Psych 3120: EXAM III

EPISODIC MEMORY- storage

-long-term store=warehouse (where memories are kept) -aging process DOES NOT affect its durability of long-term memories (aging process itself does not affect storage--only organization affects storage) Importance of organization -if memories are organized well, you can access them well/easily

Particular features of life story relate to PERSONALITY MATURITY:

"redemptive episodes"-->describe difficult times but you turned it around -predict positive outcomes -episodes that include "silver linings" -linked to positivity + generativity

FLUID vs. CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE

*FLUID INTELLIGENCE* -consists of abilities that make you a FLEXIBLE + ADAPTIVE thinker -inductive reasoning, abstract thinking, logic, speed of processing -INDEPENDENT of social influences/culturally based-learning -"raw intelligence"--measures how well CNS is working *CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE* -refers to knowledge that you have acquired through life experience + education ex) when you memorize the difference between fluid + crystallized intelligence for the exam ex) trivia contests ****developmentally, fluid intelligence DECLINES throughout adulthood, BUT crystallized intelligence IMPROVES!! (fluid intelligence declines BUT crystallized intelligence improves)

UNEMPLOYMENT

*OCCUPATIONAL INSECURITY -many ppl feel insecure about their job ESPECIALLY DURING A RECESSIOn -ppl who worry about keeping their jobs have poor physical and psychological well-being -may lead to negative attitudes about employer/work -may lead to decreased desire to work hard b/c you're just feeling insecure about job -even if no actual basis for the insecurity, WHAT YOU THINK about the security of your job is MORE IMPORTANT than how your job actually is -ppl who think their job is in jeopardy have a level of stress to those unemployed -which age group is more likely to be affected by unemployment?? *MIDDLE-AGED + OLDER ADULTS (show sharp decline in physical + mental health compared to younger/lower life satisfaction/lower family and marital satisfaction -once they get a job though-->these negative effects disappear -every time unemployment rate increases by 1% in the US, there is a 4% rise in the suicide rate + psychiatric admissions increase as well as 4% for men + 2% for women -those who perceive the layoff process as unfair and inconsiderate, it can be traumatic for ppl to be played off (unfair/inconsiderate layoff process=highly traumatic) -older workers affected by layoffs REMAIN JOBLESS LONGER (leads to substantial income loss) -can middle-aged workers duplicate the status + pay of previous position? *they have a hard time doing this-->encounter age-discrimination -the higher your education level, the LESS STRESSED you feel when unemployed (more education=less stressed b/c no one can take that degree away from you + easier to find another job!)

WHY DO PEOPLE WORK?

-EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION drives ppl to gain the tangible rewards ($, prestige) -INTRINSIC MOTIVATION-->causes ppl to work for their own enjoyment; "Puritan work ethic"-->work is important in and of itself -->have a purpose + sense of fulfillment + contribution to the community -work brings sense of personal identity! (what's your name and WHAT DO YOU DO?)- part of your sense of self -work is a central element in people's social life -work: some of adult friendships/social activities-->many relationships are formed at work! -work is a factor in determining your STATUS (evaluating what kind of role you play) -different jobs have DIFFERENT STATUSES *doctor, lawyer have much HIGHER STATUS than shoe shiner/bank teller

Non-Declarative/Implicit Memory (second kind of long-term memory)

-main focus here is on procedural memory, recall of the actions involved in particular tasks! ex) riding a bike/playing the piano -we acquire these memories gradually over time w/practice -procedural memory HOLDS UP WELL WITH AGE! ex) Norden's mom makes good bread + didn't follow a recipe now-->she just knew it -older adults may have SLOWER RETRIEVAL (but w/extra time, they are just as capable)

McAdams' Life Story Model

-McAdams described personality in a more rich, detailed way -he divides the study of personality into 3 levels: 1) TRAITS 2) CHARACTERISTIC ADAPTATIONS (enduring patterns of behavior)-->how your handling stress/concerns/your beliefs + desires 3) THE LIFE STORY***

WHAT IS A LIFE STORY?

-McAdams said EVERYONE CREATES A LIFE STORY -refers to a personal myth which helps make sense of our lives -it's an integration of a reconstructed past with a perceived present + an anticipated future -we all construct a life story b/c it allows us to feel our lives have unity + purpose ex) Norden playing "school" with her kid sister-->insight into why she became a teacher-creases sense of unity/purpose -these ongoing narratives help us to establish a SENSE OF IDENTITY

Assessment

-McAdams way to elicit a person's life story: *have ppl explain their life "chapters"/peaks + low points in life/turning points/significant others/stress/social relationships Important Aspects of the Life Story: *CONTINUITY EFFECTS: "always" and "never" -these attempts to emphasize sameness in the story, + helps to create a sense of permanence *CONTRAST EFFECTS: these emphasize the difference between the past + the present (ex. "I used to be a heavy drinker in college, but now in workforce, I never drink")

CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH ON 5 FACTOR MODEL

-McCrae found that between young + middle adulthood: *decrease in neuroticism, extroversion, and openness *increase in agreeableness + conscientiousness *similar findings found AROUND THE WORLD! Other researchs' findings: *increase in conscientiousness, BUT increase in agreeableness between ages 30-50 *openness decreased gradually, but no changes in extraversion *neuroticism decreased in women but not for men *age + cohort CANNOT be separated in cross-sectional studies -maybe that entire cohort has same changes but maybe different cohort has different changes

WHO'S STILL WORKING + WHY

-Median age of retirement 1950-1955: 67 1985-1990: 63 -NOW, individuals aged 65-69 in labor force is INCREASING (median age of retirement decreased in 80s, but now is increasing)

HOW DO PEOPLE BALANCE WORK + FAMILY?

-NEED TO SET PRIORITIES *women devote less time to the household when they have many tasks w/kids + work -women who BEST MANAGE role overload seek SUPPORT FROM OTHERS *physical support (grandparent picks up kid from school to help mom out) AND emotional support (need someone to let you vent) Does taking a BREAK from work after childbirth have negative impact on career path? -YES!! -->it hurts women/has a negative impact on women -if you're out and new jobs are out there, they may view you as less qualified-->difficult -women are punished for even short leaves -in U.S., leaving work DOES HURT women What could be done? -workplace policies can help (can help w/employer morale and productivity) *can include flexible starting + stopping times *opportunity to work from home *sick days-->use vacation days as sick days (some companies give 10 days of work-->1 kid's illness can wipe out 5 of those sick days) *better attendance/better commitment to company/better work performance if COMPANY IS FLEXIBLE -when adults are better able to balance work and family, this leads to better parent/better employee

REASONS FOR GENDER DIFFERENCES

-NOT ABILITY (not that men are so much better at science and math) -girls are advantaged in reading/writing achievement -gender gap favoring boys in math has been DECREASING over time Gender-stereotype messages -girls often receive higher grades in school than boys -in high school, girls are LESS CONFIDENT in their abilities and are more likely to underestimate their achievement and less likely to pursue interest in STEM careers Girls' concerns in college -"can a woman be successful in physics/engineering?" (they worry about their ability to combine family + work) -2012 study of science professors of both genders; FEMALE STUDENT was viewed; a broad sample of colleges in the US sent an application in for a lab manager position as 1/2 the professors received male name on the app and the other 1/2 of professors received the female name -professor of BOTH genders (male and female professors) saw the FEMALE STUDENT as LESS COMPETENT, less deserving of mentoring, meriting a lower salary

Seattle Longitudinal Study (conducted on older ppl in retirement home)

-decline in FLUID INTELLIGENCE begins mid-60s -decline in crystallized abilities began much later than that (not apparent until mid-70s) -results from tests on 5 primary mental abilities: *by age 67, decline in 1 of primary mental abilities *no participant had declined in all 5 by age 88--which is good!! -WOMEN declined EARLIER on fluid abilities while men declined earlier on crystallized abilities

JUNG'S MID-LIFE CHANGES

-Swiss psychiatrist who studied w/Freud -focused on the concept of BALANCE in the personality (introversion v extraversion) -the balance shifts at different points in adulthood: 2 shifts: 1) introversion-extraversion SHIFT 2) masculinity v femininity SHIFT INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION (early adulthood-->focus on extraversion middle adulthood-->more of a balance) -focus in YOUNG ADULTHOOD is on meeting the demands of the external world (easier to do this if you're extraverted) -important tasks in young adulthood: helps to be extraverted in tasks of life to meet demands of external world -MIDDLE ADULTHOOD CHANGE: more balance between the 2 (extraversion + introversion) -LATE ADULTHOOD shift to introversion side -related to 5-factor model: slight decrease in extraversion from early-->middle adulthood MASCULINITY-FEMININITY -every individual's personality has BOTH masculine + feminine side -archetypes in the collective unconscious anima=feminine side of man animus=masculine side of woman *YOUNG ADULTHOOD-->same-sex tendencies predominate (for women, their more feminine side is dominant in young adulthood) -shift in middle age + beyond-->opposite-sex tendencies no longer suppressed! (women are more likely to give rise to masculine side + vice versa) -NO REAL REVERSAL OF GENDER ROLES *just more expression of ourselves

DISPOSITIONAL TRAITS IN ADULTHOOD

-TRAIT PERSPECTIVE ASSUMPTION =personality (we have these traits that guide our behavior) -PERSONALITY TRAIT is any distinguishable, relatively enduring way that 1 individual differs from others -5-factor Model (aka "the big 5"): By Costa + McCrae 1) Openness 2) Conscientiousness 3) Extroversion 4) Agreeableness 5) Neuroticism-->ppl who are worried/self-conscious

Other Research on Mid-life Crisis

-Whitbourne's study of 100 men + women ages 24-61 -NONE of the ppl int he study fit the criteria for a mid-life crisis (even ppl in 40s/50s didn't) "National Survey of Midlife Development in the US" -levinson predicted that 100% experienced a midlife crisis BUT in reality according to national survey, 26% reported they had experienced a mid-life crisis -crisis attributed to a CHALLENGING LIFE EVENT, NOT to age -NO PEAK in problems in the mid-40s -some female respondents stated the age of their mid-life cris was over 60 (!)

EMERGENCE OF VARIOUS THEMES

-YOUNG ADULTHOOD: you are entering workplace/gain a partner/life story is focused on VALUES, BELIEFS, + IDEOLOGY, focused on the FUTURE -MIDDLE ADULTHOOD: life story heads toward focus on LOSS + MORTALITY, + GENERATIVE THEMES (how can I contribute to community/pass down knowledge to my kids?) -LATE ADULTHOOD: as you retire, themes of RENEWED FREEDOM and/or LOSS OF STATUS + IDENTITY; creation of "good ending" to their life story (obtain a legacy of what you want people to remember you for "how do you want to go" "how you want to be remembered)

MEMORY SELF-EFFICACY

-age-based double standard in American culture *when the individual is OLDER, memory failures are considered to be more serious + attributed to internal, stable factors *when the individual is YOUNGER + makes a memory error, memory failure is attributed to external, unstable factors ex) maybe too many things going on at once/wasn't paying enough attention -these stereotypes contribute to our sense of self-efficacy about our own memory -MEMORY SELF-EFFICACY refers to the system of beliefs + judgments about one's OWN MEMORY competence + confidence in one's own memory abilities -research suggests adults w/lower memory self-efficacy PERFORM WORSE ON MEMORY TASKS *STEREOTYPE THREAT -refers to the idea that ppl perform in ways consistent w/negative stereotypes of the group to which they see themselves as belonging ex) girls who think that boys are smarter in math do NOT score well on math tests compared to girls who think they CAN do it how does it affect memory performance? -the older person's self-identification as "old"/"over-the-mill" (negative image of aging) helps contribute to WORSE PERFORMANCE on memory tasks/tests-->it lowers their feelings of self-efficacy

WISDOM

-defined as expert knowledge + insight in the practical aspects of life -it is NOT easy to define or measure wisdom + difficult to distinguish wisdom from intelligence HOW TO DISTINGUISH WISDOM FROM INTELLIGENCE? -knowledge related to intelligence-->relate to the here + now -wisdom-->TIMELESS -knowledge allows a person to think systemically + analytically -wisdom allows a person to understand other ppl + why ppl do things -INTELLIGENCE permits humans to invent the atom bomb while WISDOM prevents them from using it

MEMORY

-defined as the ability to retain or store information and retrieve it when needed -memory FAILURES can cause inconvenience (ex. forget something at grocery story), embarrassment (forget someone's name), dangerous (ex. forget to turn off stove) -older adults feel threatened w/memory loss b/c they think it is the first sign of senility/maybe Alzheimer's -what kind of memory lapses are normative?

ADJUSTMENT TO RETIREMENT

-as long as you have financial security, your health, supportive network of family friends-->3 predictors of SATISFACTION WITH RETIREMENT -voluntary v. involuntary retirement -if you are forced to retire, connected to poorer physical/mental health -if you voluntarily leave job-->better adjustment -better adjustment if between 65-70 you have an "on time" retirement than an "off time" retirement-->on time=has to do with social clock; retiring at typical age; "off time": really young or super old-->bad -importance of social relationships *helps to cushion against effects of social change/stressful transition *important to maintain relationships with friends

How can older drivers be safer behind the wheel?

-avoid driving at night! -avoid the highway! -avoid situations that involve risky left-hand turns! reaction time vs. decades of experience DEBATE -you cannot assume at 80 that you are not a good driver -they are a better driver than an 18 yr old probably (sometimes decades of experience can affect the reaction time debate) -difficult issue- you don't want to battle with them to stop driving/put it in doctors hands or get them to do a driving evaluation

WHEN DO LIFE STORIES APPEAR?

-basic form appears in adolescence -BY THE END OF ADOLESCENCE, you're creating your life story

STABILITY VS. CHANGE

-bottom line: personality remains fairly stable throughout adulthood, yet there's evidence of change as well Staudinger's 2 forms of personality: 1) PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT--*more common* -developmental change in terms of how adaptive/functional those personality traits are, functioning in society 2) PERSONALITY GROWTH-->more rare -you're developing more wisdom/integrity/transcendence (similar to self-actualization) -as you age, neuroticism decreases, and agreeableness and conscientiousness increases-->PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT (helps you to adapt + function) -personality growth is MORE RARE (not as typical)

CHALLENGES OF WORK (not all middle-aged ppl are thrilled about going to work)

-burnout -unemployment BURNOUT -occurs when workers experience dissatisfaction, disillusionment, frustration, and weariness from their jobs LOSS OF OCCUPATIONAL IDEALISM ex) a teacher who teaches 3rd graders + starts to feel like as much as how hard she tries, they don't understand math-->you're not making a difference anymore FEELING THAT THEY ARE BEING EXPLOITED -if CEO makes 130x what a normal worker makes, feels like they're being taken advantage of BURNOUT IS MOST COMMON IN THE HELPING PROFESSIONS -teachers/police/social workers/nurses/OT/military Why those professions for highest burnout?? -b/c these employees have to deal w/other people's complex problems under difficult time constraints -have to deal w/bureaucratic policies/paperwork -emotionally exhausted -burnout can affect workers who have excessive workloads, reduced feelings of control -burnout has a negative impact on those who receive services from burned-out employees -attention + concentration *burnout-->LINKED TO IMPAIRMENTS IN ATTENTION + CONCENTRATION (if nurse isn't concentrated + administers wrong dosage of medicine-->bad) -burnout is associated with higher levels of depression/physical illness/poor job performance/more likely to experience workplace injuries/high level of absenteeism + turnover

JOB SATISFACTION EXPLANATIONS/CORRELATIONS

-career advancement-->increase in job satisfaction (moving up the ranks) -for women, satisfaction is positively linked (related) to BOTH extrinsic (salary) + intrinsic (rewarding) rewards -for men, job satisfaction is more linked to extrinsic rewards (job status/title/salary) -as you age, perhaps you cope more effectively with difficult job situations -importance of job tenure (how long you've been on the job)-->if you've been at the same company + moved up-->more satisfaction you feel -the higher the status of your job, the HAPPIER you tend to be!

GENDER GAP

-choosing a profession affects your pay -women earn LESS than men do-->why is this?? -2007 large survey results (followed 9,000 ppl) *1 year after receiving bachelor degree, women working full time received 80% of the salary of a man (difference due to gender differences in college majors); women: choose education/service fields; men: choose technical fields -after 10 years, women's pay was WORSE-->they earned only 69% of men's pay (pay gap of men and women WIDENED after 10 years) -disparities in career development: 90% of the gender pay gap is due to the kinds of careers women are choosing-->women choose careers that pay LESS than men; 10% is due to on-the-job discrimination ******IMPORTANT FACT KNOW THIS!!!!!!!

COSTA + MCCRAE'S RESEARCH

-created a "midlife crisis scale" + administered it to 350 men ages 30-60 years -looked for feelings of meaninglessness, turmoil, confusion, job/family dissatisfaction, fear of aging + death RESULTS: NO EVIDENCE found of a mid-life crisis based on mid-life crisis scale -longitudinal findings related to neuroticism: *men who had received HIGHER scores on Neuroticism scale 10 years earlier received HIGHER scores on mid-life scale 10 years later -ppl with more chronic psychological problems are more likely to experience a mid-life crisis (ppl who are already neurotic to begin with)

PATTERNS OF RETIREMENT

-fewer workers are experiencing "CRISP RETIREMENT PATTERN" (this is rare) *when you leave the workforce in a clear, single-path way "BLURRED RETIREMENT PATTERN"--more typical *when they exit + re-enter the labor force (maybe multiple times) -"bridge employment"--still working, just in a different industry; when retirees work in a completely different occupation than what they've been doing their whole life (bridge employment=strongly related to FINANCIAL NEED!!!)--often time, part-time jobs "phased retirement" -when older workers reduce their responsibilities + eases gradually into full retirement ex) you stop coming in on Monday's -those who have a DISCONTINUOUS WORK PATTERN (in + out of the workforce), they NEVER consider themselves "retired"

PHASE III: TRAINING STUDIES

-focus in this phase was on how experience, practice, and training can MODIFY INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES -has to do with PLASTICITY (a person's abilities CAN be modified through training--brain isn't static)--you CAN continue to grow and learn -important especially for FLUID ABILITIES (which shows greater age-related decline) -training study method-->pretest/posttest and training in between--overall effects of training are PRETTY POSITIVE!! -older adults receiving this training IMPROVED their scores! Results of training study method -positive overall -improvement on inductive reasoning and spatial abilities -training effects can last for up to 7 years

MEMORY + HEALTH-RELATED BEHAVIORS

-focus on average performance not always helpful -if individual differences are found, what factors account for those differences? IMPORTANT FACTORS 1) chronological age -gradual deterioration in memory from 65-80s 2) gender -WOMEN do better on episodic memory tests/tasks 3) education -highly educated older adults perform better on memory tasks 4) diet -FISH is "brain food"-->a longitudinal study showed cognitive decline was reduced 10-13% per year by eating fish twice a week -vitamins B12, B6, folate-->enhanced memory performance -Homocysteine-->amino acid gained in MEAT--NEGATIVELY related to memory performance (eating meat-->negative impact on memory) 5) exercise -memory IMPROVES w/aerobic exercise (more O2-->more blood flow) -hippocampal volume (shrinks 1-2% pear year in older adulthood) -aerobic exercise REDUCES HIPPOCAMPAL VOLUME LOSS!! 6) strength training -weight-lifting enhances memory/cognitive performance 7) stress + depression -these lead to memory difficulties/decline 8) hypertension + coronary heart disease -ppl w/this DO NOT perform well on memory tasks--leads to memory problems

PHASE IV: NEW APPROACHES

-focus on new ways to define + measure intelligence (includes quantitative + qualitative ways of functioning) -examples include POSTFORMAL THOUGHT + WISDOM

Research on Generativity

-generativity tends to INCREASE from the 30s-60s (regardless of socioeconomic status, race, background) -HIGHLY GENERATIVE PEOPLE are WELL-ADJUSTED *lower anxiety + depression *score higher in autonomy, self-acceptance, + satisfaction *more likely to have successful marriages + close friends *more open to differing viewpoints *more likely to be leaders *care about children/partner/aging parents/society GENDER DIFFERENCES- parenting *fathers scored HIGHER in generatively than childless men did BUT having kids was NOT linked to generatively in women (whether or not they had kids, women had increased generativity) (so...men with children had higher generativity than men without children) (women with children and without children had the same level of generativity)

MEMORY TRAINING

-important to find ways to help older adults OFFSET negative changes in memory! -what do BEST memory training strategies have in common? *requires PAYING ATTENTION to the incoming information and MAKING NEW CONNECTIONS-->you have to rely on information already stored in your memory + relate it to the new info-->helps make better sense of the new information -proper ENCODING leads to BETTER RETRIEVAL

REMOTE MEMORY- Autobiographical Information

-includes memories for the details of PERSONAL EVENTS (ex. prom/wedding) -many older adults said they remember these events from 40 years ago VERY CLEARLY (BUT this is difficult to verify)

3) LONG-TERM STORE

-information here may be maintained indefinitely -accessing information relatively easy or difficult, depending (ex SSN/Student ID #) (hard to know xmas gifts from 5 yr old xmas)

PROPSECTIVE MEMORY

-involves remembering to remember something in the future, such as an action or event (ex. do you remember to send them a bday card/remembering to go to an appt) -plays a crucial role in everyday life; especially important for older adults' independence

RETIREMENT PLANNING

-lengthy, complex process that BEGINS IN MIDDLE-AGE -why is planning important? *retirement leads to loss of 2 important work-related rewards 1) LOSS OF INCOME -federal govt. does NOT offer a pension system that guarantees ppl a living wage (in the US, retirees income typically drops by 50%)- why man ppl can't retire (can't support themselves on social security alone) 2) LOSS OF STATUS -retirement leads to loss of status -sense of purpose/identity can be seriously threatened if you're not working -MEN tend to do MORE planning for retirement than women do (women just follow what the husband's plan is) -adults who plan ahead show better adjustment /are happier than those who did NOT plan ahead -retirement represents a TRANSITION to a stage of life that does NOT require paid employment -WHEN are individuals considered "retired?" *reduced labor force participation *cessation of a career (end job as an accountant, job you've been for your whole life, but work at a bookstore) *receipt of income from pensions *willingness to identity themselves as retired (some ppl do NOT want to call themselves retired)

MEN WHO CHOOSE NONTRADITIONAL CAREERS

-men who choose nursing: more liberal in their social attitudes, less gender typed, less focused on the social status of their work, more interested in working with ppl -1 study looked at 40 men looking in nontraditional careers-->found that b/c of their male minority status, coworkers assumed they were MORE KNOWLEDGABLE than they actually were-->these men have the opportunity to move into supervisor positions FASTER than women do: "GLASS ESCALATOR" GLASS ESCALATOR (stereotype that med are better at leadership careers): men get a free ride up to the top if in nontraditional careers -these men in these professions felt warm/loved/welcomed/accepted (women welcomes them!) -guys DID EXPRESS ANXIETY about being stigmatized by other men (not worried about being stigmatized by women)

Mid-Life Crisis Bottom Line

-mid-life is NO MORE OR NO LESS traumatic for most ppl than any other period of life -middle adulthood is often viewed as a POSITIVE TIME IN LIFE (b/c this is when happier w/job, grown into your responsibilities, higher levels of self-esteem, well-being) Why does a theory so thoroughly debunked continue to remain alive in our culture? 1) the idea of a "mid-life crisis" makes a "good story" -prospect of getting a sports car in your 40s -prospect of traveling around the world -prospect of leaving your job finally for your dream job 2) turmoil in midlife is easily remembered -not a lot of guys go through mid-life crisis -ex) oh "so and so" got left by his wife + went out and got a sports car + got plastic surgery

ADVANTAGES OF MIDDLE-AGED WORKERS

-middle-aged workers: lower rates of absenteeism, turnovers, accidents -middle-aged workers are more effective workplace citizens (help colleagues more/try to improve group performances, complain LESS about trivial issues) -work productivity equals or exceeds that of younger workers (b/c of greater experience/knowledge)

RETIREMENT (a modern concept)

-more ppl are in the middle of/approaching retirement RIGHT NOW-->baby boomers -social security was started in 1935 (before that, ppl didn't retire-->they dropped dead at their jobs lol-->retirement not considered prior to 1935) only after WWII that there was more retired ppl (# of retired ppl has been INCREASING since WWII)

REASONS FOR RETIREMENT

-more workers retire by CHOICE than any other factor** INDIVIDUAL FACTORS 1) AFFORDABILITY -ppl retire when they are financially secure 2) SERIOUS HEALTH PROBLEMS eg. cancer, heart problems (#1 reason ppl retire early) -health problems that cause functional impairment that prevent you from doing your work well -ppl listing poor health for retiring has DECLINED! -ppl who are healthy + don't have a pension benefit continue to keep working 3) SELF-EMPLOYED WORKERS -likely to reduce their hours but don't quit completely 4) HOW MUCH YOU ENJOY YOUR JOB -workers w/boring, repetitive jobs may choose retirement as soon as they can afford it -ppl who had an interesting, stimulating job shift to interesting bridge jobs -if you enjoy your job-->you're more likely to stay! FAMILY FACTORS -men who have more dependents retire later (men w/8 kids will retire later than someone who has. 2 kids) Effect of Marriage -married ppl usually retire EARLIER (sooner) than unmarried workers BUT men are more likely to retire if their wife is also retired but women may keep working (women do their OWN thing) what affects women's decision to retire? -women's decision is affected by HER FAMILY'S NEEDS + her husband's pension income or if her daughter needs help w/kids (may lead her to retire) DUAL INCOME FAMILIES -more of a joint decision for retirement--household decision *joint retirement=when dual worker couples retire at the SAME TIME! -sequential retirement *when 1 member of couple retires first + other one continues to work -substantial age gap leads to this kind of retirement -if you're younger, you may still have health insurance benefits if you continue working for you + your spouse

FALSE MEMORY

-occurs when you remember items or events THAT DID NOT OCCUR -are older adults more vulnerable than younger adults to false memories?- YES! :( -study example using "critical lure" *give list of semantically related words BUT MOST KEY WORDS in that list are not there (ex. word "sleep"=critical lure) -older adults are more likely to report remembering the word "sleep" compared to younger adults-->more vulnerable to a false memory -when older adults were WARNED ahead of time about a critical lure, it DID NOT help them OR reduce their memory for the false word (critical lure); young adults avoided it with a warning given beforehand -may increase older adults' susceptibility to scams (b/c of false memory)

Reminiscence bump

-older adults have very clear memories of events that occurred during the ages of 10-30 years old WHY is this age range important? (memory surprisingly accurate for this time period) -a time where they read watched their fav movies/read fav books/considered world events to be most important; older adults are REALLY ACCURATE at recalling events during this time period WHY is 10-30 age range important for forming memories older adults can later recall easily? -this is a period of rapid change, peak cognitive functioning -period of developing your identity

SEMANTIC MEMORY (one kind of declarative/explicit memory)

-our knowledge of words, rules, and concepts ex) A before E except after C ex) what is the name of the 4th US president? 3x) asked for mom's maiden name -this type of SEMANTIC MEMORY is relatively spared in normal aging, remains fairly stable even through the 70s -older adults remember this information well!! b/c it has been well-learned (they use certain words/definitions a lot) 2 EXCEPTIONS TO THIS MEMORY: 1) trying to access information you haven't used in a while -ex. 40 yr old took Spanish in high school-->Norden hasn't used it in a long time-->hard to remember 2) word-finding problems ex. tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (could be an hour or day later that they remember it)

POSTFORMAL THOUGHT

-refers to cognitive development beyond Piaget's formal operations stage (which ends @ adolescence) -requires tolerating ambiguity, remaining flexible, open to considering more than 1 solution (when solving problems) (when confronted w/a problem-->multiple right solutions) -WILLIAM PERRY'S focus on development of epistemic cognition

EPISODIC MEMORY (second kind of declarative/explicit memory)

-refers to the conscious recollection of information FROM A SPECIFIC EVENT OR POINT IN TIME! -ex) what did you do on your vacation after your kids graduated from high school? ex) where did you park your car? ex) what did you do on your honeymoon? -shows a STEADY DECLINE THROUGHOUT THE ADULT YEARS (ex. Norden can't find her car a lot now lol) -this decline in episodic memory can start as early as the 20s-->90s -why does it decline? we need to focus on encoding, storage, and retrieval issues

GLASS CEILING

-refers to the invisible barrier that prevents WOMEN + ETHNIC MINORITIES from advancing to the highest levels of the career ladder INEQUALITIES IN PROMOTION -from career entry on, INEQUALITIES IN PROMOTION between men/women + white/minorities become more pronounced over time (the longer you are in your career, the less likely women/minority will get promoted DESPITE education/work skills/productivity!! -women who are promoted usually GET STUCK in mid-level positions after promotion; white men more likely to be considered for prestigious high-level management jobs -white men--70% of CEO's + 93% of fortune-500 companies

SOURCE MEMORY

-remembering WHERE -refers to the recall of WHERE or HOW an individual acquires information -older adults have more difficulty w/source memory tasks ex) can't remember who offered you the ticket/what teacher gave you the pop quiz-->younger adults are better at connecting the particular professor w/pop quiz (younger adults link the item remembering with the context) -study results using subjects ages 21-80 *linear decrease starting in the 20s (happens gradually) -extremely poor source memory-->problems w/FRONTAL LOBE functioning

HOW WELL DO OLDER EMPLOYEES PERFORM THEIR JOBS?

-same benefits of middle-aged employees (more productive than younger workers) (OLDER WORKERS are VERY SIMILAR to middle-aged employees-->both middle + older are better than younger workers) -job performance-->FUNCTION of ABILITY + EXPERIENCE *older workers use accumulated knowledge to compensate for any age-related decline -requirements for job *when occupations mainly depend on crystallized ability + social requirements, job performance of older employees remains STABLE as you get older *with occupations that require FLUID ABILITIES or PHYSICAL STRENGTH-->job performance more likely to decline (crystallized abilities + social requirements-->job performance of older employees remains STABLE) (fluid abilities or physical strength-->job performance more likely to decline)

WHITBOURNE'S IDENTITY THEORY

-similar to McAdams' Theory -she believes ppl build their own conceptions of how their lives should proceeds; the result of this process is the LIFE-SPAN CONSTRUCT, your united sense of the past, present, + future

research findings on age + prospective memory are MIXED

-some finds that older ppl have more prospective memory SLIPS than younger ppl -some research has not found the above statement-->find that older ppl's memory is superior or equivalent to younger adults -education level/verbal ability may affect prospective memory intelligence

ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS

-some forced to retire b/c you lose your job (ex. your company is DOWNSIZING) -some have GREAT ONGOING BENEFITS from company after retirement=earlier decision to retire -if company has the hiring choice of younger, less costly workers available-->company may say to older worker, "we will give you a great SEVERANCE PACKAGE if you leave now" (+ get the younger workers in)

STAGE MODELS

-stage theorists view personality as something that unfolds over time + takes on different forms as ppl progress through adulthood -variety of stage models: ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES (erikson=lifespan approach to personality) *psychosocial=union between physical needs + the cultural forces that act on the individual *4 childhood stages, 1 adolescent stage, 3 adult stages (we will only focus on the 3 adult stages for this class) *conflict @ each stage="crisis" -struggle for identity-->you want to develop a healthy sense of identity by RESOLVING THESE CRISES "identity crisis"-->Erikson coined this term FAVORABLE RATIO IDEA -you want to trust more ppl than you mistrust -you want more of the positive pole than the negative pole

RESEARCH USING BERLIN PARADIGM

-subjects ranged from age 20-89 responded to hypothetical real-life situations (researchers rated subjects responses based on these 5 criteria) RESULTS: Age is no guarantee of wisdom :( -only 5% of the subjects aged 20-89 received high wisdom ratings BUT those 5% were evenly distributed across the lifespan (from young-->old age) -there are just as many young ppl w/wisdom as middle-aged ppl as old ppl. -the TYPE of life experience is an important variable *ppl who have extensive training in human service careers (ex. a psychologist/pastor/HR) have higher wisdom scores *ppl who have held leadership positions have higher wisdom scores *ppl who have faced + overcome adversity are more likely to have higher wisdom scores -growing old DOES NOT guarantee wisdom, BUT it does provide the time + experience for the potential development of wisdom

neurological evidence

-the more heavily a prospective memory task involves PLANNING (fontal lobe stuff), the more DISADVANTAGED the older adult seems to be -older adults do much better (benefit) from reminders ex) check lists/date books

Ch. 7- WORK + RETIREMENT

-today, ppl are working LATER + LATER and retiring at a much later age -b/c of increase in life expectancy, ppl retire between 65-75 + live until their 90's-->you can have several decades w/o working in fact

OTHER INFLUENCES-->GENDER STEREOTYPES

-up until 1960s, employment ads in US newspapers were always divided into 2 sections: "Help wanted" MALE "Help wanted" FEMALE -changes beginning in 1970s *women wanted careers traditionally held by men (b/c of changes in gender role attitudes, rise in employed moms in 1970s) -SLOW PROGRESS in getting more women in male-dominated professions -women tend to remain in less concentrated, not as highly paid professions

regardless of how you define it, DOES INTELLIGENCE CHANGE w/AGE?

-wechsler's opinion: developed 2 intelligence tests, made IQ test *Wechsler wrote in 1958 "most human abilities decline progressively after reaching a peak between the ages of 18-25" *Woodruf-Pak's 4 overlapping phases

FACTORS REALTED TO INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING

-why do fluid abilities DECLINE more in some ppl compared to others?? 1) Absence of severe sensory deficits (helps!) -if you are still seeing and hearing reasonably well-->this helps w/cognitive abilities 2) Absence of cardiovascular + other chronic diseases -these are related to intellectual functioning -not enough blood getting pumped to important areas 3) Above-average level of education + income -these help w/intellectual functioning 4) Occupational history of high-complexity jobs -this also helps to prevent decline -engaging brain in different ways helps to maintain intellectual abilities longer 5) Membership in an intact family + marriage to a well-educated, intelligent spouse 6) Flexible attitudes + behaviors -if you feel confident in your abilities and independent and open-minded outlook on tasks-->this helps with cognitive abilities 7) pursuit of continuing education, participation in clubs + professional associations -always wanting to continue learning! 8) having a stimulating and engaged lifestyle ex) playing cards/completing crossword puzzles/sudoku *"disuse hypothesis"-->skills get rusty if not used on a regular basis ("use it or lose it") cause and effect -do ppl intellectually strong seek out stimulating activities OR if you are average intelligence but do intellectually stimulating stuff-->does this cause you to become smarter? MANY FACTORS OVERLAP -older adults who hold higher-level complex jobs probably have higher education + live in a stimulating environment

BALANCING WORK + FAMILY

-work-family balance is a concern for most, but ESPECIALLY for mothers (more women than men report moderate-->high levels of stress trying to do this juggling act) -MAJORITY OF MOMS are NOW IN THE WORKFORCE (2015 stats) *over 2/3 of moms with youngest child under age of 6 are working *over 3/4 of moms whose children are in school are working -women are more likely to report stress + suffer from ROLE OVERLOAD (conflict from competing demands of mom/employee) WHY IS THIS? -women do more household + child care tasks than men do Consequences of Role Overload -increased psychological stress -physical problems-->more likely to be sick/have poorer marital relationships/are less effective parents/kids may have more behavioral problems/poorer job performance -role overload is more common in low-status occupations where ppl have very little control over their schedules

HOW TO COMBAT BURNOUT:

-workers need social support, assistance in managing workload + stress -workers have to pay attention to SMALL VICTORIES in their daily work -workers need to find ways to mentally disengage from work during leisure time

OTHER INFLUENCES-->TEACHERS

-young adults say teachers really influence their choice of career! -students who feel teachers are caring/accessible/interested about their future/expect them to work hard feel MORE CONFIDENT in choosing a career that will best suit them/one they can be successful at -college-bound students' relationships with teachers are closer than students not going to college -gender difference: FEMALE-->if young women have close connections to mentor/teacher in high school-->helps give them confidence (mentoring benefits young women in particular)

OTHER INFLUENCES-->FAMILY

-young ppl's vocational aspirations OFTEN CORRELATE STRONGLY WITH PARENTS' JOBS (if you grow up in a high socioeconomic status home you're more likely to choose high-status white-collar occupations) (if you're from poor background-->more likely to choose a blue-collar job background) -why the similarity? *similarity in personality (kid's personality is similar to the parents) *similarity in intellectual abilities *similarity in educational degrees (if your parents went to college-->kid more likely to feel compelled to go to college) PARENTING PRACTICES -higher socioeconomic parents are more likely to have connections with people higher up to help their child obtain a better career ex) can hire someone to help study for SAT/help craft your essay -parents can also shape work-related preferences *higher socioeconomic status parents promote more CURIOSITY/MOTIVATION/SELF-PROMOTION (all traits required in high status careers)

2 theories about retirement + its effect on marriage

1) "SPOUSE UNDERFOOT SYNDROME" -partners more likely to experience conflict now that they're around each other a lot-->spouse is always "on your foot!" 2) "SECOND HONEYMOON" -couples are now free to enjoy each other's company on a full-time basis -no longer work constraints keeping them away from each other -BOTH THEORIES have been supported-->it depends on the couple -both men + women who are married when they retire are HAPPIER and more satisfied with their life compared to those who are divorced/separated/widowed -never married MEN are happier @ retirement age than never married women

Abilities that help in the construction of the life story:

1) BIOGRAPHICAL COHERENCE -when you're able to meaningfully relate a single event to the rest of your life 2) CAUSAL COHERENCE -you are trying to INFER how an event from earlier in life is causally related to later aspects of life/outcomes 3) THEMATIC COHERENCE -the capacity to describe an overarching theme/principle (that integrates a whole lot of episodes) ex) thematic coherence of humility can be carried from childhood to older life ("I graduated 2nd in my class"-->Norden's mom didn't tell her that until Norden was in grad school! shows how humble she was)

Young Adulthood

1) Choosing an Occupation 2) transition to work 3) reasons to work 4) balancing work + family CHOOSING AN OCCUPATION -Ginzberg's Career Choice Theory *he said that young person moves through several different periods of vocational choosing 1) FANTASY PERIOD -early + middle childhood (up to age 11) -children gain insight into career options by fantasizing about them -you involuntarily are choosing + discarding career choices -no real regard for your skills/opportunities -these fantasies bear VERY LITTLE RELATION to the careers individuals actually choose -generally, these fantasies DO NOT relate to the career of choice 2) TENTATIVE PERIOD -occurs between ages 11-16 -adolescents are thinking about careers in more COMPLEX ways (in terms of their interests, abilities, values--what you're good at) -learning about different educational requirements for certain jobs/assessing your skills and abilities more seriously 3) REALISTIC PERIOD -late teens/early 20s -you are starting to narrow down your options -you look at practical/realistic opportunities ex) not a lot of job openings for poets- just b/c you're good at something doesn't mean a lot of job openings in that field... -looking at how much $ different jobs pay 1st step: EXPLORATION-->you have to gather a lot of information (ex. if I want to be a therapist, I need a masters degree) 2nd step: CRYSTALLIZATION-->thinking about a general vocational category; experimenting before settling in on a career ex) choosing (declaring) a degree in college/may involve doing an internship/summer job -you DO NOT need to go to college to do crystallization (ex. could be an apprenticeship) CRITICISMS OF GINZBERG'S CAREER CHOICE THEORY -oversimplifies process of choosing a career -theory was based on subjects from middle socioeconomic status (if you are poor-->may limit your options) -ages associated with the stages may be TOO RIGID; individual differences (ex. your fantasy period may go longer; may go to science camp at age 9) -economic factors important may cause ppl to change careers (there used to be a time period when no one wanted to practice law)

2 categories of memories in long-term store:

1) DECLARATIVE/EXPLICIT MEMORY -refers to intentional and conscious remembering of information learned + remembered at a specific point in time there are 2 kinds of declarative/explicit memory: *semantic memory *episodic memory

2 types of memory strategies

1) EXTERNAL STRATEGIES -the use of physical aids or cues to maintain or improve memory ex) post-it-notes, setting a timer to see when cookies are done, putting bookmark in a book helps you remember where you are, using a medication organizer, Norden has a bench by her door + in the basket she keeps purse/keys/lunch/graded papers; Norden's kids use her as an EXTERNAL aid lol -these strategies are especially helpful in aiding PROSPECTIVE MEMORY! :) -these are the MOST FREQUENTLY USED STRATEGIES b/c easy to use, widely available, and work very well 2) INTERNAL STRATEGIES -memory aids that rely on MENTAL PROCESSES such as imagery + verbal associations ex) trying to remember someone's name at a party-->you make up rhymes to remember name ("Stan is tan")/you can use ACRONYMS/the method of Lo-Sai(you mentally take a walk through a familiar location to remember where things are) -getting good at these strategies is HARD WORK + requires effort-full processing (which is harder for older adults) -not a frequently used by older adults (requires too much cognitive effort) -do older adults benefit from training in internal strategies??- evidence here is MIXED *formal training benefits can last 6 months or longer; others say no -neurological benefits to memory training *when older adults were given INTENSIVE TRAINING in method of Lo-said, they had INCREASED white matter density in their brains :)

researchers have focused on 2 aspects of REMOTE MEMORY (recall of info from the distant past)

1) FACTUAL INFORMATION ex) memory of a political/sports event from long ago/TV shows/movies/songs -DIFFICULT TO ASSESS differences between older + younger adults on factual information b/c all of this stuff took place in a certain time (different age cohorts) (we are all exposed to different things) (not everyone in the same age group has been exposed to the same things) 2 study examples -looked at senior citizen's memories of names + faces of high school classmates--(do you remember these faces?)- tested them for names of streets in their college town -they found a RAPID RATE OF FORGETTING 4-6 years after high school + 20-40% of the information is retained (so you remember 20-40% of high school classmates) -this is a quick rate of forgetting immediately + 20-40% are retained later

WHY does rxn time slow down over time?

1) GENERAL SLOWING HYPOTHESIS -general decline in information processing speed; CNS takes a longer time to process info 2) AGE COMPLEXITY HYPOTHESIS -given slowing of CNS, maybe age-differences INCREASE as tasks become more complex (older person's abilities are stretched to their limit) -simple tasks: not much difference)

ERIKSON'S 3 ADULT STAGES

1) INTIMACY v. ISOLATION -occurs in young adulthood (18-mid 30s) -Goal: to establish a fully intimate relationship w/another without losing your sense of self -if intimacy is not achieved-->failure to do so leads to ISOLATION *intimate relationships are important well into late adulthood, this is just where intimacy is FORMED -the ability to FORM these relationships is when this occurs (in young adulthood) -research findings: *those who have achieved INTIMACY -adults who've achieved intimacy are more tolerant/cooperative/accepting of others/differences -those characterized by ISOLATION-->fear losing their identity, tend to compete, and easily threatened 2) GENERATIVITY v. STAGNATION -occurs in middle-age (35-65) -GENERATIVITY: "a concern for establishing + guiding the next generation" (involves reaching out to others in ways that help guide young ppl) Kotre said generatively term was too broad: KOTRE'S MULTIPLE TYPES OF GENERATIVITY: 1) Biological + parental generativity -when your raising children, you're teaching/guiding them/helping them become better humans -having kids does NOT guarantee generativity 2) Technical generativity -passing on SPECIFIC SKILLS from 1 generation to another 3) Cultural generativity -you are being a mentor in some way/ex) helping a summer intern at your job; can include ethnic/religious traditions you're passing down to children/grandchildren Description of STAGNATION: happens when adults become self-centered, self-indulgent ex) bumper sticker "whoever dies with the most toys wins" focused on "WHAT CAN I GET" rather than "WHAT CAN I GIVE" (don't take interest in making world better/contributing) -adults in stagnation have little interest in making the world better -GENERATIVITY helps adults to make contributions that will last BEYOND their lifetimes

GLASS CEILING EXPLANATIONS

1) LACK OF TRAINING ROUTES -in terms of role models/mentors/informal networks (management is an art + skill that must be taught)-->women/minorities have LESS access to mentors/training for training paths 2) NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES ABOUT MOTHERS -a mother job holder or non-mother job holder in a traditionally male profession was rated by college students + adult workers (both viewed the mom as showing lower job commitment/lower job dependability/less competence) 3) DISCONTINUOUS NATURE OF MANY WOMEN'S CAREERS -if women opt out of the workforce for several years for family reasons, hinders their career advancement 4) NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES ABOUT WOMEN IN GENERAL -women who are linked to ambition/confidence are discriminated against-->too masculine-they're "bossy" b/c "that's now how women should be" -women in line for promotion with men have to be BETTER than the man being considered for a position (promoted females had much HIGHER performance ratings than male manager promoted)*****KNOW THIS FACT!!! -females have to be BETTER (not the same) as men to get promotion -women have to be 2x as good as men to get the same position as a man SOLUTIONS?? -we need to fix our society -really no great solutions to this complex problem (more female-led businesses being started) -women entrepreneurs are starting businesses at a FASTER RATE than men entrepreneurs (starting their own business can solve many of the challenges they don't have to deal with in the workplace)

Atchley's Stages of Retirement

1) PRERETIREMENT PHASE -when you're starting to get ready/start to make plans/think about what you want to do -start to gear up for leaving job/making plans 2) HONEYMOON PHASE -doing a bunch of PROJECTS/new activities -euphoric period when you do all the things you never had the time to do -occurs RIGHT AFTER retirement -high level of activity -may continue for a year or more-->NOT an indefinite period -duration is related to how healthy retiree is/financial resources 3) IMMEDIATE RETIREMENT ROUTINE -when ppl start to settle into new routines ex) sleep in + watch TV + then take walk -ppl with full lives BEFORE retiring tend to have full lives AFTER they retire (easier to find a routine if you had a big social network/lots of hobbies before retiring) 4) REST + RELAXATION -sometimes may happen instead of honeymoon phase -retiree just wants to take it easy + be leisurely in what they do -may last about 3 years-->after 3 years, activity level increases again 5) DISENCHANTMENT -sometimes you settle into a routine but small number of ppl are depressed/let down by retirement -may result if you have an unrealistic fantasy of what retirement would be/or a disruption in their retirement plans due to an illness of a family member/or one of the partner dies 6) REORIENTATION -reorienting yourself to what are your options now -friends/family/community groups can help ppl to reorient 7) RETIREMENT ROUTINE -eventually, you settle into a permanent retirement routine -most ppl master the retirement role + settle into a satisfying routine 8) TERMINATION OF RETIREMENT -they realize they're going through savings too fast -1 or 2 of them goes back to work part or full time -if you get cancer-->you're not really "retired"-->you're sick/stressed

COGNITION

1) REACTION TIME -refers to the interval that elapses between the onset of a stimulus + the completion of a response -reaction time RELATES TO MEASURE OF PROCESSING SPEED -reaction time tasks: SIMPLE: when there is only 1 stimulus + only 1 possible response (ex. every time you see a "w"-->you hit a key) CHOICE: looking for 2 different stimuli that each requires a different response ex) if you hear a high tone-->hit left bar if you hear a low tone-_>hit right bar COMPLEX: more than 2 stimuli and each one requires a different response or a combination of responses -slower run time appears to be an INEVITABLE consequence of aging! (several hundreds of milliseconds is a normal decline over time) -differnet between younger and older adults rxn: SEVERAL HUNDREDS OF MILLISECONDS (could be key if driving a car) -ppl vary greatly in when they "slow down"-->lots of individual differences here

Other Important Types of Memory

1) REMOTE MEMORY -involves the recall of information from the distant past -myth that older ppl can remember info from many years in the past but can't remember something that happened yesterday-->this myth is NOT TRUE

WHY are employers biased against older workers?

1) SALARIES -as you are with a company for a longer period of time, your salary is increasing-->companies want to cut costs-->fire older person (who makes an 80,000 salary) and get 2 younger workers to pay for 1/2 the price each 2) PRODUCTIVITY -older workers (over 55) are THOUGHT to be LESS PRODUCTIVE THAN YOUNGER WORKERS (not as fast) other forms of discrimination -giving older employees fewer opportunities for training -older workers may receive fewer rewards for updating their skills

2 STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS TO LIFE-SPAN CONSTRUCT:

1) SCENARIO -consists of expectations about the future -really a GAME PLAN for how we want our lives to go -w/each major life transition, we compare it to scenario ("I have to graduate a year later; 25-->no good guy in sight shoot-->causes you to be upset b/c it didn't match up with your "scenario" of finding a guy at 25) -comparing results of major life transitions to scenario can create positive or negative reactions -maybe you have to change your scenario 2) LIFE STORY -personal narrative history organizing past events into a coherent sequence; our autobiography -becomes over-rehearsed + stylized (where maybe you're changing little things so not always true) -DISTORTIONS occur with time + retelling; distortions allow you to feel better about your life goals + purpose

Information Processing: 3 Important Stores

1) SENSORY STORE -information is held for a few seconds (until it disappears) -difficult to compare young and older adults b/c it holds the info so briefly -it is possible that there is some age-related decline

WHY is it important to study age-related differences?

1) THEORETICAL POINT OF VIEW -rxn time can assess organization + functioning of CNS 2) PRACTICAL POINT OF VIEW -rxn time slowing is important for many aspects of every day life (ESP with safety) DRIVING: good example of something that is affected by driving time -2012 accident data: about 7% of all drivers in the US are over age 74; that 7% of drivers account for 28% of all auto-accident FATALITIES -age group 16-24 has the HIGHEST fatality rate for auto-accident fatalities (we are worse than older adults...)

REASONS FOR AMERICANS WORKING LONGER

1) their HEALTH is still good! -today, older Americans are healthier/able to work longer -jobs today are less physically demanding 2) AVERAGE LIFE EXPECTANCY -has been increasing=can delay retirement -workers who retire in early 60s could work another 20 years 3) ECONOMIC RESOURCES -if workers haven't accumulated enough $ to last 30 years, may have to keep working to build up bank account -when savings dwindle (b/c of recession), you can't retire (you need to build up your investments again) 4) MANDATORY RETIREMENT -has been eliminated for many jobs -ppl cannot be forced to retire at a certain age EXCEPT for certain jobs like firefighter, policeman, pilot 5) CHANGES IN SOCIAL SECURITY -age at which workers are eligible for social security benefits has been INCREASING (used to be 65, now 67); age has increased gradually 6) ELIMINATION OF THE "EARNINGS TEST" -in 2000, legislation passed that eliminated restriction on earnings before you received social security benefits -if you turned 65 + you don't retire, you'll be penalized for that (you can get social security + keep salary @ same time) -used to push ppl to retire BEFORE you could get your social security -today, you can still work now + have social security benefits! *the earnings test applied to ppl who had applied for social security retirement benefits BUT had not yet reached full retirement age; the earnings test limits how much $ you can make while collecting social security

LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH ON 5 FACTOR MODEL

2 different kinds of change: 1) MEAN-LEVEL CHANGE (in long. research) -refers to change over time in the average level of a trait across a whole sample -individual within the sample have changed on a trait in the same way -means that individuals within the sample have generally changed on a trait in the same way******* -results from meta-analysis: majority of personality trait change occurs between then ages of 18-40 -WHY? Many formative life events + role changes 2 parts of extraversion: 1) SOCIAL VITALITY-->general sociability/gregariousness/outgoing 2) SOCIAL DOMINANCE-->confidence/independence -agreeableness, conscientiousness, social DOMINANCE increases; neuroticism decreases; reflects PERSONALITY MATURITY -social vitality DECREASES marginally -openness increasing during adolescence, then stabilizes, slightly decreases after age 60

EPISODIC MEMORY- retrieval

2 general types of retrieval 1) RECALL ex) short answer questions on an exam 2) RECOGNITION ex) multiple choice questions on an exam

Adult identify development is based on EQUILIBRIUM between identity + experience

2 key processes based on PIAGET'S THEORY: 1) ASSIMILATION-->when you take already existing aspects of self to make sense of current situations (if you use assimilation too much, makes you resistant to change) 2) ACCOMODATION-->involves having a willingness to let the situation determine what you're gonna do (when you have a new experience + are more open to change-->changing identity) -use of these processes changes w/age: *assimilation is HIGHER in older adulthood (healthier in older adulthood) *accommodation is HIGHER in younger adulthood (exploring options/trying to figure out sense of self + identity)

CH 8. PERSONALITY- Personality is a complex construct

2 primary questions regarding personality in adult development: 1) Is personality a stable, non-changing entity that's set at some point + then it's very difficult to change? 2) Is personality something that continues to develop/change over time?

WHAT TYPES OF CRASHES INVOLVE OLDER DRIVERS?

2 specific problems in crashes involving older drivers 1) LEFT-HAND TURNS-->more likely to cause crashes/problems for older adults b/c it involves crossing traffic 2) MERGING OR YIELDING-->trying to get on the free-way

EPISODIC MEMORY- encoding

2 types of encoding 1) ROTE (maintenance) -rehearsing the item over and over (repetition) 2) ELABORATIVE-->better kind* -you're processing the unique characteristics/meaning of the items and relating (linking) it to other concepts you've learned -older adults are LESS LIKELY to use elaborative encoding (which leads to a decline in episodic memory)- as you age, cognitive resources are diminished

LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH ON 5 FACTOR MODEL

2) RANK-ORDER TRAIT CHANGE -called "differential continuity" in your text -it is a test-retest correlation, it's the stability of the individuals' rank order within a group over time -do the most extraverted individuals remain the most extraverted? *correlate rank order for subjects at time 1 with rank order at time 2 (if subject gets exact same ranking @ time 2, correlation would be 1.0) -same 5 factors continue to emerge in self-report, they retained their APPROXIMATE RANK ORDER on the factors (not a 1.0) -meta-analysis results: *rank-order stability increased from ages 6-73 (the older you get, the more STABLE your personality becomes) -specific correlations: 0.51 ages 18-22, 0.75 ages 50-59, 0.72 ages 60-73) -correlations are NOT 1.0, SO still some small changes taking place over time (more changes when younger; less changes when older)

Information Processing: 3 Important Stores

2) SHORT-TERM STORE; 2 components: *primary memory *working memory PRIMARY MEMORY -passive storage area -ex) someone gives you a list of names you remember it -can be held for about 20 seconds -can hold 7 items + or - 2 is how much info you hold in short-term memory store -young and older adults are comparable on short-term memory tasks WORKING MEMORY -involves holding information while actively processing + manipulating it -definitely age-related decline in working memory :( -WHY do you have trouble w/working memory as you age? 1) decline in total amount of space (not as much storage space/neurons 2) the more complex the manipulation, the more difficulty older adults have (ex. repeating #'s backwards is harder for older adults) 3) decline in processing speed (can't figure out problems quickly enough) 4) older adults are less able to ignore irrelevant + confusing information

ERIKSON'S 3 ADULT STAGES

3) EGO INTEGRITY v. DESPAIR (final stage) -occurs in late adulthood (65+) -growing awareness of the end of life -realization that they live on through children, grandchildren, + community -need to understand what makes you unique (what makes you matter) -those who achieve INTEGRITY become more self-accepting + self-affirming (judge their lives to be good/meaningful) DESPAIR-->focusing on roads not taken, regrets, poor decisions, hopeless; may experience a lot of anger + contempt (feel like time is too short to achieve integrity) (contempt for others due to self-contempt) -research indicates that MIDLIFE GENERATIVITY predicts EGO INTEGRITY in late adulthood -correlates of integrity: more positive mood, greater self-acceptance, higher marital satisfaction, better relationships, higher community involvement, more willing to accept help from others when needed

LATE ADULTHOOD

AGE DISCRIMINATION -1967- Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) of 1967--banned discrimination in workers aged 40-65 -employers are NOT allowed to fire, demote, or reduce the salaries of older workers without good cause -law revised in 1978, 1986 (it is STILL in effect) BUT age discrimination STILL OCCURS! -age discrimination has NOT been eliminated but it's difficult to prove -more companies of job terminations that job hiring in age discrimination STUDY ESTIMATE -84% of Americans over age 60 had experienced at least 1 instance of job discrimination -example of age discrimination: insulting jokes/disrespect/patronizing behavior(ppl talking down to you) (assuming older person doesn't understand technology or social media/assuming person is frail/mentally incompetent/bad health) -the risk of experiencing age discrimination has 2 distinct peaks *as workers approach age 50 + again as they near retirement (around 65-80)

DOES WISDOM COME with age?

Berlin Wisdom Paradigm (developed in Germany) Baltes + Staudinger, Wisdom requires 5 skills: 1) FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE PRAGMATICS OF LIFE -ex) know social norms/what are your strengths + weaknesses/ethics/interpersonal relationships/how to screw in a lightbulb 2) STRATEGIC KNOWLEDGE IN THE PRAGMATICS OF LIFE -strategies/different rules of thumb -ex) how do you give advice/make life decisions/problem-solve/how did you decide to go to Marquette 3) LIFESPAN CONTEXTUALISM -knowledge that considers the context of life + change -takes into account a person's age/family/community norms/development 4) RELATIVISM -knowledge of the relativism of values + life goals -different people may have diff values than yours (many values are culturally based) -your values may not be the same values as another person's values 5) UNCERTAINTY -knowledge that considers the UNCERTAINTY of life -you need to accept that there aren't "perfect solutions" in life -ex) you can go to any college + be happy-->you need to deal with the uncertainty

MID-LIFE CRISIS: Fact or Myth? (Levinson + Sheehy said that everyone goes through a midlife crisis)

History of Mid-Life Crisis -first coined by psychoanalyst in 1965 (Elliot Jaques) -fear of mortality prompts life crises -"Passages" was written in 1974 by Gail Sheehy (her book was based on research) (predictable crises of adult life) -based on research, including work by LEVINSON (his book was based on interviews with 40 men between mid 30s-mid 40s)-he regarded midlife crisis as UNIVERSAL DANIEL LEVINSON -he interviewed 40 men ages mid-30s to mid-4os; he regarded the midlife crisis as a UNIVERSAL PROCESS Were they correct?? Does everyone have a midlife crisis? -there is LITTLE TO NO EMPIRICAL SUPPORT OF MIDLIFE CRISIS as a universal phenomenon -BOTH Levinson + Sheehy relied too heavily on age as a marker of development -what should age of crisis be? (some said 43; others 40-45; others 38-47)

HOLLAND'S PERSONALITY TYPE THEORY

John Holland-->premise is that individual personality traits affect which career you choose (choose a career based on your personality) -if the match is GOOD: *you enjoy your career more *you are more likely to remain in that career 6 different personality types, according to Holland! 1) REALISITIC (R) -enjoy physical labor -enjoy working with your hands/like to solve concrete problems ex) construction workers, mechanics, farmers, carpenters 2) INVESTIGATIVE (I) -task-oriented, enjoy thinking about abstract relationships -ex) scientist, technical writer, math careers 3) ARTISTIC (A) -enjoy expressing themselves through UNSTRUCTURED tasks ex) actors, musicians, poets 4) SOCIAL (S) -skilled BOTH verbally + interpersonally -like using their social skills to help people -ex) teachers, counselors, social workers, salespeople 5) ENTERPRISING (E) -individual likes using verbal skills in POSITIONS OF POWER! -ex) business executive, real estate agent, manager, politician, TV producer 6) CONVENTIONAL (C) -individual has both verbal + quantitative skills that they like to apply to structured ,well-defined tasks ppl give to them -ex) bank teller, pay roll clerk, administrative assistant -this whole thing is also known as "RIASEC" model -the types also don't just apply to the individual's preferences, but to the OCCUPATIONAL ENVIRONMENT (ex. working in a cubicle v. at a hospital--match personality to environment) -2 or 3 initials combine to describe ppl + occupations (not strict lines) **primary type-->1 **2nd or 3rd-->more differentiation ex) REC-->construction worker RES-->corrections officer -diff jobs have different combinations of letters!

Woodruf-Pak's 4 overlapping phases

Phase I: ASSUMED DECLINE--Wechsler was a part of this phase!! -focus is on mapping the assumed inevitable age-related decline in INTELLIGENCE -cross-sectional tests using Wechsler tests in 1950s: older adults performed more poorly; there IS an inevitable decline in cognitive functioning Phase II: DEBATE ABOUT DECLINE -started in 1960s -intelligence is NOT JUST ONE THING (one single entity) -Began in 1960s; debate over NATURE of intelligence -1970s debate: debate between Phase I (intelligence declines over time) theorists + Phase II (age-deficit view was a myth) METHOD MATTERS! -the research methods used really make an important difference *for ex) are cross-sectional results due to cohort? -newer researchers in the 1970s said cross-sectional design had COHORT EFFECTS -longitudinal research findings, eg. Seattle Longitudinal Study--decline in intellectual abilities is much less extensive than ppl in the 1950s believed

TRANSITION TO WORK

Prevalence of Job Changes -even though matching your job to your interest/educational level, you DO NOT ALWAYS get a dream job out of college -mismatches are common-->leads to frequent job changes 2014 study: not uncommon to have as many as 6 job changes by age 27 2012 study: median length of job tenure (how long they will hold a job) for ages 25-35 was 3 years -mentoring relationship HELPS WITH TRANSITION TO WORK *mentor=part teacher/role model/sponsor/counselor/helps to facilitate on-the-job training -a mentor can make sure new hiree is getting credit for work they're doing, can make sure person is getting noticed, provides valuable information for how company works/proper work attire *WOMEN AND MINORITIES benefit MOST from mentoring relationships -QUALITY is important-->having a poor mentor-->worse than not having one at all! (undermining/sabotaging you)

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Super's Life-Span Life-Space Theory -focuses on the role of the SELF in vocational development (suggests ppl are trying to reach their inner potential through work choices) what occupation is most "true" to your inner self? -stages span the years from childhood-->retirement 1) GROWTH STAGE -ages 4-14 -when your self-concept is developing as you learn about the world/realize what you're good at/develop competencies/starting to realize your skills that could help with work 2) EXPLORATION STAGE -ages 15-24 -when you're exploring career alternatives + you CHOOSE A VOCATION (choose through classes/get work experience) -figure out what your interests/capabilities are -obtain tentative vocational goal + figure out plans 3) ESTABLISHMENT STAGE -ages 25-44 -individual is focused on ACHIEVING STABILITY in their careers -working on getting promotions/working up to manage -individual needs to adapt to company requirements/demonstrate positive work habits/good productivity/build positive work relationships/work on advancing 4) MAINTENANCE STAGE -ages 45-65 -period of CONTINUAL ADJUSTMENT -trying to hold on to/keep up with developments within the job -trying to maintain what you've achieved (update your competencies/realize innovations in your job) -workers may try to find new challenges 5) DISENGAGEMENT STAGE -ages 65 + beyond -transition OUT of the work force -think about retirement -disengaging from job (bringing less work home/more leisure time)

According to McAdams, the life story is a selective series of "nuclear episodes"

What kind of episodes are incorporated into the life story? 1) PRIMACY EVENTS -1st day of work, when you lose your virginity, when you move into first house (your "firsts") 2) FINAL ENDINGS -divorce, when a parent dies, when last child leaves the home, retirement

INTELLIGENCE (changes over time!)

different definitions of the concept: -SINGLE ENTITY: associated w/CHARLES SPEARMAN, labeled it "g"-->general intelligence; he thought "g" is responsible for all abilities related to verbal/critical thinking *everyone has "g"-->broad -MULTIPLE ASPECTS: associated w/HOWARD GARDNER; he described 7 distinct intelligences

DRIVING IN OLDER ADULTS

examples of driving rxn time tasks SIMPLE TASK -when a driver sees pedestrian on crosswalk + reacts by stepping on the brake CHOICE TASK -if a driver is approaching a fork in the road-->do I go right or left at the fork? COMPLEX TASK -a driver spots an object in the distance that may be road debris but has to analyze its composition-->can I drive over it or do I need to drive around it/hit brake? -making a decision with multiple factors involved -reaction time is NOT the whole story; need to consider visual system changes (can affect driving ability- independent of run time) -need to consider medication side effects (maybe med makes them drowsy-->affects their rxn time)

IMPORTANT!**

the greatest discrepancy between older + younger adults is on RECALL (older adults omit information, include irrelevant information, repeat previously recalled items) -differences in ages are REDUCED on recognition tests though -older adults are LESS LIKELY to use elaborative encoding-->may affect retrieval problems -age differences caused more by RETRIEVAL PROBLEMS rather than encoding issues***********KNOW THIS FACT!!!!!

EPISTEMIC COGNITION (William Perry)

refers to our REFLECTIONS on how we arrived at facts, beliefs, and ideas -"fake news"=refers to anything he perceives as NEGATIVE COMPARISON TO OTHERS STARTING IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD -w/maturation, young adults become more likely to compare their reasoning/justification with others-->when their justifications fall short, they try to understand that + realize you need more arguments/justifications -To Perry, there is a predictable chain of events that occurs DEVELOPMENT: 1) Dualistic Thinking-->adolescents engage in a lot of dualistic thinking-->polar reasoning where knowledge is viewed as RIGHT or WRONG (no gray area) -beginning college students don't get that you can have opposing arguments with support for each -when exposed to contradictions/arguments, they show LESS dualistic thinking/they need experience in a variety of thinking (discussions) 2) Relativistic Thinking ("it depends)-->most knowledge is viewed as RELATIVE-->it depends on the person's thinking -->thinking becomes more flexible -individuals give up the idea that there is 1 truth + embrace MULTIPLE TRUTHS-relative to the individual + context -you may recognize that beliefs are subjective + there are many perspectives on a given issue ex) you're raised thinking divorce is a sin BUT then at some point, you think about women in domestic violence situations/cheating-->then is it a sin? 3) REFLECTIVE JUDGMENT -the MOST mature type of reasoning -it synthesizes contradictions among the perspectives (tries to make sense of the contradictions) -FEW adults really demonstrate reflective judgment (most get to relativistic thinking) -knowledge is a synthesis of contradictory knowledge/beliefs -ex) you are considering which of 2 theories is better-->more research support but the other theory is more practical ex) trying to figure out which movie should win best picture? -need to. move past thinking everything is a matter of opinion-->the academy needs to base bets picture off of a bunch of rational criteria and make an INFORMED JUDGMENT -going beyond multiple perspectives to determine which perspective has the most support -Perry's interviews were conducted w/well-educated students attending an elite college-->HIS FINDINGS WERE NOT GENERALIZABLE

JOB SATISFACTION

refers to the extent to which ppl find their work to be enjoyable -satisfaction tends to INCREASE in middle adulthood (more true for white-collared professionals than blue-collared workers) blue-collared workers have a structured job: they don't have control over their jobs -satisfaction increasing in middle adulthood for job is MORE TRUE FOR MEN (women not as happy b/c of glass ceiling/balancing work + family) and for WHITE-COLLAR PROFESSIONALS!