fatigued and tired, agitation, twice as many women depressed; Many people experience a single episode, about half will experience recurrent bouts. Bipolar Disorder: A mood disorder in which episodes of depression alternates with mania (excessive euphoria) occur; Mark Twain, Charles Dickens, and other creative people and scientists experienced this disorder: Highs (Mania) - produced best work; Lows (Depression) - disastrous relationships, bankruptcy and suicide; DSM-5 puts Bipolar Disorder in own category between depression and schizophrenia; Symptoms and causes overlap; Common molecular variants among these three disorders; along with ADHD and autism.

anxiety states

Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Continuous, uncontrollable anxiety or worry, Feelings of foreboding and dread out of proportion to the likely possibility, Physical Symptoms: Restlessness, sweating, diahrea. Panic Disorder: Scary physical reactions like trembling, rapid heart beat, dizziness, hot and cold flashes, sweating, and feelings of unreality, Scary physical reactions lead to fear of dying, having a heart attack, losing control, or just plain "going crazy", Can last a few minutes to hours.

Describe the structure of personality according to Freud

ID= reservoir of unconscious energies and instincts; reduces tension and gains pleasure, tension builds and can be broken by reflex actions, physical symptoms, or mental images Ego= between needs of instincts and outside demand of society, "reality principle", represents reason and "good sense" Superego= Represents morality, judges wishes and activity or the ID-> guilt/shame and pride/satisfaction ID: "I want it RIGHT NOW" Superego: "You can't, it's bad for you" Ego: "Let's find a low fat or smaller version"

Define personality disorders

Impairments in personality that can cause great distress to an individual or impair their ability to get along with others and cause great distress for them. It also includes pathological traits such as self-absorption and excessive hostility.

Discuss the challenges to psychoanalytic theory made by Jung

Jung differed from Freud on the nature of the unconscious, archetypes, and the strength of the ego Collective Unconscious- Apart of the unconscious that contains the universal memories, symbols and images that shape the behavior of humankind. Archetypes-Common themes about human existence that are universal; Mythical figures that guide; mandala "magic circle" symbolize the totality of the self and the unity of life.Shadow archetype - the dark side of human nature reflecting prehistoric fears (animals and evil) Confidence in the forward-moving strength of the Ego- Ego has more influence on behavior than in Freud's theory; Future goals and desires to fulfill oneself are powerful motivators; Jung developed the notion of introversion and extroversion

Describe the impact of menopause and midlife on the physical and psychological well-being of men and women.

Mid-life folks reflect and reassesses, but mid-life is typically a time of psychological well-being, good health, productivity and community involvement. Male- Your authors conclude that testosterone drop gives a man a biological clock too, but males remain fertile although there is lower sperm count and greater chance of genetic mutation. They do not site any studies on male menopause. Female- Cessation of menstruation which occurs between 45-55.Physical symptoms - most notably, hot flashes. Negative View of the effects of menopause: Menopause causes depression and negative emotions, data was from women with either histories of depression or early menopause and a hysterectomy. Most view menopause positively: Few physical symptoms, Not have to worry about getting pregnant, Not have to worry about menstrual symptoms.

Distinguish between scientific and unscientific personality tests.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Unscientific)- Not Reliable - Score changes on subsequent tests Not Valid - Does not predict behavior on the job or in relationships, Moral: Many of the personality tests used by industry and government are nearly useless from a scientific standpoint. Objective Tests (Inventories)- Scientifically valid and useful in research Standardized questionnaires requiring workers to respond to multiple choice or true-false items. Provide information on needs, values, interests, self-esteem, emotional problems, and typical ways of responding.

Describe the problems in evaluating the effectiveness of psychotherapy

No control groups for scientific comparison. Possible placebo effect. Don't get testimonials from people who dropped out or got worse. When you put all that time, effort, and money into something, you believe it was worth it.

Explain how heritability is estimated

Official definition: "A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variation in a trait that is attributable to genetic variation within the group." Highly heritable traits can be modified by the environment. Clarifying Example--- Height is highly heritable Clarifying Example - Low heritability - table manners; Most of the variation you might see in a group is due to their upbringing.

What are the implictons of the "orchid/dandelion" distinction between children?

Orchid Children: Temperamentally difficult children (high distress and irritability) are more responsive to style of parenting (good and bad effects). Dandelion Children: Easy going babies do not benefit from good parenting nor suffer from bad parenting.

Discuss the scientist-practitioner gap.

Practitioners think therapy is more "art" than science. They claim: therapy not just a technique but a critical relationship, skill can only be acquired through clinical experience, and researchers oversimplify process when evaluating it. Scientists believe that something as complex as psychotherapy can be successfully studied. Scientists think practitioners should keep up with the empirical findings about: what techniques have been proven to work with specific problems and what is harmful.

Distinguish between projective and objective tests, and summarize the strengths and weaknesses of each in diagnosis.

Projective Tests: Ambiguous pictures, sentences or stories which the person interprets; Reveal unconscious motives, feelings and conflicts; Based on psychodynamic theory that unconscious thoughts and feelings will be projected onto the test. Benefits - establish rapport and enables the patient to open up about problems.Drawbacks - low validity (fails to measure what it is suppose to be measuring) and low reliability. Objective Tests (inventories): Standardized questions about behavior and feelings. Some tests assess specific psychological problems: Beck Mood Inventory: Major Depression: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): Personality and Emotional Disorders, Organized into ten basic clinical scales, More reliable and valid than projective tests, Inventories are only as good as their questions and how they are interpreted, Some, like the MMPI, do not adequately handle cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic differences of people, Has high rates of false positives, Responses may be reaction to a stressful situation rather than a mental disorder, Since based on scientific principles, inventories can be improved to take into consideration latest research.

Describe the purpose and limitations of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV).

Purpose: Provide clear descriptive categories so that we can achieve agreement on the disorder in order that it can be accurately studied and treated. Limitations: 1. Danger of overdiagnosis 2. The Power of diagnostic labels; People see person primarily in terms of the label; Label suggests problem is from within the person (mental illness as an inherent disposition belief) and people do not look for other causes of the distressing symptoms. 3. Confuses serious mental disorders with normal problems. 4. The illusion of objectivity and universality; Critics argue that DSM gives the appearance of science and objectivity to an inherently subjective process.

Evaluate the stereotype of psychological turmoil in adolescence.

Rate of violent crime by teens have been dropping since 1993, Self-esteem does not plummet in teens, Research indicates very little change in narcissism. Boys externalize: Aggression and Antisocial behavior. Girls internalize: Withdrawn, Blame selves for whatever, and Develop eating disorders.

obsessive-compulsive disorder

Recurrent thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) that trouble the individual and interfere with their life. Obsessions: Persistent, unwished thoughts or images that are frightening and/or repugnant. Compulsion: Ritualized, stereotyped behaviors carried out to avoid a disaster. Person realizes the behavior is senseless, but feels extremely anxious if they don't perform it.

Explain the defense mechanisms listed in the text

Repression- A threatening idea, memory or emotion is blocked from consciousness, but the person still knows it is happening Projection- Unacceptable or threatening feelings repressed then attributed to someone else Displacement- Emotions (especially anger) are directed at people, animals or other things that are not the real object of your feelings *Sublimation* If displacement serves a useful purpose Regression- Person reverts back to a previous phase of personality development -- that is, if an event overwhelms one's current coping strategies, the person may revert to strategies that worked in earlier phases of their life. Denial- The person does not even recognize that something unpleasant is happening

Summarize the principles of humanistic psychology proposed by May.

Rollo May (Existential search for meaning in life): Emphasized the difficult aspects of the human condition (loneliness, anxiety and alienation). -Adds existentialism to American psychology. Search for the meaning of life, Need to confront death, Necessity of taking responsibility for our actions. -Responsibility of free will can create anxiety and despair. We may escape from freedom into narrow certainties, and blame others for misfortunes. -Personality reflects the ways in which we: cope and struggle to find meaning to existence, use our personal freedom wisely, face suffering and death bravely.

Describe the changes in mental functioning associated with aging.

Score lower on tests of spatial abilities, reasoning, complex problem solving, and extreme skateboarding; Ability to produce and spell familiar words declines; Cognitive processing slows - older adults take a while to retrieve names and dates. Fluid Intelligence- Capacity for deductive reasoning and ability to use new information to solve problems, declines with old age. Crystallized Intelligence- The knowledge and skills built up over a lifetime, remains stable or improves over the life span.

Harlow's study on contact comfort

Separation and Security: Starts 6-8 months and goes to third year. Wary and fearful of strangers. Fearful when with primary caregiver temporarily leaves them. All children go through this phase. Cultural Influences: Affect how strongly felt and how long separation anxiety lasts. If raised with lots of adults and other children present, separation anxiety not as intense.

post-traumatic stress

Stress symptoms, including insomnia and agitation, are entirely normal in the immediate aftermath of any crisis or trauma. Most people who live through a traumatic experience eventually recover without developing long-lasting PTSD, but some have a preexisting vulnerability. Some lack the social, psychological, and neurological resources to avoid having preventable traumatic experiences in the first place or to cope with unavoidable ones.

Discuss how genes and environment affect temperament and its consistency.

Temperament is a disposition to respond to the environment in certain way. Temperament appears so early in life it probably has a genetic basis. Biological connection:When placed in mildly stressful mental tasks, reactive children show increased activity in the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system which is associated with physiological arousal; Basis of later traits of extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Conclusion - Environment moves temperament towards health but not to the other extreme.

Biological model of addiction

The biological model holds that addiction is primarily due to a person's neurology and genetic predisposition. Rather than biology causes addiction, perhaps addiction is the result of the abuse of drugs/alcohol. Example: Heavy alcohol use --> alters brain structure and function --> physiological dependence; Heavy use reduces receptors for dopamine or lowers endorphin levels; Increases craving for drug to compensate; Use is not for pleasure by to appease addiction craving; voluntary use for pleasure --->biological addiction/brain structure changes--->compulsive/involuntary use.

List the characteristics of dissociative identity disorder.

The emergence, within one person, of two or more distinct identities which have their own memories, preferences, traits, and problems.

Jung and the Object-Relations School

The need for attachment in early life highlighted the social nature of human development -Central problem in life is to find a balance between a need for independence and the need for others. -Adjustment to separation and losses. -The child's perception of other people, most notably a symbolic representation of its mother, rather than an accurate description of the person. -Male-Female Development: All children identify first with the mother, boys must break away from mother to establish a masculine identity, men's identity boundaries are more rigid, women's boundaries are more permeable.

Discuss the relative influence of peers on a child's personality.

Two environments - home and the world outside the home. When these environments clash, peer influence wins out. What it takes to get accepted by peers is more important than approval by family. Summary: Core personality traits may stem from genetic predispositions, but are profoundly shaped by powerful environmental influences.

Discuss some of the problems that arise in measuring heritability.

You can't measure heritability directly. It must be inferred by studying people whose genetic similarity is known. When trait is studied in similar environments, heritability seems high. When traits are studied where the environments differ, the proportion of genetic influence on individuals wanes Examples: Twins and adopted children