PSYCH 311 EXAM

Carver, 2003

Some evidence that being in a good mood may reduce effort at a boring task but not if participants instructed to give it full attention (Bodenhausen et al., 1994)

what visible support looks like?

Girme, Overall & Simpson, 2013 covert, obvious support given, power imbalance, focused on problem, sense of who the provider and recipient is. amplifies danger of recipient feeling, inadequate, incompetent and dependent and indebted to the provider.

nurturant support

emotional support - comfort or console, expressing love and affection, reassurance, expressing sorrow or regret for partners distress, empathy. Esteem support - compliments and emphasizes partners abilities, expresses agreement with partner, tries to alleviate by highlighting barriers to change. Used most commonly and positive outcomes seen cross culturally

benefits of support

emotional, informational or instrumental (tangible) resources provided by romantic partners to help deal with life's challenges. 1) protects individuals from the negative psychological and physiological effects of stress 2) promotes healthy functioning by facilitating the achievement of personal growth and goals majority of research is on romantic relationships because it is the main source of support and often cannot be compensated for by others. Bad support in romantic relationships affect the person more than close relationships. However, close relationships have the same effects and results can be generalized to close relationships

subtyping

encountering people that are inconsistent with stereotypic acts literature shows that we tend to view these people as not being part of the stereotypical group but as part of a different, distinct category. Eg- Obama - was not seen as a typical african american but a african american president allows people to maintain stereotypes. counter stereotype act - seen as an exception to stereotype rules

what type of support is beneficial?

esteem support - less risks in overprovision, not necessarily more helpful but had less costs. Reassuring individuals capability

Cantor & Mischel, 1979

example of spreading activation zoo animals to birds to kea to flies and very smart when we go to the zoo we know what to expect and know that dangerous animals are not dangerous and less frightening. organised in different levels of abstraction *hierarchically organized* - networking at different levels of ideas/abstraction tells us what to expect when faced with different situations

Tannenbaum et al., 2015

fear - can promote positive health and safety behaviours. Eg- drunk driving ads but can have an emotional cost

Kahneman, 1999

"Objective" Subjective well being error related to memory - solution was he removed this by measuring moment by moment to measure current mood, during the experience. Then averaging these moments to get final score. affect measurement of a lever green = positive, yellow= neutral (midpoint) through to red =negative "Affectometer" overall evaluations - different from average of moment by moment evaluations - peak end effect

Bargh, 1994

"four horsemen" of automaticity and controlled processes (2 stage p) automatic= lack of awareness unintentional efficient uncontrollable controlled= awareness intentional inefficient -- resource dependent controllable

why do women endorse benevolent sexism over time?

"women higher in psychological entitlement should be particularly enticed by benevolent sexism because it justifies provision and praise from men as expected paternalistic behavior and does not require women to reciprocate the reverence or material gains, which men provide. it does not emphasize men's superiority over women or cast men as deserving of praise and provision. Thus, benevolent sexism does not promise men direct benefits but provides men benefits indirectly through maintaining men's societal access to power, status, and resources" Sibley & Overall, 2014

limits to hedonic treadmill

*Deiner, Lucas & Scollen, 2009* though habituation occurs to negative and positive emotions, we come back to a positive set point, not neutral. Long term differences occur in national well being, which suggests people aren't adapting to their country's situations - (no habituation) *Helliwell et al., 2012* showed differences between countries with the most satisfaction and the least satisfaction. - Factors such as average income, life expectancy, sense of freedom, widespread corruption, social support - lack= low satisfaction Therefore, this gap of satisfaction between countries shows that people do not always adapt tor habituate to negative situations.

how do stereotypes change?

Hewstone, 1994 - subtyping when inconsistent acts from stereotyped group are performed typically and is dispersed among group. This is difficult to achieve and explains why stereotypes are maintained in society.

three barriers to social change

1) boundary permeability - how easy or difficult it is to leave your group - affects if we engage in social change - eg- difficult to change gender or ethnicity. 2) stability of differences - how stable the group is or has been through time - eg- caste system - persistent for long periods of time and likely to endure for a long time. 3) legitimacy of differences - if comparison is fair - eg- if a sports team won fairly not by cheating, or if rich people earned their money fairly. If the group is in a high status because of an illegitimate or unjust cause, the group is more likely to rebel or change status.

ideomotor effect

Bargh, Chen & Burrows, 1996 If stereotypes are universal and schema's guide our affect, behaviour and cognitions (ABC's), then priming effects behaviour and cognition (priming occurs from stereotypes and learnt knowledge) therefore, by activating schemas we can affect behaviour studies have proven this theory. - Bargh, Chen & Burrows, 1996. Mussweiler, 2006 summary - stereotypes can affect behaviour (Bargh, Chen & Burrows, 1996) and behavior can affect stereotypes (Mussweiler, 2006).

Maisel & Gable, 2009

14 day daily diary study of couples asked about sharing negative events and recorded support -- analyzed invisible and visible support invisible support - only less cost and effective when recipient perceived responsiveness from partner more harmful when perceptions of responsiveness was not present - greater sadness, insecurity and less connectedness invisible support may be more positive because regular care is given - not out of the ordinary support suggests that support depends on the needs of recipient - responsive support

Devine, 1989

2 stage process of stereotypes - studies study demonstrating knowing the content of stereotypes. -- does everyone know? 1st study prejudice and knowledge of stereotypes where measured. -- modern racism scale, then asked to list all the stereotypes they know about african americans. - content of steretypes. high vs low score on modern racism scale each category reported content of stereotypes -- there was no significant difference between content/knowledge of stereotypes. -- differences in prejudice where present. problems with this study - self presentation biases, deliberating what stereotypes they have -- controlled process - they have the ability to choose what they write down. 2nd study priming study parafovea presentation - words flashing on the screen - so quick that participants are unable to read words. treatment: 80% of words where stereotypes associated with african americans. 20% neutral words. control: 80% neutral, 20% african american stereotypes. knowledge structures should be activated and implicitly processed by parafovea. PARAFOVEAL PRIMING Modern racism scale - high vs low neutral story presented - possibility of hostility from protagonist but presented ambiguously participants then had to evaluate the protagonist - recorded hostility and negativity perceived - mood could impact negativity, therefore this is measured. Hostility measures stereotype levels. results: treatment group rated protagonist as more hostile. *Primes increased hostility ratings*, despite participants not being able to process primes consciously *levels of prejudice, did not moderate this effect* study 1 showed there is no difference in awareness of stereotypes study 2 demonstrated the effect this can have impact on judgment what distinguishes between high and low bias? = control to overcome automatic responses of stereotypes

Estrada, Isen & Young, 1997

44 physicians who had been practicing for an average of 14 years positive mood induced for half of group by giving them candy, but weren't aloud to eat it. given symptoms and asked to figure out what disease it was 62% reached the correct diagnosis no difference between groups BUT good mood group solved it twice as quick. They showed much less anchoring - quicker to drop initial diagnosis when evidence showed diagnosis as incorrect.

Mussweiler, 2006

Automaticity study/ ideomotor effect can behaviours affect stereotypes? 3 studies but only 2nd study looked at in the lecture study 2- stereotypes of the elderly bike pedelling speed -normal vs slow trait - neutral vs stereotype Afterwards, participants read a story about a character that was forgetful. Then were asked to match characteristics they thought were associated with the character. Characteristics were either associated with elderly eg- forgetful, slow or neutral words eg- friendly, nice. results: no difference in the non stereotypic category in both slow and normal pedaling conditions. Participants in the slow condition evaluated character as much more forgetful than those in the normal pedaling condition summary - behaviour can activate stereotypes

stereotypes

Allport, 1954 Whether favorable or unfavorable - an exaggerated belief associated with a category based on exaggerated group differences - research shows that the differences between most groups are not nearly as much as people perceive the differences to be. differences within groups are much larger than differences between groups. eg- male and female heights -- there are quite a few men with average "female heights" and quite a few women with typical "male heights" -- distributions overlap considerably. Biological differences between finger length - middle finger tends to be longer than fingers beside it - yet there is considerable overlap between the two groups comparing finger sizes - even though the middle finger tends to be longer.

Moya et al., 2007

Benevolent sexism and women's reactions to protectively justified restrictions. Method: research on women psych students working with men convicted of partner abuse. Male partners of the women studied write justifications of why they should not participate in this study. Random allocation to one of three groups. No justification condition - bad idea, even if she wanted to do it I would convince her not to etc. Hostile justification - she can't do it because this is not a situation where a woman, compared to a man, could be effective. Men could handle it much better. Personalized protective justification (BS) - it is not safe for her, I think she would find it really stressful. I would be very worried about her safety and wellbeing in this situation. Measured women response to their partner - (of how cherished, flattered and protected they felt). Results: Both high and low BS women had lowest positive response in HS justification. Both also reacted equally as positive to the BS justification However, high BS women had the highest positive response when no justification was given. In Study 2, when women's actual romantic partners opposed their participation in a practicum counseling dangerous men, most reacted positively to a personalized protective justification (BS) ("I am concerned for your safety"), but only benevolently sexist women reacted positively when no justification was given. women high in BS viewed the no justification reason most positively -- suggests own psychological reasoning of justification is most effective for BS women. Does BS legitimate inequality? -- Which one worked best? --- NOT BS all the time, it is dependent on the women's level of BS. Highest positive feelings in the condition of high BS women and no justification. - In this condition, women seem to be willing to trade some degree of their independence based on level of BS. WHY? --- if women are higher in BS, they infer justification, in their own minds, they develop reasons why there partner is stopping them from doing it. The justification in their minds is more powerful and compelling than HS and BS or any other justifications. More internalization, forced to come up with your own reasons of why your partner is behaving that way. - suggests high BS women are more influenced/controlled by ambiguous reasons of not to do things by their partner. implications - shows that high BS women do not mind being discriminated against if it is for a protective function, attempts to control behaviour blends affection and dominance - reflects nature of ambivalent sexism

Costa & McCrae 1980

Big five personality traits Extraversion may be related to positive affect. more exploration, greater sensitivity to rewards - greater happiness because they seek out more rewards. Rewards come from social interactions

relationship between extraversion and SWB.

Big five personality traits - Costa & Mcrae Extraversion may be related to positive affect. more exploration, greater sensitivity to rewards - greater happiness because they seek out more rewards. Rewards come from social interactions

Visible support

Bolger et al., 2000 support is clearly perceived by recipient and supporter benefits- feel supported and loved by partner boosts closeness and satisfaction costs- increases prominence of support need - makes the problem feel bigger than it actually was perceived creates feelings of incompetence feeling like a burden and indebted to partner worsens distress & undermines coping increased risk of negative effects, reveals costs that support can bring

invisible support

Bolger et al., 2000 support is provided by partner but not perceived by recipient benefits - doesn't draw attention to difficulties avoids indebtedness boosts self efficacy reduces negative affect enhances coping

Fredrickson, (2001)

Broaden and build hypothesis

Elsbach & Kramer, 1996

Business school ranking study -- social creativity study. how do people manage when their school is ranked higher or lower? - identity threat qualitative interviews of different university = top, middle and low rankings themes identified - focusing on other positive dimensions (new dimension comparison) eg- we may not have performed as well as the other universities but we are a public institution compared to other public institutions. - public institution as new dimension comparison focusing on another outgroup (change outgroup) eg- we were not as low as other public schools, most top ranked where private but we are public and higher than other public schools. - other public schools as outgroup

Benevolent sexism

Celebrates intimate interdependence between men and women in a subjectively positive or adoring way. For this reason it seems overtly positive, believing that women should be protected and cherished. Paternalistic view that women are weaker but nicer than men. "A good woman should be set on a pedestal by her man." "Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess" Seems positive but leads to negative outcomes, maintaining gender inequality in society. Implying low competence - leads to views of women being at fault for rape.

implications of 2 stage process

Devine, 1989 Parafoveal prime study - african american stereotypes 1) older structures are activated more because of the nature that it has been there longer and activated more, becomes more automatic and harder to activate controlled processing - this is why older people tend to be stuck in traditional ways and find it harder to learn new things or change there thinking. inherent response is more difficult to change over time. 2) automaticity: knowledge does not equal endorsement This means that people differ on endorsement more, not knowledge. Automaticity means sometimes you cannot control stereotypes, even though you do not personally endorse them, they can still be activated overlap between knowledge and endorsement = more biased

knowledge ≠ endorsement

Devine, 1989 knowledge develops first with stereotypes -- socialized with cues in our environment - eg- disney movies and gender roles socialized. Pairing attributes with different groups. Endorsement develops later on- critical evaluation skills overcome automatic processes of stereotypes.

negative emotions

Do have some positive characteristics - narrows attention to focus on a problem - eg- being anxious about exams, motivates you to study. can promote instant action Denial - can be negative to deny negative emotions Tannenbaum et al., 2015 - fear Schwartz & Loewenstein, 2017 - sadness Greenaway et al., 2016, Ojala 2012 - anger Fredrickson & Losada, 2005 - positive/negative, 3:1 ratio

Kilianski & Rudman, 1998

Do women approve of benevolent sexism? Method Study in America- ambivalent sexism inventory three male profiles were given for participants to read and assess favorability of each portrayal. - BS, HS and non sexist profiles Results- Over half the women rated the portrayed BS male as more favorable than neutral. BS male had a mildly favorable rating Overall the non sexist portrayed man was seen as more favorable than the BS male. HS had lowest favorability - highly unfavorable Showed that women approved BS but not HS. Women less likely to perceive correlation between BS and HS - approving BS while disapproving HS. HS and BS are positively correlated but most women do not realise it. Research shows link between BS and sexual harassment. - This link needs to be more recognized for women and men that have BS and see it as harmless.

Headey & Wearing, 1989

Dynamic equilibrium theory Personality set point SWB coming back to a set point. similar to hedonic treadmill but suggests that different people have different set points.

minimal group paradigm

Ease of group formation - interactions identifications competition self interest this research came and said you do not need any of the above characteristics to have group formation -- minimal group paradigm -- simple group categorization eg- friendly rivalry between auckland uni and AUT. even if we have no interaction with students from aut, not competing over scarce resources, not much self interest involved. Two groups create an identity easy to create group biases Tajfel, 1971 et al., - did a study to show this

Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, (2014).

Experience sampling method measured feelings throughout the day

illusory correlations

False belief about the relationship between two variables Overestimate the co occurrence of rare events - eg- we think having lots of money and happiness are related because both of these events are rare. Or associating rich people as being rude, because rich people are the minority, their rude acts are more noticeable and remembered, leading to the assumption that all rich people are rude or if someone is rude, they must be rich. or assuming two rare events are associated such as having people treat you better if you are pretty. or me associating indian families as abusive - two rare events - family as a minority in my life and abuse not seen happening normally race and undesirable acts are remembered more. allows us to misremember things and maintain stereotypes in society. study - Hamilton & Gifford, 1976

Ellemers et al., 1988

First boundary permeability study Participants were categorized on their ability, based on a individual abilities test - ability = high, moderate or low they were then placed into a high or low status based on their ability They were then placed in a permeable or impermeable group. -- participants were allocated to either a permeable group, meaning it was easy to change group and move into another group. Or a impermeable group, making it impossible to change groups. individual ability manipulation - participants that were told they were the best, average or worst in their group. The high status group were told that they were assigned to the second best group low status group were told that they are assigned to the second worst group. After participants were assigned to the different conditions, they were asked how satisfied they are in their group. DV- group satisfaction Results: participants in the high status group had no difference in satisfaction in the permeable and impermeable conditions. the low status group showed equal satisfaction as the high status condition when they were in the impermeable condition. Those that were in the low status group and had the permeable condition, had significantly lower satisfaction than the other three conditions ingroup identification: no difference in permeable and impermeable conditions of high status group. lower identification than high status group for impermeable low status group but not as low as the permeable condition - least likely to identify with group. summary: low status and permeable (changeable) conditions lead to feelings of lower satisfaction and identification with the group. Impermeability (unchangeable) had the same level of satisfaction as high status and not as low identification with low status group. Therefore it is more beneficial to be in a permeable condition then you are more likely to be motivated to change if in a low status group. eg- homeless people probably think they cannot change there condition (impermeable), therefore are more satisfied and identify with the group and are less likely to change.

What is broadening?

Fredrickson (2000) "having a wider array of perceptions, thoughts, and actions, with the consequences of broadening being flexible, creative and unusual thinking.

broaden and build hypothesis

Fredrickson (2001), showed that positive emotions tend to broaden people's thought-action supply. Therefore encouraging creativity and positive risk taking. - open mindedness joy - broadens by creating the urge to play interest - creates the urge to explore contentment - creates the urge to reflect good things in our lives, plan for future, savouring experiences pride - sense of achievement and motivate and envisage positive future events love- creates recurring cycles of play, exploration, savouring experiences with loved ones. When we explore and take positive risks, we make friends/resources who will be there for us in sad moments. Related to survival - exploring and gathering resources then having enough support and resources in times of scarcity. hypothesis deducted from subcategories of psychology and other studies

Lenton et al., 2001

Gender stereotypes study study list: two lists given to two groups, Male and female - traits associated recall - 10 seen words and 36 unseen words from the study list. critical lures: male or female traits asked if it was a seen or unseen word from the study list. eg- cheerleader associated with females and engineer associated with males. Results - people primed with the male study list, misremembered male critical lure words being on the study list. people primed with the female study list, misremembered female critical lure words being on the study list

invisible support example

Girl going blind short film not wanting help or to feel like a burden husband helps her without her knowing, girl feels more competent like she is achieving tasks on her own.

contextual support

Girme, Overall & Simpson, 2013 When recipients were highly distressed, visible support was beneficial However, when there is low distress, visible support was associated with negative effects and discussion was less successful in helping them achieve their goals. Invisible support when highly distressed showed no effects short term however, longitudinally invisible support showed that it was more effective long term, the more people achieved their goals. Compared to visible support which did not show goal achievement effects longitudinally Invisible support has less cost but can be less effective for immediate support high distress situations. Visible support can be effective in high distress situations but has dangers. Maisel & Gable, 2009 - study on negative effects from invisible support with no responsiveness and positive when there is responsiveness. People's needs may change within interactions, therefore responsiveness to emotions is required. Timing and delivery of support matters. - responsive support

three types of invisible support

Girme, Overall & Simpson, 2013 1) subtle, indirect and covert. Avoids recipients feeling like they are receiving support. Subtly creating contact eg- fixing recipients clothes or hair - doesn't seem correlated to emotional problem at hand 2) De-emphasizes who is providing and who is receiving support. Avoids recipients feeling indebted and incompetent. Conversational tone, indirect guidance via information seeking of issues,solutions using words such as "we, are, us" eg- recipient wants to lose weight - instead of saying "go to the gym", saying "my sister found this great zumba class and lost weight." - indirect advice - allows recipient to grab info they think is helpful, they have the agency - autonomy support, helpful for mentoring, teaching and supervising. 3) Shifts locus of problem off the recipient and onto common experiences. Fosters efficacy by focusing on how others have coped and achieved goals. Using own/others similar difficulties to indirectly provide solutions.

Is sexism a form of prejudice?

Glick & Fiske, 1996 Depending on how you define prejudice Allport's (1954) influential definition of ethnic prejudice. Prejudice, Allport defined it as hostility towards a group, based upon a faulty and inflexible generalization. Sexism has typically been seen as hostility based on sex, however, ambivalent sexism theory shows benevolent sexism as viewing women positively if they adhere to traditional gender roles and conform to expectations of women being "good and pure". Because benevolent sexism has a positive perception on the surface, prejudice is not often associated with it. However, there are long term harmful outcomes from stereotyping women with this restricted view. Benevolent sexism turns into hostile sexism and results in negative views of women that do not maintain tradition gender roles and expectations. Patriarchal societies show protective attitudes towards women putting them on a pedestal in the roles women have as wives and mothers, and an idealization of women as romantic love objects. These are the attitudes we define as characterizing benevolent sexism. Hostile sexism is categorized as negative attitudes towards women, seeing them as incapable and unfit to have power over economic and political domains. Benevolent sexism , on the other hand, rationalizes confining women to domestic roles. Paternalism and sexism - viewing women as incompetent adults and needing a male figure to support and protect them. "Women are to be loved, cherished and protected" - implies male needed for protection. Husband maintains economic and social status, protector of the home - in traditional marriage. Heterosexual hostility - women seen as using sex to dominate men, associated with hostile attitudes towards women. ASI - ambivalent sexism scale survey Hostile and benevolent sexism is strongly, positively correlated - for both male and females In group and out groups - loving some women and hating other groups of women who don't conform to tradition gender stereotypes

Boen & Vanbeselaere, 2000

How permeable? - similar study to Wright et al., 1990 study initial strategic reasoning test stable and unstable condition - stable = participants told that test is indicative on how you will perform on upcoming tasks . Unstable = told that test is not indicative of ability for upcoming tasks but will still be used to put in high or low status group. permeability - open - everyone can make it to high status group. minimal - only 1 person can make it to high status closed - no one can make it to high status DV- willingness to take - individual normative action - retest collective normative action non-normative accept results - open permeability -- individual normative = 53% vs collective normative = 29% minimal -- no difference between individual and collective action. --- even if 1% can make it, there is the same amount of people in each group taking indiv and collective action closed -- individual = 30% vs collective 43% -- higher collective than individual responses, only when boundaries are completely closed and impermeable

devine, 1989 study 3

Is the 2 stage process inevitable? content and control 1) participants wrote down all the stereotypes that they know exist about african americans -- priming stereotypes 2) personal thoughts about african americans -- controlled process - override negative automatic stereotypes 3) levels of prejudice assessed before these 2 steps, using modern racism scale - high vs low prejudice DV - number of thoughts listed - either positive or negative Results - people high on prejudice listed more negative thoughts than positive. - much more willing to express prejudice in controlled processing. People low on prejudice show exerting control on negative stereotypes, listing more positive thoughts than negative. - People low on prejudice showed they override automatic processes of stereotypes. Showing that they do not endorse these views, critically evaluating the associations that are present in society from media etc. - exerting control, requiring conscious effort. People high on prejudice, do not express control on automatic processes. both have same knowledge of stereotypes -who is truly non-prejudiced? - research is currently working on this.

Glick & Fiske, 2001

Looked at ASI findings across 19 nations - In countries where men have more HS, women have higher levels of BS than men, (Cuba, africa and Nigeria= highest HS for men and highest BS for women). This is the protection racket effect where women are forced to endorse BS because there is more threat, therefore they endorse that women should be protected because of high degree of threat from men. Societies with high levels of BS also have high levels of gender inequality BS and HS are complementary and highly positively correlated cross culturally. Women, compared with men, reject HS but endorse BS, especially in the most sexist cultures. By rewarding women who conform to traditional gender roles and punishing those who do not, BS inhibits gender inequality

Glick & Fiske, 1996

Looked at the correlation between HS and BS Method: present data from six studies conducted to develop and validate the ASI- ambivalent sexism inventory.The ASI taps 2 positively correlated components of sexism that nevertheless represent opposite evaluative orientations toward women: sexist antipathy or Hostile Sexism (HS) and a subjectively positive ( for sexist men ) orientation toward women, Benevolent Sexism (BS). Results: Overall ASI scores predict ambivalent attitudes toward women, the HS scale correlates with negative attitudes toward and stereotypes about women, and the BS scale (for nonstudent men only) correlates with positive attitudes toward and stereotypes about women. Both HS and BS are highly and positively correlated

Fredrickson et al., 2008

Loving kindness meditation - thinking of loving people you love then extending this love to enemies. Meditation group had higher reports of positive emotion and SWB compared to no treatment group. Suggests that they may have increased set point - suggests that set point can be manipulated.

Sibley et al., 2007

METHOD: cross sectional study - undergraduate and postal surveys - looking at differences between HS and BS cross lagged effect - is it just for women, does it occur in women that have higher ideologies in other things. SDO = expresses the competitively driven motivation to maintain or establish group dominance and superiority. Men high in SDO would therefore be highly sensitive to and reactive to competitiveness in gender relations, high SDO = men's inevitable perception of women as competitively challenging male dominance will result in overt hostility to such challenges expressed in the items of Glick and Fiske's (1996) measure of hostile sexism. RWA = the (explicitly held) belief that men and women fulfill different and complementary, although unequal, social roles within the broader contexts of society. RESULTS: men's SDO - social dominance orientation (controlling for RWA) was moderately positively associated with HS and extremely weakly related to BS Right wing authoritarianism (RWA) - more predictability and positive correlation in BS -- leads to social conformity, challenging social norms and BS = viewed as threatening.

is BS sexist?

Mary Jackman 1994 - paternalism and stereotypes - in relations that are structure instantly, dominant person will gravitate towards paternalistic ideology, coercive love (controlling), power inequality, subordinates are offered rewards of love and affection when conforming to these roles, hostility when not conforming. BS is a form of prejudice - textbook definition of prejudice is wrong - maintaining social inequality. BS in a broad scale leads to negative views of women that challenge gender roles. - Glick & Fiske 1996

effect of positive emotions on information processing

Myers (2000), argued that positive emotions are associated with sociability, optimistic goal striving and healthy immune systems. Oatly (1996), suggested that happiness induces cooperation and perseverance if we see emotions as signals then it is important to return to baseline, otherwise habituation occurs. Fredrickson (2001) - broaden and build hypothesis Fredrickson and Branigan, 2005 - shape categorizing and goals for week task Isen, Daubman & Nowicki, 1987 - candle solving task Estrada, Isen & Young, 1997 - physicians solving disease and candy Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2006 - positive mood induced by candy, eye movements and visual attention broadened Reed & Aspinwall, 1998 - induce good person and caffeine study Baron, 1990; Carnevale & Isen 1986 - improved negotiation skills Fredrickson et al., 2008 - loving kindness meditation *I think this is the most important thing to study for the exam*

social creativity

Obtain a positive view of the ingroup by redefining or altering the elements of the comparative situation. different aspects of this = new dimension comparison - focusing on happiness vs wealth (Elsbach & Kramer, 1996) change outgroup - eg- I may be poor but not as poor as this group (Elsbach & Kramer, 1996) change evaluation - eg- black is beautiful movement - not focusing on different dimension but changing the meaning of negative group into a positive group. business school ranking study - Elsbach & Kramer, 1996 doesn't try to change objective resources of the group but aims to make the group look more favorable

Hostile sexism

Overt justification of, or attempt to preserve male dominance. Is strongly adversarial in tone, generally expressing hostility towards women who appear to be failing to conform to traditional gender roles. "Many women get a kick out of teasing men by seeming sexually available them refusing male advances" "Once women gets a man to commit to her, she usually tends to put him on a tight leash"

Watson et al., 1998

PANAS Positive and negative Affect Scale - relied on memory and construction of past states measures feelings in different situations

how is subjective well being measured?

PANAS - Positive and negative Affect Scale - relied on memory and construction of past states - Watson et al., 1998 Experience sampling method - measured feelings throughout the day. Csikszentmihalyi & Larson (2014). "Objective" Subjective well being- measuring emotions during the event, moment by moment. Reduce peak end effect. Kahneman, 1999

Baron, 1990

Participants exposed to pleasant scents set higher goals on a clerical coding task and were more likely to adopt an efficient strategy for performing this task than subjects not exposed to such conditions. In addition, males (but not females) reported higher self‐efficacy in the presence of pleasant artificial scents than in their absence. Participants exposed to pleasant scents also set higher monetary goals and made more concessions during face‐to‐face negotiations with an accomplice. Finally, subjects exposed to pleasant scents reported weaker preferences for handling future conflicts with the accomplice through avoidance and competition. Summary- more efficient strategy in completing task, males had higher self efficacy, set higher goals, more negotiations, less preference reported for avoidance and competition in conflict situations.

Fredrickson & Losada, 2005

Positive/negative ratios 3:1 - positive to negative - promotes realism and productivity

Rudman & Heppen, 2000

Research shows that women who implicitly has chivalrous views of male romantic partners or future husbands, had less ambitious career goals. This presumably is because of the underlying expectation that the man will be the provider of resources.

Deiner & Larson, 1984

Showed similar levels of SWB in different situations - coming to a set point

hedonic treadmill and adaptation

Strong reaction to novel stimuli, then becoming habituated over time Habituated = becoming used to novel experiences. Lottery winners and accident victims or controls. Rated past, present and imagined future happiness and pleasure from 7 everyday experiences Winners = less pleasurable ratings for everyday activities than controls -- contrast effect -- ordinary activities are less important or exciting because of novel stimuli Winners and controls = not different for happiness ratings -- winners have habituation accident victims = happiness sig higher than controls - contrast effect - seeing the past as more positive (exaggerated effect) all three had happiness above average midpoint. hedonic treadmill - coming back to positive endpoint in satisfaction. Setpoint is usually positive overall - bit above midpoint According to this theory - periods of lack and then abundance, abstinence and indulgence = more happiness eg- fasting and feasting or winning lottery - better to not spend it all at once - habituation can occur and bankruptcy happens to maintain hapiness Brickman et al. 1978

Sibley & Wilson, 2004

Study on sexual promiscuity and HS and BS. Participants told that this is a study on memory and story casual flings in clubs, female character enjoying casual sex. -- memory test, multichoice questions - to see if they read it -- personal impression of the character - evaluation questionnaires -- BS and HS -- dv- women enjoys casual sex or does not-- results - dramatic difference - when women enjoy casual sex, hostile sexism goes up and benevolent sexism goes down. When women do not enjoy casual sex, benevolent sexism goes up dramatically and hostile sexism reduces. Showing that women receive extremely different levels of hostile and benevolent sexism based on there subtype of sexually promiscuous or not, competing with men or not. People can be both BS and HS - ambivalent- dependent on the type of women

social identity theory

Tajfel & Turner, 1979 personal to social identity continuum -- self concept -- I am vs we are. Your current environment influences whether you identify more with your personal identity vs social identity - eg- if you are uni you will associate more with the social identity of a uni student, compared to if you are at church you would associate with the social identity of a christian. If you are at uni you probably won't behave in the same way you do at church (raising your hands, praying out loud etc.) and you likely won't act like a student at church (doing assignments, reading textbooks etc) group component of self concept relevance to social change - ease of group formation -- minimal group paradigm (Tajfel, 1971)

Abrams et al., 2003

The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Method: Participants were randomly assigned to read either the acquaintance rape or the stranger rape scenario Acquaintance rape scenario - Couple at a bar, women starts kissing the man and man starts to take clothes off, women tries to stop the man but man forces and hold her down stranger rape scenario - women meets with friends, male stranger follows her, tries to walk her home and get her number but women ignores him, man eventually forces her and has sex with her. Scale assessing victim blame - "how much do you think the women should blame herself for what happened?" "how much sympathy do you have for the women?" How much control do you think the women had over the situation?" DV: BS and HS conditions - do they make a difference Results: individuals who were high in benevolent sexism were more likely to blame the victim of an acquaintance rape than were low benevolent sexism individuals. Both BS and HS have higher victim blame in acquaintance rape scenario. Higher the BS and HS levels, the higher victim blame for both scenarios. The higher BS levels, the higher victim blame levels for acquaintance rape condition. BS has higher victim blame for both stranger and acquaintance rape (scale of victim blame starting at 2). People with high BS, express a higher level of victim blame for the acquaintance rape scenario. People with low BS tend to not blame the victim for being raped. BS = more at fault for rape implications: HS reasoning for victim blame tends to be mediated by beliefs that the women really wanted sex with the rapist and reasoning for BS victim blame mediated by beliefs that the women was acting inappropriately. BS tend to view women as responsible because they hold beliefs of how women should act in a good and respectable way, conforming to traditional gender roles. If they do not, they are seen as transgressing norms and therefore, blame the victim. In contrast, hostile sexism seems to function as a means to rationalize sexualviolence (e.g., the victim really wanted sex)—hence the significant relationship between rape proclivity and hostile sexism Supports Glick & Fiske's ambivalent sexism theory. Acquaintance rape occurs more than stranger rape, in these cases victims are more likely to blame themselves and not report because of fears of negative reactions from relatives and friends, because they are more likely to victim blame if they hold BS or HS attitudes, this perpetuates injustice in society. Benevolent sexist attitudes also appear to have a pervasive influence within the criminal justice system. police officers, judges, lawyers, and medical personnel are not very supportive of acquaintance rape victims and tend to portray victims to be at blame. Benevolent sexist attitudes are often perceived as prosocial and therefore go unchallenged in broader society (Glick & Fiske, 1996). For example, Kilianski and Rudman (1998) found that women tend to prefer a man who is described as benevolently sexist in comparison with a hostile sexist man. BS and rape myths Men high in BS believe that women should be cherished and protected by men, But this only occurs when women are idealized as "good and pure". Research shows that there are subtle differences in blame, that the acquaintance rape scenario the women is slightly to blame. higher hostile sexist but not benevolent sexist male participants showed significantly greater proclivity to commit acquaintance (but not stranger) rape. when rape is seen as more acceptable there are higher levels/proclivity of rape The proclivity scale consisted of the following items: "How likely is it that you would have behaved like Jason in this situation?" "How sexually aroused would you have felt in the in the situation?" "How much would you enjoy getting your way in this situation?" "Do you agree that in sexual encounters women like to be taken?" and "How likely is it that Kathy eventually enjoyed being taken in this situation?

two stage process

There are two stages of stereotype processing automatic processes vs controlled there is universal knowledge of stereotypes affect ABC's - Ideomotor effect multiple stereotypes - activate one, inhibit the other. controlled processes - disruption = stereotype usage

Isen, Daubman & Nowicki, 1987

Tv bloopers - good mood Area under the curve (math) video - neutral mood Then asked to attach candle to the wall, in a way that would not drip wax on the floor. Matchbox,candle and drawing pins given. 75% of TV bloopers group got it correct 20% of Area under the curve group got it correct. good mood allowed people to think creatively and outside the box

Greenaway et al., 2016, Ojala 2012

anger with hope righteous anger to injustice - needs to be accompanied by hope to be effective -- can encourage collective action Hornsey & Fielding-- ambivalence of hope - can be associated with denial

Can support have costs?

across research there are inconsistent effects - sometimes receiving more help associated with less satisfaction, lower goal achievement and mood. Depends on degree to which people wanted support - intrusive support, overprovision = negative, greater dissatisfaction -- more support is not always better action facilitating support - most risk to have overprovision Information support usually is more harmful if provided too much Tangible support - need to be sensitive to what the person really needs - can be negative. Too much emotional support can also be harmful, activates that the individual needs more support than they actually do. Catrona et al., 2007 - example study

Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2006

based on Fredrickson's broaden and build hypothesis - positive emotions broaden our mind, expanding thoughts and open mindedness (Fredrickson, 2000). positive mood induced by candy, but participants were not aloud to eat until after the task control group had no positive mood induced eye movements (saccades) and visual attention measured three pictures where shown, one in the centre and two on either side of periphery Results: The group that had positive mood induced had a more frequent number of saccades, longer looking at peripheral images than control group, showing heightened attentional breadth controls focused more on the central image. Suggests positivity helps broaden and increase openness, looking at the bigger picture and elevating curiosity and exploration.

why are relationships and support important to study?

because it is connected with wellbeing Stable and supportive relationships = good outcomes -- connectedness, buffer impacts of stress, promote better physical health, facilitate personal growth, live longer dysfunctional relationships = poorer psychological outcomes -- more likely to die earlier, rejection, grief, loneliness, cultivate attachment insecurities, risk of psychological and physical health problems, interferes with personal growth and fulfilment. Fletcher et al., (2013)

Why does Benevolent sexism seem positive

because it is subjectively positive and does not appear ''sexist''; benevolent sexism expresses reverence and care toward women and promises women will be protected and provided for by men indeed, research has shown that these attitudes can improve satisfaction in romantic relationships. However, these attitudes which contribute more broadly to the maintenance of gender inequality. Because BS endorses positivity only when women uphold traditional gender roles - taking care of the home, remaining pure, maintaining domestic roles. This devalues women in political and economic roles and allows hostility towards women who aim to reduce gender inequality in society and the workforce Sibley & Overall, 2014

methodological approaches (support)

behavioural observation - video record couple interactions, measure using behavioural coding. experimental hybrid- manipulate type of support provided by partner, to examine how the type of support affects recipient outcomes. dyadic diaries - daily record of stress and support provided from partner over time (usually 3 weeks). Looks at whether the presence of partner affects recipients outcomes. observation and diary more naturalistic and allows looking at results over time.

how are schemas and stereotypes similar?

both are organizational knowledge structures but stereotypes are an exaggerated belief based on expectations Both are socially learnt and from experience and expectations when activated, both influence our attitudes, behaviours and cognition (ABC's) both operate by using spreading activation - when one topic is activated, other associations are activated/primed. (Collins & Loftus, 1975) hierarchically organized - expectations in a zoo - different expectations at different points at the zoo both simplify our environment stereotypes are a special type of schema

Fredrickson and Branigan, 2005

clips inducing emotions 104 students watched one of five films Penguins - waddling, swimming, jumping amusement Nature - fields, streams, mountains serenity and contentment Witness - group of young men taunting and insulting amish people anger and fear Cliffhanger - prolonged mountain climbing accident anxiety and fear sticks - abstract display of colored sticks piling up neutral asked to describe the strongest emotions they experienced, then did a judgment task of shape similarity matching. Global bias - mostly picking the overall shape as similar local bias - mostly picking within the shape as similar people in a good mood tended to have a global bias. -- looking at the big picture bad or neutral mood -- local bias. -- focus on the small things Then asked what they want to do this week - happy mood = more ideas and ambitions, larger thought action, than negative moods.

McCoy & Major, 2007

co-manager vs clerk - assistant for the co-manager -- high vs low position. Women choose to apply for either job while applications where read, participants were asked to perform an unrelated task. prime - meritocracy vs neutral -- scrambled sentences task. Feedback given to participants that they did not make the co-manager but clark position. -- false feedback. DV: attribution - why they didn't get the position. Options given: discrimination - wasn't picked because of gender and internal attribution - wasn't picked because I wasn't good enough/didn't work hard enough. Results: Those who were in the neutral prime condition had no difference in discrimination or internal attribution reasons. Those primed with meritocracy where much less likely to think they didn't make the high status position because of discrimination but tended to attribute it to internal reasons. summary - meritocracy leads to a focus on the self and downplaying the effect of discrimination.

peak end effect

cold water test Task 1 - 60 seconds in 14 degree water Task 2- 60 seconds in 14 degree water then 30 secs in 15 degree water. 65% of people chose to repeat task 2 over 1 Task 1 ends on an unpleasant note whereas task 2 ends on a slightly more pleasant note, therefore overall seen as more pleasant. -Kahneman, 1999 Stage challenge study - 5 month experience, ended with high excitement, interest and nervousness - forgetting the bad moments - Trayes, Harre and Overall, 2012 ending can be positive or negative - if ending is negative eg- in sickness - we remember it more and forget the positive and vice versa

Catrona et al., 2007

couples video recorded, discussing personal stress. coded support recipients - to the extent to which they expressed distress and indications of wanting advice -- type of support sought coded support providers behavior- emotional, informational and negative --type of support provided end of discussion - support recipient rated feelings of partner understanding, care and validation - responsiveness RESULTS - the more people disclosed emotions -- emotional support = had positive effects and more support perceived Informational support = perceived as negative - irrespective of gender. negative behaviour= lower perceived responsiveness -- HOWEVER, the negative perception was not as high compared to informational support. -- this may be due to the negative nature of stress and negative support working on the same negative domain. the more people requested for advice -- emotional support = null association, no positive or negative association. However, shows perceptions of care and positive relational aspect. Doesn't help but doesn't hurt. informational support = positive association and satisfaction. However, less positive effect size than disclosing emotion and providing emotion negative behaviour = least satisfied and harmful for perceptions of responsiveness Therefore, we need to track and be aware what type of support is needed

negative support

criticizes or blames partner, expresses negative affect - anger, frustration, displeasure, reject or invalidate partners view, insist or demand that the partner uses their approach

social competition

direct competition to improve the ingroup status no longer trying to compare to other groups or trying to leave group but sticking with your group to try and improve status collective action to change society as a whole. Eg-protests civil rights movements land marches

when is stereotyping likely to occur?

disruption of control = stereotype usage occurs. motivation, stress and cognitive load -- activates automatic processes and allows stereotypes and biases being under a lot of stress could allow stereotype usage to occur - automatic processes activated and control inhibited. -- stress If people just don't care, they will use automatic thoughts -- motivation When people are given too much cognitive information, automaticity will be activated -- cognitive load

Dangers of invisible support

don't get benefits of perceived support and responsiveness often, recipients may need visible support if invisible support is perceived as partner not caring or being responsive this will undermine relationships example study - Maisel & Gable, 2009 - negative effects associated with invisible support and lack of responsiveness.

Dardenne et al., 2007

french women in a job skills training workshop METHOD- unemployed educated french women - job training workshop. Male instructor presents himself in one of two ways -- saying things that view women as the weaker sex (HS) - eg - industry is now restricted to employ a certain percentage of the weaker sex, I hope you won't get offended as women get easily upset, don't believe what the feminists say on TV. Other content (BS) - industry chooses women instead of men in cases of equal performance, you'll work with men but don't worry they will cooperate with you on the job, you'll get extra time and help. None- control condition Women were measured on how sexist they thought the instructor was and measured task performance - logical puzzle solving ability DV = the number of correct answers. Measured: Perception of sexism, performance, Motivation to perform and no. of items attempted . RESULTS: BS was not perceived as sexist but seen as more sexist than no sexism hostile = highest perceived sexism. Lowest performance in BS, lower than control highest performance in HS No differences in motivation to perform. impaired performance due to benevolent sexism was fully mediated by the mental intrusions women experienced about their sense of competence BS, increases rumination/ mental intrusion - exposure to bs -- repetitive negative thoughts. -- additional cognitive burden detected. Motivation is maintained but mental intrusions are primed by BS ideologies of being the weaker sex and having lower competence, not being able to do as well as man.

Reed & Aspinwall, 1998

good mood induced by asking participants to write down the good things they did this week. Neutral group - no prime Both groups were high caffeine users. They were told that caffeine causes a dangerous disease. Good mood group were more willing to consider threatening information than neutral group - read article about negative effects of caffeine. Also more willing to reduce caffeine intake. Implications - if advertising for wanting to change negative behaviours/ threats. Make them feel like a good person first, then they will be more willing to consider and change.

Oatly, (1996)

happiness induces cooperation and perseverance with the activity, compared to negative emotions that signal a problem with the activity at hand.

Brickman et al., 1978

hedonic treadmill and adaptation/habituation

Glick et al., 2000

hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Method - ASI across 19 nations Results: Male dominance promotes HS, Male dependence on females promotes BS. Levels of BS and HS predict gender inequality across nations. - cross cultural and complementary extremely strong positive correlations between HS and BS across nations women showed less HS but had higher BS than men in countries with highest HS - protection racquet effect HS - four nations with the highest mean sexism scores (Botswana, Cuba, Nigeria, South Africa). BS undermines/ prevents women from attempting to achieve equality GDI and GEM BS - studied in 19 countries -- highest was Cuba - lowest levels in Australia, England and Belgium. gender empowerment measure (GEM) -- amount of women in economic and political positions - the higher GEM = higher gender inequalities Gender related development measure (GDI) -- relative life expectancy, years of schooling, literacy and standard of living for men and women. Higher score = greater gender equality in human development HS in men = lower GEM and GDI -- higher inequality within nations. Evidence that this might be causal not just correlational. -- Mark Brandt (2011) - change in sexism over time -- sexism might drive gender inequality Higher BS in men in nations = higher gender inequality High HS in men and high gender inequality = high BS in women -- protection racket -- ideologies that will help protect women from HS threat -- high threat towards "bad" women who do not conform to gender roles, HS forces women into BS because of the high risk of violence and threat - therefore they endorse BS because they should be cherished and protected broad theory of social control. Levels of sexism correlate with economic inequality

Bargh, Chen & Burrows, 1996

ideomotor effect studies Study 1 - scrambled sentence task elderly vs neutral primes. end of study - lift down the hall - experimenter timed how long it took participants to walk to the elevator DV- time it took to walk to lift results: elderly prime = took longer to walk to lift than neutral prime. (By half a second) study 2- replication study from same researchers found the same results. study 3- researchers conducted a 3rd study, Subliminal and different (Racial) stereotype. Boring computer task - odd or even number of circles identified on the screen. crashes after 130 trials - took a photo of participants face when computer crashed and when experimenter says they have to redo task. subliminal prime - african american vs white face flashed on the screen before computer crashed. - automatic prime - not consciously processed because not enough time was given for the picture to be processed. - only 2 participants reported seeing a face but could not identify the race. Participants could not guess that the study was about race in any way in the debriefing afterwards Then outsiders and experimenters rate aggression levels based on facial expression. Results - african american prime showed higher hostility ratings from experimenter and blind coders. summary- stereotypes can affect affect, behaviour and cognition

Bodenhausen et al., 1994

if participants instructed to give it full attention they are more likely to consider importance and focus this is when positive mood can lead to decreased productivity

legitimacy

illegitimacy triggers collective action, decreases acceptance and helps non- normative action occur in conjunction with unstable and impermeable conditions - perceptions that there is a chance for change

How are stereotypes maintained?

illusory correlations memory biases subtyping

action facilitating

information support - offers advice and suggestions, asks for questions, looks for causes, generates solutions or options, provides facts or news about the situation, provides perspective, positively reframing issue tangible support - offers to join in action to reduce stress/issue, performs task or do something to help, take one or more of partners responsibilities while partner is under stress, willingness to help.

Bolger et al., 2000

invisible support study dyadic diary study for 3 weeks couples that where studying for a stressful law exam. Recorded levels of stress and support provided and received and whether it was practical support. compared both partners perceived support - contrasted visible and invisible support. visible - partner says they provided support and recipient says support was provided by their partner. invisible - partner says they provided support but recipient says support was not provided by their partner. RESULTS- how did affect depressed mood? on days when partner did not provide support, depression was increased. visible support - no change in depression but better than receiving no support. - less effective invisible support - greatest reduction in depression this study showed that invisible support was associated with positive effects more than visible support.

when does subtyping occur?

is likely to occur when disconfirming acts are concentrated vs dispersed and when member is atypical (vs typical) (Hewstone, 1994)

Boen & Vanbeselaere, 2002

legitimacy of differences study finding game testers that would be suitable for the particular task of testing new game. Reasoning abilities test. false feedback given - all told that they didn't make it one condition was because - the other group outperformed (legitimate) other group was told they didn't make it because the other group outperformed but they may have cheated. But still get to be the game testers (illegitimate) status, permeability, ability and legitimate conditons DVs - 5 response strategies - individual vs collective: normative and non normative action or accept. results: no difference between individual and collective normative response rates whether illegit or legit. participants were more likely to accept in the legitimate condition than non legit condition. participants in the illegitimate condition were more likely than the legitimate condition to respond in non-normative ways (social competition, social change)

Jason Headley

nail in the head video offers advice to men who just want to solve the problem when women just want emotional support - don't try to fix the problem, just be there for her emotionally, even if the problem is as obvious as the nail in the head. illustration of Catrona et al., 2007 study

Ellemers et al., 1993

legitimacy of differences study similar study to Boen & Vanbeselaere, 2002 collaboration test - told they were all assigned to low or high status group but all were told they are in low status group. legitimacy conditions- one group told they were outperformed by other group (legitimate) other group told they did better but manager decided to go with the other group (illegitimate) legitimacy, stability and permeability, status DV's - 5 response strategies ingroup identification results: only when participants were in the illegitimate, impermeable and unstable group, they maintain group identification all other groups show decrease in group identification legitimacy group - all lose ingroup identification significantly summary - if your low status group is perceived to be treated unfairly and illegitimately, it increases ingroup identification if your low status group is perceived to be treated legitimately or due to fair procedures, it leads to ingroup disidentification

Fletcher et al., (2013)

main reference for support section

effects of support by intimate partners

more emotional and less practical support = greater relationship satisfaction and greater perceived support. Positive mood and self esteem goal achievement and relationship satisfaction - concurrent and longitudinal. negative support - lower perceived support = lower satisfaction, greater risk of dissolution, poorer conflict exchanges - concurrent and longitudinal lower perceived support = lower mood, self esteem, goal achievment. however, too much support can have costs...

responsive support

not always easy - some people are better at figuring out what is needed in the situation: empathic accuracy - better at reading thoughts and feelings gender differences - women are seen to be better at timing and delivery attachment security - may inhibit the way people can do this. some people are harder to be responsive to: attachment insecurity - eg- avoidant - tend to withdraw even when they need support. seek support in ineffective ways - people with depression seek reassurance for relational needs constantly, which may push supporters away because of constant need for support. Partners need to support each other: reciprocity and balance - to reduce feelings of indebtedness and dependency giving and receiving is critical for health and wellbeing the burden of invisible support - person can feel unappreciated and ignored

types of support

nurturant action-facilitating negative

schemas

organizational knowledge structures that help frame our expectations about the world operates via spreading activation - Collins & Loftus, 1975, Cantor & Mischel, 1979 schemas are descriptive not normative hierarchically organized - networking at different levels of ideas/abstraction Cantor & Mischel, 1979

life satisfaction

overall happiness compared to measuring emotions from specific times and events life satisfaction scale most people rate they are fairly satisfied

how is sexism different from other types of stereotypes?

people forming heterosexual relations rely on on another and women tend to endorse beliefs that promotes BS -- Henry Kissinger other stereotypes tend to show prejudice which typically is defined as showing hostility towards outgroup. because of heterosexual relationships, women are only in the ingroup if they conform to traditional gender roles. Showing benevolent sexism beliefs that appear positive, believing that women should be cherished and protected. However, if women do not conform, they become part of the outgroup and hostility is shown (hostile sexism). - Glick & Fiske, 1996

boundary permeability

perception of the level of difficulty for changing your social group Ellemers et al., 1988, Wright et al., 1990, Boen & Vanbeselaere, 2000 protest only happens when perception is impermeable

individual mobility

personally leaving one's disadvantaged group for a higher status group group dis- identification - another form - also helps avoid stereotype threat this concept ties in with the idea of meritocracy - that most people can move ahead if you are willing to work hard. McCoy & Major, 2007 - meritocracy study

SWB as an emotional state

positive emotions (feel good) - happiness, excitement, contentment, joy negative emotions (feel bad) - sadness, fear, shame, anger rough categories, varying degrees, not absolute feelings - eg- anger may feel positive. variability in mood- negative emotions can sometimes protect us from feeling worse emotions. People may experience high levels of both positive and negative emotions or tend to be neutral most of the time

Myers, (2000)

positive emotions are associated with sociability, optimistic goal striving and healthy immune systems.

common assumption of stereotypes

prejudice and stereotypes where seen as the same thing Devine, (1989) changed this and suggested, that just because you know of the stereotype, doesn't mean you endorse them, does not make prejudice inevitable. - two stage process was developed.

change evaluation (part of social creativity)

reimagining negative group and redefining the group as positive eg's- - black is beautiful movement - overcoming negative connotations of black being negative and overcoming discrimination against black people - plus size models - reimaging fashion models, overcoming unrealistic expectations of society - Maori language week - working to overcome the push of society trying to get rid of te reo. Redefining Maori language as positive

Revised definition of prejudice

relevant to our understanding of discrimination and inequality because they legitimate actual social practices and policy. Affecting levels of discrimination and inequality in terms of prescribed social roles and in terms of unequal access to resources, status and power at the systematic level.

Schwartz & Loewenstein, 2017

sadness Can inspire contribution to environmental issues not as bad emotional cost as fear

Jebb et al., 2018

satiation point - the point at which money does not increase happiness - can decrease happiness. Peak life satisfaction point. women had higher satiation point higher education = higher satiation negative affect after the satiation point - outweighs any positive aspects of income. -- why? - practical reason of working hard for it, also subtle resentment from others

why is ingroup favoritism shown?

sense of worth and self esteem is greatly affected by our intergroup comparisons. If our group is doing well, it boosts our self esteem we have a basic self enhancement motive -- favoring ingroup helps us see ourselves in a more positive light. what happens to disadvantaged/ stigmatized groups? -- identity management strategies.

Baron, 1990; Carnevale & Isen 1986

showed improved negotiation skills, less confrontational and more willing to develop novel solutions Baron - induced good mood with pleasant artificial scents Carnevale & Isen - visual access induced good mood

Allport & Postman, 1947

showing a picture where the caucasian person is holding a switchblade and african american person holding flowers retelling the story down the line to other participants, within two or three iterations, the story had changed to the african american holding the blade. group ended up misremembering who held the blade. Misremembering things in a manner consistent with stereotypes. stereotype maintenance.

Tajfel & Turner, 1979

social identity theory coping with stigma - 3 types of identity management strategies

strategies to promote positivity

social wellbeing is necessary - Supportive, positive social relationships are necessary for well-being. There are data suggesting that well-being leads to good social relationships and does not merely follow from them. - Diener & Seligman, 2004 comedy/videos - Isen et al., 1987, Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005 sweets/gifts/rewards - Estrada 1997, Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2006 induced good mood with pleasant artificial scents - Baron, 1990 meditation/mindfulness - Fredrickson et al., 2008 gratitude - Reed & Aspinwall, 1998 having meaning in life - King et al., 2006

Collins & Loftus, 1975

spreading activation other things that are connected to a word - such as red is associated with danger, apple, fire truck etc. when one structure or subject is activated, the more other structures are activated. Ideas vary by relatedness certain words activate certain pathways

Ellemers et al., 1990

stability of differences study high school students, testing ability and performance conditions- stable and unstable stable = participants told that test is indicative on how you will perform on upcoming tasks . Unstable = told that test is not indicative of ability for upcoming tasks but will still be used to put in high or low status group. high vs low status - based on test of ability permeability vs impermeability looked at whether enduring vs short lived differences affect responses DVs - change criterion group - whether they wanted to choose to compare high status group on another dimension (social creativity) enhance group - choosing whether they would retake the test or not to enhance group status results: both low and high status groups had no difference of wanting to change criterion in the unstable condition in the stable condition, the high status group, the preference for wanting to change criteria was at a similar level to the unstable group results. Only participants in the low status and stable condition had higher levels of wanting to change criterion. (social creativity) enhance group/ improve ingroup - unstable condition had higher levels of wanting to enhance group status by doing a retest. (social competition/collective action) summary: when perceptions are unstable (low or high status group not impacting ability) (results not likely to be seen over time), you're more likely to engage in social change. - social competition stable conditions lead to more chance of using social creativity. unstable conditions lead to more chance of social competition/collective action (Social change)

Macrae et al., 1995

stereotype activation and inhibition study 1 parafoveal priming task - words flashed on the screen, not consciously processed, asked which side the word was on (left or right). primes: words associated with women words associated with chinese control - no associations afterwards, participants were asked to review a video of a women reading a book. - exposed participants to a stereotype target - either activating the stereotype of women, chinese lexical decision task (LDT) - asked whether the word was a real word or not a real word. Some words were associated with women, chinese stereotypes. Those primed with women, should identify words associated with women stereotypes and chinese primes should activate words associated with chinese stereotypes quicker. DV- response time to LDT RESULTS: women prime - quicker response times to words associated with women in the lexical decision task. chinese prime - quicker response times to words associated with chinese people in the lexical decision task. control showed same response times in LDT. The control condition allowed them to rule out confounds. study 2- eating vs makeup the same women in both conditions: eating with chopsticks activated chinese stereotype and makeup activated women stereotype. The same results where shown, that one stereotype was activated and the other was inhibited

antill et al., 1981

stereotype example positive - women = soft hearted, patient, sensitive, devoted, considerate, courteous positive - men = strong, confident, firm, carefree, outspoken, acts as a leader, forceful, competitive although these are positive, they help to maintain gender inequality in society. negative - women = timid, weak, needs approval, shy, dependent, emotional, self- critical negative - men = aggressive, bossy, sarcastic, rude, boastful, noisy, arrogant, feels superior. These stereotypes are still relevant today, stereotypes exist in society for a very long and time and very difficult to change

Allport, 1954

stereotypes definition

three types of identity management strategies

strategies when confronted with stigmatized identity 1) individual mobility - leaving unfavorable group for a more favorable group. 2) social creativity - taking a negative and making into a positive - eg- poor but happy 3) social competition - social movements, collective action that tries to change stigmatized identity in society Tajfel & Turner, 1979

Hamilton & Gifford, 1976

study 1 - group a had more statements group b had less statements both groups had the same percentage of negative and positive acts DV- estimated frequency of given act - positive or negative acts. Results: group b was perceived as having more negative acts and fewer positive acts. Group a was perceived as having more positive acts and less negative acts. This is because group b was the smaller size and the minority group. We tend to associate negative acts as being rare, therefore rare acts paired with a rare group created a more noticeable effect when the negative acts occur among the rare or minority group. critique - maybe negative acts are easier to associate with smaller groups study 2 - What about rare positive acts? same study design - group - big vs small acts - good vs bad. Good acts were the minority/rare in both groups. Results: same pattern of results in study 1. Minority group was associated more with minority act of good acts. summary- stereotypes don't need to be based in reality, distinctiveness attracts attention. Uncommon act + numerical minority = sterotypes formed Purely a cognitive based explanation, no malicious intent

Tajfel et al., 1971

study showing minimal group paradigm -- painting study IV: participants were told that they where either in group klee or kandinsky based on their painting preferences ( but in reality they were randomly allocated) DV: money distribution task - they were told that they wouldn't benefit from this, but they can chose to give money to own or other group (in group vs out group) results: the majority of participants showed in group favoritism study gave the options of maximising differences- ingroup payoff or joint payoff. eg- $10 to ingroup and $1 to outgroup -- $9 difference -- maximise differences to give more to ingroup but a loss to the ingroup ingroup $20 and giving outgroup $15 -- maximising joint payoff -- both groups benefit participants tended to choose options that maximised differences to give more to ingroup than joint payoff. despite the participants never interacting or identifying with each other, removing all aspects previously associated with group formation, they show ingroup favoritism and outgroup hostility critique - is it really minimal? replication study -- study 2 -- obvious random assignment was done - Billig & Tajfel, 1973 similar categorization and non similar categorization- obvious random allocation -- flipping coin seen from experimenter vs non categorized DV: same money distribution task results - people showed high in group favoritism when categorized by similarity of painting preferences. Non similar categorization also showed a high level of ingroup favoritism. For the groups that were not categorized, no difference of ingroup and outgroup favoritism was shown. summary: ingroup favoritism is still shown, even when openly based on random assignment.

What is psychological well being?

subjective well being = one's own assessment of psychological state eudaimonia = positive personal development - doesn't have to feel good Moral well being = individual contribution to collective wellness (different approaches to SWB)

Hewstone, 1994

subtyping

what type of support should be provided - when and who?

support should be provided when someone asks for support and it should be invisible support - being responsive and using own examples and words such as we/us, instead of overtly suggesting what they should do. most studies show support for romantic relationships because it is tends to be a primary source of support for adults that often cannot be compensated for by others. However, same effects can be found in other close relationships When romantic partner is bad at providing support, there are more negative outcomes than close relationships

stereotype activation and inhibition

this occurs when multiple stereotypes are associated with one person. Eg- a female student or a father and a son We associate the person with one group of stereotypes and downplay the other. Eg- if we see a female student, we associate them with one group either a female or a student. If women is activated, you will perceive and treat them with women stereotypes in mind, or perceive them as a student with student stereotypes in mind. activate one, inhibit another Macrae et al., 1995 - studies proving this theory -- priming chinese vs women stereotypes control inhibits the activation of stereotypes.

tokenism

the perception that people can change groups even when the likelihood of changing groups is small. This effect dulls collective action and revolutionary impulses. Danger of meritocracy - perception of changing low status for a high status group if you work hard enough.

socio structural environment influence identity management strategies

there are three barriers to social change that depend on the socio structural environment (macro context) The three barriers are - permeability, stability and legitimacy these barriers affect which of the three identity management strategies are used - individual mobility, social creativity and social competition individual mobility happens if permeability is high - high level of ease to change groups social creativity is more likely to happen when group is perceived as impermeable (unchangeable), stable and legitimate. social competition is most likely to happen when perceptions of group are impermeable, unstable and illegitimate.

Two dimensions of stereotype content

warmth vs coldness, competence vs incompetence Most stereotypes tend to be high on one level and low on the other - all stereotypes have a positive aspect - eg- Nazi -- Jewish people - high competence and low warmth (cold) -- most dangerous view of stereotypes - seen as competent to overthrow other group Pakeha - moderate, moderate. Maori - high in warmth and low in competence, Asian - high in competence and low in warmth. -- different types of stereotypes - asians - more threat perceived. Men - high competence, low warmth - threat perceived. Elderly - patronizing - low in competence, high in warmth Women tend to receive BOTH types of stereotypes - therefore ambivalent sexism arises - both positive and negative -- subtypes -- negative and positive women --- cold and competent = hostile sexism, warm and incompetent = Benevolent sexism. Ingroups and outgroups Fiske et al., (2002)

memory biases

we tend to fill in the gaps of our knowledge, with our prior expectations about the world words associated with sleep eg= nap, dark, tired, time, pillow, bed, dream. But sleep was not on the list people are more likely to falsely recall sleep being on the list because the words associated with sleep are activated Therefore, words that are associated with a topic can allow false memories to occur. memory is a reconstructive process - our mind reconstructs memories into a general schema (Bartlett, 1932) expectations have a strong influence on what we remember (Roediger & McDermott, 1995) Lenton et al., 2001 - study on gender stereotypes. Study list and recall especially occurs in outgroups (Kooman & Dijker, 1997) race and crime (Allport & Postman, 1947)

Girme, Overall & Simpson, 2013

what is invisible support? - what actions are involved rated visible and invisible support - emotional. invisible support was measured the same as prior studies where there was a disconnect between providers perceiving support and receivers not perceiving support. showed 3 types of invisible support showed benefits of visible support when highly distressed