PSYCH 250 Exam #1

how genetic contribution is studied: concordance rates

% of instances in which both twins show a trait when it's present in one twin - expect differences based on twin status (fraternal vs identical)

3. period of the fetus (9th week-birth)

- "growth and finishing phase" - development discussed in terms of trimesters

Evans & English (2002): measures

- 3 psychosocial stressors: exposure to violence, family turmoil, & family separation - 3 physical stressors: crowding, noise level, & housing quality - socioemotional adjustment (child's mental health) - chronic stress (via 2 cardiovascular & 3 neuroendocrine markers)

definition and function of theory

- a theory is an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, & predicts behavior - they provide organizing framework for observations & produce hypotheses & offer practical guidance

third trimester (25-38 weeks)

- age of viability (22 to 26 weeks): age at which fetus can first survive if born early. 50/50 chance after ~24 weeks. brain matures extensively. cerebral cortex enlarges. behavior becomes more organized (e.g. sleep patterns). responds more clearly to sounds in external world - body systems become more complete & prepare for outside world: what happens? -> 8th month: layer of fat develops under skin. preparations for delivery, change position, lose coating

newborn crying states

- amount: spend ~ 2-3 hrs/day crying or on the verge - function: babies communicate physical needs - early patterns: different types of cries. hunger is most common cause. typically increases during early weeks, peaks @ ~6 months & then declines - impact: stimulate strong feelings of arousal & discomfort - several ways to soothe a crying infant: constraint, a little bodily movement (swaddling)

concern about medicalization of childbirth

- are we treating a natural process like a disease? - episiotomies (surgical cuts): needed for everyone? - fetal monitoring inhibits mobility

general premises of Piaget's cognitive developmental theory: assimilation & accomodation

- assimilation: kids incorporate new info into existing knowledge systems - accomodation: kids change existing knowledge systems to accomodate new info (ex: diff species of birds)

general prenatal risk factors: emotional stress

- associated with miscarriage, low birth weight, premature - less oxygen & nutrients to fetus - stress hormones; increase fetal heart rate & can heighten stress reactivity

autosomes vs sex chromosomes

- autosomes: regular pairs; 22 out of 23 total pairs - sex chromosomes: 23rd pair; determine sex of child

newborn's physical appearance

- average dimensions: ~20 inches, 7.5 lbs - attractiveness? often not at their attractive best - babiness features have appeal! (round faces, chubby cheeks)

collectivism vs individualism

- collectivism: people stress group goals over individual goals & value interdependent qualities, such as social harmony, obligations & responsibility to others, & collaborative endeavors - individualism: people are largely concerned with their own personal needs & value independence: personal exploration, discovery, achievement, & choice in relationships

general prenatal risk factors: maternal age

- complex relationship - greatest success rate? moms in their 20's. risks for women in their 30's aren't that different - after 40, increased risk for infertility, miscarriage, chromosomal defects (e.g. Down's syndrome) - several concerns about adolescent moms

Freud's 3 components of personality: ego

- conscious, rational, problem-solving part - emerges in early infancy - restricts id; masters & controls urges

premise of Skinner's Operant Conditioning

- consequences of a behavior determine whether or not it is repeated in the future - focuses on reinforcement: increases likelihood. positive: something added; negative: something removed - focuses on punishment: decreases likelihood

theories differ in their approaches to development: continuous vs discontinuous development

- continuous development: gradually adding on more, cumulative process: building on what was already there; starfish - discontinuous development & stage: new understandings emerge at particular periods. stage = qualitative changes. ex, mayfly: larva -> pupa -> adult

new born capacities: reflexes

- definition: an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation. organized behavior patterns that govern the newborn's movements - purpose: provide newborns w/adaptive responses to their environments before they can learn about the world

designs to measure developmental change: cross-sectional

- different age groups at one time point - no drop out, no practice effect - cannot examine individual developmental trend - cohort effects

reproductive technologies: reproductive frontiers

- doctors have used donor ova from younger women in combination with in vitro fertilization to help postmenopausal women become pregnant - today, customers at donor banks can select ova or sperm on the basis of physical characteristics and even IQ - scientists are devising ways to alter the DNA of human ova, sperm, and embryos to protect against hereditary disorders, techniques that could be used to engineer other desired characteristics

impact of teratogens is determined by 4 factors:

- dose: length & degree of exposure - genetic predispositions - presence of other factors - time exposure: sensitive periods; parts undergoing rapid development are especially vulnerable

general downside and upside of early brain plasticity

- downside: under-stimulation during critical years can have grave consequences -> underdeveloped & smaller brains - e.g., Romanian orphans - upside: malleable early brain more likely to recover from strokes & injuries - compensation: early preschool programs can help overcome deficits

period of the embryo: embryonic disk folds to form 3 cell layers (week 3)

- ectoderm: outermost; nervous system, skin - mesoderm: middle; muscles, skeleton, circulatory system - endoderm: inner; digestive system, lungs, glands

contributions & limitations of Piaget's cognitive developmental theory

- encouraged the development of educational philosophies & programs that emphasize discovery learning & direct contact with the environment - research indicates Piaget underestimated the competencies of infants & preschoolers - children's performance on Piagetian problems can be improved with training, findings that call into question Piaget's assumption that discovery learning rather than adult teaching is the best way to foster development

Evans & English (2002): design

- examined the environment of poverty, testing exposure to multiple risks & their impact on stress & socioemotional adjustment - sample: 168 U.S. households that fell @ or below federally-defined poverty lines AND 119 middle-income families; focused on child in grades 3-5; 97% white

findings of Crystal & Stevenson (1995): what is a bad kid?

- expected that perceptions of deviance, like perceptions of normalcy, would be influenced by sociocultural values - surveyed 200+ 11th graders & their moms in 3 locations: Minneapolis; Taipei, Taiwan; & Sendai, Japan - "think of someone you (child's) age who you would consider to be a 'bad kid.' describe what kind of person that would be" - responses coded & placed into 7 categories - found cultural differences in types of responses

experience-expectant vs experience-dependent brain growth

- experience-expectant: refers to the young brain's rapidly developing organization, which depends on ordinary experiences: opportunities to explore the environment, interact with people, & hear language & other sounds - experience-dependent: occurs throughout our lives. consists of additional growth & refinement of established brain structures as as result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across individuals & cultures

teratogens: paternal factors that matter

- exposure to certain toxins can lead to abnormal sperm, leading to birth defects or low birth weight - later paternal age associated w/some birth defects & w/autism: offspring of men > 40 yrs were 5.75x more likely to have autism compared w/offspring of men < 30 yrs - maternal age didn't relate to autism

second trimester (13-24 weeks)

- fetal growth: mother can feel movements; nearly all brain's neurons produced by trimester's end - vernix: white, cheeselike substance; covers fetus & protects skin from becoming chapped - lanugo: white, downy hair; helps vernix stick to skin

tenets of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development

- focuses on how culture is transmitted - higher mental functions grow out of social interactions & dialogues; cooperative dialogues - cognitive development as a socially mediated process

natural childbirth - goals & benefits

- goal is to make hospital birth as comfortable & rewarding for mother as possible - typical components: classes, relaxation, coach - benefits: moms report feelingmore in control

premise of Freud's theory of psychosexual development; role of drives and conflict

- governed by motives & drives that are internal & often unconscious (beyond awareness) - children move through stages in which they confront conflicts between inner needs & drives & external demands & expectations - how conflicts are resolved determines psychological adjustment & personality

differences between gross motor skills vs fine motor skills

- gross-motor development: refers to control over actions that help infants get around in the environment, such as crawling, standing, & walking - fine-motor development: has to do with smaller movements, such as reaching & grasping

homozygous vs heterozygous

- homozygous: alleles in the pair are the same - heterozygous: alleles in the pair differ

general premises of information processing theory (computer metaphor)

- human mind as symbol manipulating system through which info flows. use computer analogies to model. focus on steps involved in mental activities - not stagelike (not Piaget). more knowledge = more complex thinking. perceive change as increases in kids's knowledge base in a particular area. not global changes in thinking

nature of body growth during infancy: 3 patterns

- infants grow in spurts - infants plump up & fill out: baby fat - infants grow unevenly

general premises of Piaget's cognitive developmental theory: nature of change

- learning in stages; thinking becomes qualitatively different across these stages - seek equilibrium = balance between belief systems & info encountered in everyday world

general prenatal risk factors: maternal nutrition

- malnutrition can damage central nervous system, leading to fewer brain cells & a lower brain weight - low birth weight linked to adult diseases - recommend gain 25-30 lbs; multivitamin

Bronfenbrenner's 5 systems (environment consists of 4 nested/overlapping structures)

- microsystem: person's immediate environment; direct interaction - mesosystem: connections between microsystems (school & family) - exosystem: outside contexts that affect microsystem; don't include developing person (like school board) - macrosystem: outermost layer; cultural laws, values, customs. could eventually affect child - chronosystem: temporal component; change over lifecourse & history

premise of Bandura's social cognitive theory

- modeling/observational learning: results from observing the behavior of other people - humans as cognitive beings: active processing of info from the environment plays a major role in learning - modeling is a complex process: many factors govern decision-making, e.g. who to model? tend to model people that are powerful, attractive, salient, similar (wedding dance example). anticipated outcomes matter: who gets reinforced? do you have those skill sets?

how genetic contribution is studied: monozygotic vs dizygotic twins

- monozygotic (identical) twins: 1 zygote that divides into 2 individuals. share 100% of genes - dizygotic (fraternal) twins: 2 fertilized ova. share 50% of genes

Freud's 3 components of personality: superego

- moral & ethical component - develops from ages 3-6 (from caregivers) - includes conscience & ego-ideal - "how you should behave" **energy

Cesarean (C-section)

- nature: surgical procedure, typically w/regional anesthesia. mother awake - why needed? infant distress, medical emergencies, breech positions, failure to progress - prevalence: 5.5% of births in 1970; 32% of births in 2011. most common form of major surgery

premise of traditional behaviorism (stimulus-response associations) theory

- observable stimulus-response associations - classical conditioning (Watson)

theories differ in their approaches to development: organismic theories vs mechanistic theories

- organismic theories: change stimulated from within the organism, active participant - mechanistic theories: change stimulated by environment, passive **example of theory utility - June crying: ignore her, console her, set timer, etc.

general dynamics of conception

- ovulation: approx every 28 days - ovum survives 24 hrs, sperm cells survive up to 5/6 days - brief window! - fertilization = union of sperm & ovum; genetic material fuses

quality of caregiving has a big effect on brain development

- parental interactions & responses play a central role in setting up neural circuitry (e.g., playful interactions) - overstimulation can be problematic

changing notion of traditional childbirth

- past: home delivery, natural family event - current: hospitals, medical event

progress at end of first trimester (the 3rd month)

- physical structures become more complete - organs, muscles, nervous system organize & connect - behavioral changes in fetus - external genitals well-formed by 12th week - fetal heartbeat audible w/stethoscope

Evans & English (2002): findings

- poor children exposed more often to each stressor domain than middle-income children - poverty -> greater psychological distress & more chronic stress **more risk factors = less competence in various domains

Freud's 3 components of personality: id

- present at birth - represents biological needs/desires - requires immediate gratification; unconscious **newborn = all id

controversy about pain medication

- prevalence? some form used in 80+% of U.S. births - analgesics: relax mom & relieve pain (e.g., Demerol). cross placental barrier: baby may also be sedated - regional anesthesia: e.g., epidural. may prolong labor & cause trouble w/pushing

developments during weeks 4-8 (period of the embryo)

- rapid development of body parts & systems - 3 life support systems mature & develop rapidly

designs to measure developmental change: sequential

- several longitudinal or cross-sectional designs - by comparing people of the same age who were born in different years, researchers can check whether there is any cohort effect

contributions and limitations of the psychoanalytic perspective

- strength: emphasis on the individual's unique life history as worthy of study & understanding - psychoanalytic theory has inspired a wealth of research on many aspects of emotional and social development, including infant-caregiver attachment, aggression, sibling relationships, child-rearing practices, morality, gender roles, & adolescent identity - isolated, no longer in the mainstream of human development research - many psychoanalytic ideas are too vague to be tested empirically

nature of correlational design

- study of the relationship between variables - relationships can be positive, negative, or no relationship (positive = both variables increase or both variables decrease. negative = 1 variable increases, 1 variable decreases) - correlation coefficient: a statistical value that describes how strongly variables (events/characteristics) are related. range is +/- 1; 0 indicates no relationship. the closer to +/- 1, the stronger the relationship - limitation: cannot infer causation

consequences for preterm infants

- the appearance & behavior of preterm babies can lead parents to be less sensitive in caring for them; compared w/full term infants, preterm babies, especially those that are very ill at birth, are less often held close, touched, & talked to gently. at risk for child abuse

designs to measure developmental change: longitudinal

- the same group of participants are tested over a period of time - common patterns - individual differences in development - limitations - drop out, practice effects, cohort effects, cost, time-consuming

newborn sleep states

- time spent: spend greatest amount of time in sleep: 16-18 hours - alternate between REM & non-REM sleep: REM = rapid-eye-movement. in REM sleep, brain & body parts are active. 50% of newborn's sleep time. stimulation for brain. in non-REM, body is quieter

1. period of the zygote (germinal period)

- zygote: fertilized egg. duration = ~2 weeks, from fertilization to implantation - blastocyst - embryonic disk - trophoblast: amnion, placenta, umbilical cord, + 2 arteries & a vein - ends with implantation 7-9 days after fertilization

6 benefits of breast milk over formula

1. correct balance of fat & protein 2. nutritional completeness (breast milk is enough) 3. protection against disease: breast-fed babies have fewer respiratory & intestinal illnesses, fewer infections 4. digestibility (easy) 5. smoother transitions to solid foods 6. often cheaper, more immediate, safer

5 assumptions of the life-span perspective

1. development is lifelong (adults: aging, in parenting) 2. development is multidimensional & affected by multiple mechanisms (biological, psychological, social) & occurs in multiple domains: physical/biological growth (+ motor skills), cognitive (reasoning, thinking, memory, language), psychosocial (feelings, emotions, relationships, identity/sense of self) 3. development is multidirectional: a joint expression of growth & decline over time & within & across domains (art skills vs athletic skills) 4. development is highly plastic (open to change) at all ages 5. development is affected by multiple interacting influences: age-graded influences (influences similar for individuals in a particular age group [toddlers tend to walk ~1 y/o], makes them all similar to each other), history-graded influences (forces that influence the behavior & attitudes of individuals in a certain generation at a formative time in their lives - cohort. epidemics, wars, tech advances; everyone experiences the same thing at the same time. normative. ex: generational differences in parenting)

3 stages of childbirth: #1

1. dilation & effacement of the cervix: longest stage of labor, lasting an average of 12-14 hrs with a first birth & 4-6 hrs with later births. contractions of the uterus gradually become more frequent & powerful, causing the cervix (uterine opening) to widen & thin to nothing, forming a clear channel from the uterus into the birth canal (vagina)

3 components of developmental niche

1. everyday physical & social settings: size & type of living space, sleeping & eating schedules & locations, social conditions (resources, people, material goods), & daily activities of children 2. childcare & child-rearing customs 3. overall psychology of caregivers (goals, expectations, morals)

7 common types of teratogens

1. illegal drugs 2. tobacco/nicotine -> low birth weight 3. alcohol - all types matter 4. prescription & nonprescription medications 5. radiation 6. environmental pollution 7. infectious disease (e.g., German measles, HIV/AIDS)

3 reasons why formula is considered

1. medical reasons 2. historical trends 3. societal structures & barriers

characteristics/nature of reflexes

1. some have survival value - e.g., rooting (find nipple), sucking 2. some are precursors of later motor skills - e.g., stepping reflex - stimulate muscles, nervous system 3. some are remains from earlier versions of homo sapiens - e.g., Moro reflex (a startle response) 4. duration - most disappear during first 6 months 5. helpful for diagnosing early neurological problems

extent of poverty

15% of Americans live in poverty, 221% of U.S. children. often in single-parent families. generally involves cumulative, environmental risk exposure

3 stages of childbirth: #2

2. delivery of the baby: this stage is much shorter, lasting ~50 mins for a first birth & 20 mins in later births. strong contractions of the uterus continue, but the mother also feels a natural urge to squeeze & push with her abdominal muscles. as she does so with each contraction, she forces the abby down & out

trimester

3 equal time periods in the 9 month prenatal period

3 stages of childbirth: #3

3. delivery of the placenta: labor comes to an end with a few final contractions & pushes. these cause the placenta to separate from the wall of the uterus & be delivered in about 5-10 mins

teratogens: frequency of birth defects

5-8% of live births

Erikson's theory: ego identity

a basic sense of who we are as individuals in terms of self-concept & self-image

placenta

a disc-shaped mass of tissue; partial filter; permits food & oxygen to reach organism & waste products to be carried away

how genetic contribution is studied: behavioral genetics

a field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature & nurture to this diversity in human traits & abilities

classical conditioning

a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response. once the baby's nervous system makes the connection between the two stimuli, the neutral stimulus produces the behavior by itself

caregiving of preterm infants

a preterm baby is cared for in a special Plexiglas-enclosed bed called an isolette. temperature is carefully controlled because these babies can't regulate their own body temp effectively. air is filtered before it enters the isolette to help protect the baby from infection. physical needs that otherwise would lead to close contact & other human stimulation are met mechanically

what is development?

a process of age-related changes across the lifespan, changes in growth, feelings, patterns of thinking

gene

a segment of DNA along the length of the chromosomes; contains heredity instructions

general patterns of genetic inheritance: mutation

a sudden but permanent change in a segment of DNA

reproductive technologies: in vitro fertilization

a woman is given hormones that stimulate the ripening of several ova. these are removed surgically & placed in a dish of nutrients, to which sperm are added. once an ovum is fertilized and duplicates into several cells, it's injected into the mother's uterus - usually used to overcome fertility/reproductive problems

how does Erikson's theory differ from Freud's theory?

a. covers the lifespan into old age b. viewed personality development as a psychosocial process - roles of social interactions & culture (social rather than sexual drives) c. emphasized psychosocial crisis/conflict (8 stages). successful mastery results in a personality strength or virtue d. more focus on ego than on id

DNA

active biochemical substance that programs the cells to manufacture vital protein substances. chromosomes are made of DNA

general premises of Piaget's cognitive developmental theory: nature of child

active, naive scientist - saw kids as constructivist

genes come in different forms known as...

alleles

teratogens

any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period

general patterns of genetic inheritance: incomplete dominance

both the dominant & recessive allele are expressed

how is socioeconomic status assessed/measured?

by parental education, occupation prestige, & income

embryonic disk

cells on inside; become new organism

poverty creates many consequences for the child. effects on (#4)

cognitive functioning - cognitive & verbal skills - negative academic outcomes - diminished brain growth & development

birthing centers

combine intimacy of home birth w/medical technology of hospital - designed to accommodate entire process - delivery typically performed by licensed midwife - encourage preparation. focus on family & control

general premise of ethology

concerned with the adaptive/survival value of behavior & its evolutionary history - sensitive period: a time that is biologically optimal for for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences (applies to humans)

imitation

copying the behavior of another person

characteristics of ethnography

designed to understand a culture or a distinct social group through participants' observation - strength: gain valuable information beyond individual level - weakness: cannot be applied to individuals and setting other than the ones studied

epigenesis

development results from ongoing bidirectional exchanges between heredity & all levels of environment

evocative genotype/environment correlation

different genetically-based attributes evoke certain responses

poverty creates many consequences for the child. effects on (#1)

discipline & parenting - stress reduces ability to parent effectively - single-parent: may provide less supervision

general patterns of genetic inheritance: dominant-recessive

dominant gene in pair overrides recessive gene

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

encompasses a range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure

general premises of Erikson's theory

environment controls behavior. emphasizes role of experience

stress of poverty weakens the family system. families often confronted with multiple issues (#4)

fewer cognitive enrichment opportunities, both @home & in their neighborhoods

stress of poverty weakens the family system. families often confronted with multiple issues (#3)

fewer neighborhood resources (parks, supermarkets) - more likely to attend schools that are inadequate

general patterns of genetic inheritance: genomic imprinting

genes chemically marked or imprinted & will behave differently depending on whether they came from mother or father (diabetes in 1 parent)

genotype

genetic make-up, set of genes inherited

natural/quasi experiment

groups of participants are carefully chosen to ensure that their characteristics are as much alike as possible. lack of random assignment substantially reduces the precision of research

infant brain development: neurons

have nearly all existing neurons @ birth

how genetic contribution is studied: kinship studies

heritability estimates are determined through kinship studies, which examine patterns of behaviors & traits in family members - e.g. adoption studies, twin studies

newborn sensory capacities: taste & smell

highly developed sense of taste - they like sweet. able to communicate taste & odor preferences. some odor preferences are likely innate. attracted to odor of mother's lactating breast

blastocyst

hollow, fluid-filled ball of cells

infant brain development: big development

in infancy: connections b/t neurons - amazing growth of neural fibers & synapses - experience & stimulation play key role - eventual synaptic pruning: unused & unnecessary synapses are eliminated

reproductive technologies: surrogate motherhood

in vitro fertilization may be used to impregnate a woman (a surrogate) with a couple's fertilized ovum. alternatively, sperm from a man whose partner is infertile may be used to inseminate the surrogate, who agrees to turn the baby over to the father. the child is then adopted by his partner. in both cases, the surrogate is paid a fee for her childbearing services

stress of poverty weakens the family system. families often confronted with multiple issues (#1)

inadequate housing & dangerous & unhealthy neighborhoods - households with more defects, rodents, inadequate heat - more polluted environments; air, water, toxins

niche-picking/active influence

individuals seek out environments most compatible with their genetic predispositions - is more central as children age

gene-environment interaction

individuals, because of their different genetic makeups, will differ in their reactions to qualities of the environment - genes influence environments to which we are exposed

operant conditioning

infants act, or operate, on the environment, and stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again (relating to reinforcers & punishments)

field experiment

investigators capitalize on opportunities to assign participants randomly to treatment conditions in natural settings. control over the treatment is usually weaker than in the laboratory

newborn sensory capacities: vision

least mature of newborn senses. visual acuity (fineness of discrimination) is limited

common effects of teratogens

low birth weight, prematurity, miscarriage, underdeveloped brain

independent variable

manipulated to see its effect on the dependent variable

how genetic contribution is studied: heritability estimates

measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors - CANNOT be applied to a single individual - NOT a precise statistic - personality traits (e.g. extraversion): rates typically range from 0.4-0.5

stress of poverty weakens the family system. families often confronted with multiple issues (#2)

more household disruption, daily hassles, frequent crises - exposed to greater levels of violence, family disruption, divorce - change residences more often, 5x more likely to get evicted in 1 yr, greater instability in peer relationships (smaller social network)

2. period of the embryo (2-8 weeks): rapid change & development

most rapid prenatal changes - ground work for all body structures & internal organs is begun

infant brain development: growth of cerebral cortex

much of this growth takes place in cerebral cortex: largest brain structure

general patterns of genetic inheritance: polygenic inheritance

multiple genes interact to produce a characteristic

neurotransmitters

neurons send messages to one another by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters, which cross the synapse

cephalocaudal trend

organized pattern of physical growth & motor control that proceeds from head to tail

trophoblast

outer ring of cells; will develop into these 3 life-support systems: amnion, placenta, & umbilical cord

kangaroo care

parent's body functions as a human incubator. kangaroo skin-to-skin contact fosters improved oxygenation of the baby's body, temperature regulation, sleep, breastfeeding, alertness, & infant survival

passive genotype/environment correlation

parents provide environment influenced by own heredity - because they're genetically related, child may be predisposed to be responsive to this environment

proximodistal trend

pattern of physical growth & motor control that proceeds from center of the body outward

general premise of the ecological systems perspective

person develops within a multi-layered system of relationships (influenced over time). how are intrafamilial processes affected by extrafamilial conditions?

poverty creates many consequences for the child. effects on (#2)

physical health status

newborn sensory capacities: hearing

prefer complex sounds such as voices. can distinguish almost all sounds in human languages. can locate & orient to sounds @ 2 months. slow

epigenetic transmission of maternal stress

prenatal exposure to the biological consequences of severe maternal stress can induce epigenetic changes, through methylation, that impair functioning of the body's stress response system

period of the embryo: neural tube

primitive spinal cord & brain

infant brain development: myelination

process in which neural fibers are coated w/an insulating fatty sheath (myelin); improves message transfer (driving -> flying)

amnion

protective covering; encloses organism in amniotic fluid, a cushion & temperature regulator

general patterns of genetic inheritance: X-linked inheritance

recessive gene carried on X chromosome in 23rd pair - women are protected; men are not protected

habituation

refers to a gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation

random assignment

refers to equal distribution of various individual characteristics across different groups. allows for control over possible confounding variables

characteristics of systematic observation: naturalistic observation

researchers observe the behavior of interest in the field or natural setting - strength: examine participants in natural settings - weakness: cannot control condition

chromosomes

rodlike structures inside cell nucleus that store & transmit genetic info; 23 pairs in each cell, including autosomes & sex chromosomes

umbilical cord

rope of tissue that connects placenta to developing organism; the anchor

characteristics of self-report: clinical interview

self reports ask research participants to provide information on their perception, thoughts, abilities, feelings, attitudes, belief, & past experience. clinical interview: flexible conversation, investigator obtains a complete account of the participant's thoughts - strength: obtain a lot of information in a short time - weakness: too much flexibility can be a double-edged sword

characteristics of self-report: structured interview/questionnaire

self reports ask research participants to provide information on their perception, thoughts, abilities, feelings, attitudes, belief, and past experience. structured interview: each participant is asked the same question in the same way - strength: efficient data collection - weakness: shallow information compared to clinical interview

newborn sensory capacities: touch

sensitivity to touch & pain is well-developed @ birth. helps stimulate physical & emotional development

gametes

sex cells (sperm and ova aka egg). hold 23 chromosomes instead of 46

poverty creates many consequences for the child. effects on (#3)

socioemotional functioning - greater risk of displaying behavioral & emotional problems - risk for less positive peer relations, lower self-esteem, higher anxiety

general premise of developmental neuroscience

studies the relationship between changes in the brain & the developing person's cognitive processing & behavior patterns

resilience

the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development. 4 broad factors seem to offer protection from the damaging effects of stressful life events: personal characteristics (genetics, temperament), a warm parental relationship, social support outside the immediate family (strong bond with a competent, caring adult), and community resources and opportunities

cohort effects

the effects of cultural-historical change on the accuracy of longitudinal & cross-sectional research findings. results based on one cohort (individuals developing in the same time period, who are influenced by particular historical & cultural conditions) may not apply to other cohorts

developmental niche

the interaction of components that affects what goes on within the microsystem & determines the unique world of the child. 3 components

characteristics of systematic observation: structured observation

the researcher sets up a laboratory situation in a way that the behavior of interest will be evoked - strength: equal opportunity to display the behavior of interest - weakness: may not yield participants' typical behavior

SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)

the sudden, unexpected death of an infant less than 1 year of age that has no identifiable cause & remains unexplained after thorough investigation

phenotype

the way an individual's genotype is expressed in observable characteristics

use of doula

trained to provide continuous physical & emotional support to the mother

Apgar scale

used to assess the newborn's physical condition on 5 criteria, each rated 0-2: heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, reflex irritability - timing? ratings given at 1 & 5 mins - what do the numbers mean? 7-10 indicates good physical condition; 3 or below signals an emergency

theories differ in their approaches to development: contributions of nature vs nurture

view of the determinants of development - nature: genetic, inborn qualities inherited from parents - nurture: learning & experience

characteristics of clinical/case study method

well-suited to studying the development of certain types of individuals who are few in number but vary widely in characteristics - strength: rich insights into factors that affect development - weakness: cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant

dependent variable

what is measured

glial cells

~ 50% of brain volume. responsible for myelination