Psych 3820 Exam 2
Todd et al., 2011 [Perspective Taking]
"Be an impartial observer" vs. "Take the perspective of the person" White research participants who have viewed the world from the perspective of an African American were rated more positively by a Black peer they later interacted with.
Implicit Prejudice
-Biases people are not aware of -Activated automatically -Difficult to control -Cannot be assessed through self-report -Measured with implicit and neuro methods Can lead to unintended and unwanted: -Emotional responses to outgroups -Behavioral responses toward outgroups
Characteristics of Modern-Symbolic Prejudice
1. Racial prejudice and discrimination no longer exist 2. Any remaining Black-White differences in economic outcomes result from Black people's lack of motivation to work hard 3. Because Black people are unwilling to work to get what they want, their continuing anger over inequality is unjustified 4. Rather than working to get ahead, Black people seek special favors 5. Relative to White people, Black people have been getting more than they deserve economically
Modern Symbolic: Five themes that justify opposition to social polities designed to promote intergroup equality
1. Racial prejudice and discrimination no longer exist 2. Any remaining racial differences in outcomes result from Black people's lack of motivation to work hard 3. Because Black people are unwilling to work to get what they want, their continuing anger over inequality is unjustified 4. Rather than working to get ahead, Black people seek special favors 5. Relative to White people, Black people have been getting more than they deserve
Moskowitz & Li, 2011
1/2 of Pp wrote about a personal failure in the domain of "respect for traditions" 1/2 of Pp wrote about a personal failure in the domain of "egalitarian ideals" Ps then did a task that measures stereotype activation/inhibition using reaction times to words after being shown a face.
Robbers Cave Study
11 and 12 year-old campers were tested. 2 groups were brought in and kept completely separately and were engaged in bonding experiences. The two groups were introduced to each other through competitive camp activities. Ingroups identification with their groups skyrocketed after being introduced to the outgroup. The kids started getting very mean to each other. They started vandalizing and getting more aggressive to each other. The kids were randomly assigned to each group and were demographically very similar to each other. They made the kids do fun things together. This didn't help. Just contact wasn't enough to decrease animosity. They then tried to integrate the groups through a series of tasks the groups would have to work together to perform well. There was a rusty truck in the camp grounds so all people were required to push the truck. Getting a very heavy water bucket from a well. This helped in decreasing animosity by creating a shared goal. This would break down group divisions and have a more overarching identity.
Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA)
3 clusters of attitudes: authoritarian submission—a high degree of submission to the authorities who are perceived to be established and legitimate in the society in which one lives; authoritarian aggression—a general aggressiveness, directed against various persons, that is perceived to be sanctioned by established authorities; conventionalism—a high degree of adherence to the social conventions that are perceived to be endorsed by society and its established authorities. tend to be prejudiced against a wide variety of groups
cooperative learning
A number of educational techniques used to create group learning environments which implement the necessary contact conditions for integration as part of the day-to-day educational process. Eg. Jigsaw classroom
explicit prejudice
Attitudes that -People are aware of holding -Can be intentionally retrieved from memory -Lead to intentional behavior -Measured by asking people about their attitudes, opinions, behaviors (i.e., self-report)
aversive prejudice and behavior
Avoidance of Intergroup Contact overly positive intergroup behavior when situational norms call for polite behavior pro-White bias in ambiguous situations discrimination when the behavior can be justified as unprejudiced derogation of members of minority groups who hold higher-status positions
Values
Beliefs about the importance of goals and outcomes people try to achieve and avoid. Can lead to prejudice: 1) Directly: My values lead to bias against you 2) Indirectly: Our values incompatible
Explicit Awareness of Social Categories in Babies
Can recognize male from female easily. When generally sorting they focus on ethnicity; when sorting according to a broader cultural context (in this case, playmate choice), they focused on gender.
Two main hypotheses about the processes through which identity leads to bias
Categorization-Competition Hypothesis Self-Esteem Hypothesis
Political Orientation
Correlation between conservative political beliefs and prejudice Important to remember conservative ≠ racist and racist ≠ conservative The relationship is there, better to try to understand why it exists And also that the relationship is complex: - Conservatives <-> modern-symbolic - Liberals <-> aversive racism
Developmental intergroup theory DO NOT NEED
DO NOT NEED the development of prejudice is a byproduct of the normal process of cognitive development through which children come to understand the world they live in and the rules by which that world operates. Composed of 3 stages: • Development of category rules: develop rules for categorizing people into social groups based on perceptually observable features, group size (small=distinct), explicit categorization by adults, and the ways in which society groups people. • Categorization: classify people into those categories (category constancy)-- sets stage for stereotypes. • Development of stereotypes and prejudices: Stereotypes developed through essentialism, ingroup favoritism, and explicit and implicit teaching (observing phenomenon/parent behavior).
Castelli et al., 2008 [Transmission of Interracial Anxiety]
Do adults' nonverbal behaviors influence children's racial attitudes? White preschoolers assigned to watch a trusted adult have a cross-race interaction that was comfortable or uncomfortable Rated preschoolers' attitudes Attitudes were more negative after uncomfortable interaction
What is more strongly associated?
Egalitarianism to low prejudice than individualism is to high prejudice
incidental emotion
Emotion not associated with a social group, but rather comes from the context in which an intergroup interaction takes place.
integral emotions
Emotions aroused when people think about or interact with members of social groups. Two models: stereotype content model (Cuddy's) and Cottrell and Neuberg's (2005) Model of the Relation of Stereotypes to Intergroup Emotions and Behavior Prejudice results when negative stereotypes elicit negative emotions; discrimination results when negative emotions motivate negative behaviors.
Egalitarianism
Emphasizes principles of equal opportunity, equal treatment for all people, and concern for others' well-being. May inhibit prejudice by preventing activation of negative stereotypes.
Identifying with an ingroup leads people to
Endorse positive stereotypes about the ingroup Feel more positively toward the ingroup Give more resources to the ingroup
Threat to the Group
Events that threaten the well-being of the group generate increased identification with the group. Perceived threats to group survival (cultural assimilation, genocide) also increase feelings of ingroup identity.
self-stereotyping
Group members view themselves in terms of the (usually positive) stereotypes they have of their group so that the self becomes one with the group and the positive view of the group is reflected in a positive view of the self.
Attributional models of prejudice only apply to...
Groups that are seen as high on entitativity (members are seen as highly similar to one another) and low on naturalness
doll technique
In this paradigm, a child is presented with two or more dolls. One of the dolls is White with blond hair, and the other doll is Black with black hair. In 1940's, majority of White & Black children believed a White doll was prettier, smarter, & nicer than a Black doll. Today 1/3 of White and Black children still show pro-White bias Gender-based categorization = 3 years racial categories Black and White = 4-5 years other racial groups (Native Americans, Chinese, and Latinos) = 5-9 years Abstract categories (religion) = 9-11 years
What two sets of American values are important to ambivalent prejudice?
Individualism Egalitarianism (equality of outcome)
Olsson et al., 2005 [Fear and Prejudice]
Is race a "naturally fear-relevant" category (evolutionarily speaking)? Used racial ingroup and outgroup faces as stimuli and paired them with shocks White Pp showed heightened arousal to Black faces long after shocks went away Prepared learning account; some associations are easier to learn, if stimulus belongs to a naturally fear-relevant category-- predisposed to prej,
Implicit Awareness of Social Categories in Babies
Looked at novel racial faces longer than novel same-race faces. White babies prefer looking at white faces (not due to skin color). Prefer physically attractive faces over unattractive faces regardless of race, age, gender.
Ratner et al., 2014 [Social Identity and Intergroup Bias]
Minimal Group Induction: When a minimal group paradigm is induced (Ps had to count the number of dots they saw on a screen, and were either told that they were an over or underestimator. Reverse Correlation Task: They showed a base face and asked participants to rate the attractiveness and other such evaluations. Ingroup faces were seen more positively in multiple factors.
Self-Esteem Hypothesis
Motivated to maintain positive social identities because they foster self esteem When a group you identify with does well, you feel good Intergroup bias improves self esteem - It demonstrates the ingroup > outgroup - Especially for those with low self-esteem - Or in the presence of threats to self-esteem
Brewer, 1999 [Optimal Distinctiveness]
Optimal groups... - Fulfill need to belong (assimilation) - Fulfill need to be distinct (differentiation) The optimal groups give rise to the greatest identification, most positive feelings to the group, and enough self-identification.
Parental and Peer Influence
Parental impact is small, low correlations between parents and children's attitudes -authoritarianism or social dominance beliefs Peers also have small impact, except: -For highly stigmatized groups -When group norms dictate -When faced with peer rejection
Thomsen et al, 2008 [SDO and RWA immigration assimilation]
Participants read about an immigrant to the US who either does or does not assimilate. Posse scale: measured Ps support for the following: "Imagine that in the future the US government decides to outlaw immigrant organizations and requests all citizens to make sure that the law has a successful effect" RWA: higher scores on non-assimilated. SDO: higher scores on assimilated.
Nail et al., (2003)
Participants read scenario describing a case of police officer (White/Black) who had been tried twice (in both state & fed court) for the same offense, then read double jeopardy clause Then rated, "In your opinion is this a case of double jeopardy? Self-reported measures of political orientation Flipped over results for liberals and cons.
Self-categorization
People are more likely to accept a particular social identity and that identity is likely to be stronger if they determine for themselves which group or groups they belong to. More likely to self categorize as the perceived difference between groups increases. social identity increases and personal identity decreases, group identity, group goals, and the influence of other group members become more important than personal identity, personal goals, and personal motives in guiding beliefs and behavior (through self-stereotyping). Uncertainty is tackled through homogenous ingoup beliefs.
Relative Deprivation Theory
People become dissatisfied when they compare their current outcomes with some standard. If they see that they are getting less than the standard, they then feel deprived. Its relation to prejudice comes from how people respond to feelings of deprivation: If people blame another group for causing the deprivation, they come to dislike that group and its members.
intrinsic religious orientation
People truly believe in their religion's teachings and try to live their lives according to them. They find their master motive in religion. Correlation with permitted prejudice (social desirability response with low implicit prejudice)
extrinsic religious orientation
People use religion as a way to achieve nonreligious goals, to provide security and solace, sociability and distraction, status and self-justification. The embraced creed is lightly held or else selectively shaped to fit nonreligious needs. Slight correlation with prohibited prejudices if it is societal.
proscribed prejudices
Prejudices that are contrary to one's religious beliefs and so are not allowable under religious doctrine. forbid some forms of prejudice, such as racism
permitted prejudices
Prejudices that do not violate one's religious beliefs and so are allowable under religious doctrine. permit prejudice against people, such as lesbians and gay men, who are perceived to violate the religion's values. Not required but allowed.
Jim Crow racism
Prior to the war, prejudice by the White majority against members of other groups was the social norm. Whites' acceptance of the belief that Whites were inherently superior to other races. "Right and good" to keep Black people "in their place" through segregation. Laws and government should be used to uphold segregation and power structure (e.g., withholding voting rights). social norm was to be biased.
3 reasons why Benevolent Prejudice is harmful
Provide prejudiced people with moral credentials (pointing out positive beliefs to buffer negative opinions). targets of the prejudices might buy into these beliefs. may be difficult to change (does not feel like prejudice to perpetrator)
Kteily et al., 2015 [Dehumanization - "Ascent of Man" studies]
Ps rated where different ethnicities fell on an evolution of man scale. Predicted consequential behaviors: • drone strike support • military counterterrorism • vengeance
high procedural justice + low distributive justice
Reduces feelings of dissatisfaction and resentment. Eg. women may believe that their outcomes are unfair (low distributive justice), but also believe that the difference in salaries is appropriate, so dissatisfaction is low (high procedural justice).
mortality salience
Researchers test the effects of awareness of one's future death with an experimental manipulation that induces this. "My group, right or wrong!" Can have opposite effect of decreasing prejudice when egalitarian values are stressed.
Factors That Influence Social Identity
Self-categorization need for optimal distinctiveness Threat to the group chronic social identities individual differences
Kinzler et al., 2007 [Language and Social Categories in Babies]
Social category awareness in infancy extends to language. native English and French speaking babies were introduced to English and French speakers, then offered a toy by each. *French children preferred the toy from a French speaker, English infants prefered English speaker - Underscores the power of familiarity
benevolent prejudice
Superficially positive beliefs and emotional responses to outgroups that can have negative consequences for those groups. views women as "pure creatures who ought to be protected, supported, and adored" Positvely correlated with negative stereo and discriminatory behavior. Can have neg consequences for targets E.g., keeping them in subordinate positions
religious fundamentalism
The belief that there is one set of religious teachings that clearly contain the fundamental, basic, intrinsic, essential, inerrant truth about humanity and deity. Religion is an essential truth that is fundamentally opposed by forces of evil which must be vigorously fought; and that this truth must be followed today according to the fundamental, unchangeable practices of the past. belief system is used as a guide for understanding and interacting with the secular world. highly correlated with an intrinsic religious orientation and somewhat negatively correlated with quest orientation Stronger correlation for permitted prejudice than proscribed prejudice.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
The failure to obtain a desired or expected goal leads to aggressive behavior. Ps either frustrated (not allowed to see desired film) or not, then asked about attitudes toward minority groups Ps who were frustrated reported more negative attitudes towards minority group, compared with control group.
Anti-Minority Discrimination
The theory of aversive prejudice also holds that people experiencing aversive prejudice will discriminate against members of other groups when the behavior can be justified as unprejudiced.
value difference hypothesis
This hypothesis holds that prejudice is, in part, based on the perception that outgroups' value systems differ from one's own.
Petersen & Dietz, 2000 [RWA]
West or East German applicant: • Boss disfavors E. Germans: Anti E. German Prejudice. ONLY for high RWA ONLY when boss gave preference
Value Differences
When one's values are congruent with anothers, it leads to decreased prejudice + positive outlook and vice versa.
distributive justice
When thought to be low, there is a perception that outcomes are not being distributed on the expected basis that people who deserve more get more, but on some other, unfair basis, such as ingroup favoritism. leads to feelings of dissatisfaction and resentment. Negative feelings are exacerbated by the perception of low procedural justice.
Eibach & Ehrlinger, 2006 [Keep your Eyes on the Prize]
White Americans perceive greater racial progress toward equality. White and minority Cornell undergrads answered: How much racial progress has been made...and why do you think that? Black Ps used Future Anchor, while white Ps used Past Anchor. When given a frame to base anchor on, past-related white and minority students reported greater progress, and future-related white and minority students reported lesser progress.
Dovidio, 2001 [Aversive Prejudice]
White and Black participants worked in pairs on a problem-solving task. White participants rated their own friendliness Black participants rated partners' friendliness 3 groups among White participants Old-Fashioned Prejudiced (high explicit & high implicit) Unprejudiced (low explicit and low implicit) Aversive Prejudiced (low explicit, high implicit) Old fashioned were both low, the Pp knew they were biased and the black partner knew Unprej people knew they were unprej and their black partners also knew For aversive, white Ps thought they were feriendly bc they see themselves as unbiased, However, black Ps rated them as not very friendly→ not a smooth interaction.
response amplification
a behavior toward the stigmatized person that is more extreme than behavior toward a nonstigmatized but similar person in the same type of situation. Emphasis on egalitarian beliefs leads to overly positive behavior directed at minority groups Emphasis on individualistic values leads to overly negative behavior
group narcissism
a belief in the superiority of one's country and its culture over all others coupled with denial of its negative aspects.
Intergroup anxiety
a concept to describe the feelings of discomfort many people experience when interacting with, or anticipating an interaction with, members of other groups. Cyclical process of avoiding outgroup interaction due to anxiety and more prejudice over unfamiliarity with outgroup. Encompasses minority prejudice as well.
authoritarian personality
a personality type that is especially susceptible to unthinking obedience to authority. Conventionalism and uncritical acceptance of the dictates of authority figures and a tendency to reject and punish people who appear to violate conventional values. see their own faults in the targets of their prejudice.
relative gratification
a sense of satisfaction that derives from the belief that one's ingroup is better off than other groups. Leads to prejudice. focus on their group's superior position relative to outgroups (hold negative beliefs about outgroups as a means of justifying their relatively advantaged position).
Modern Symbolic prejudice
a set of beliefs about Black people as an abstract group (as in the anonymous "they" in "if they would only . . .") rather than as specific individuals. These beliefs portray Black people as morally inferior to White people because Black people supposedly violate traditional (White) American values such as hard work and self-reliance. expressed behaviorally as "acts (voting against black candidates, opposing affirmative action programs, opposing desegregation in housing and education) that are justified (or rationalized) on a nonracial basis/on moral grounds but that operate to maintain the racial status quo. Linked indirectly to race through political and social issues. Endorse equality as an abstract principle. emotions such as anxiety, dislike, and resentment towards black people.
zero-sum situation
a situation in which the other group can make gains only by taking something away from the ingroup.
Cold, unaffectionate child-rearing practices lead to
a tough-minded personality High SDO world view
Perspective Taking
adopting the other person's psychological viewpoint. typically used to study empathy.
anti-bias education
aims to provide students with a heightened awareness of institutional racism and other forms of institutional bias and with the skills to reduce it within their sphere of influence. conducted in conjunction with multicultural education.
hate group
an organization whose central principles include hostility toward racial, ethnic, and religious minority groups.
Empathy
an other-oriented emotional response congruent with another's perceived welfare; if the other is oppressed or in need, empathic feelings include sympathy, compassion, tenderness, and the like. exhibit less prejudice related to both lower implicit and explicit prejudice. More likely to reach out to outgroups. merging of the self and other, in which the perspective taker's thoughts toward the other person have become more 'selflike'. Inducing feelings of similarity: leads people to associate their positive views of themselves with other people.
category constancy
an understanding that a person's membership in a social category, such as gender or race, does not change across time or as a matter of superficial changes in appearance
Psychological Bases of Modern-Symbolic Prejudice
anti-Black affect belief in traditional values (work ethic, public assistance, impulsivity) egalitarianism (Equality of opportunity) group self-interest little personal knowledge of Black people
Norton & Sommers, 2011 [Prejudice as Zero-Sum//Reverse Racism]
asked Black and White Americans how much Black and White Americans faced discrimination through the years. found that everyone rates anti-black bias as decreasing overtime, though, whites rate it as lower and decreasing faster. While black Ps rate anti-white bias as low through the decades, White Ps see anti-white bias steadily increasing. They saw anti-White bias negatively correlated with anti-Black bias. Whites see racism as a zero-sum game they are losing.
Baron & Banaji, 2006 [Pro-White Bias in Children]
attempted to quantify the extent to which the implict and explicit biases that underlie white preferences shift over age. 6-year-olds and 10-year-olds and adults Explicit: Who do you prefer? Implicit: Congruent vs. incongruent (IAT) Explicit attitudes start strong and get weaker; That is, children have no problem explicitly expressing their racial biases, but as time goes on and people learn social norms, this decreases. implicit pro-white attitudes start early and continue one.
Difference between Aversive and Ambivalent Prejudice in pro-minority bias
aversive holds that the bias is an attempt to maintain an unprejudiced self-image. Ambivalent holds that it is an amplification of genuinely held positive beliefs (response amplification to reduce negative emotions over conflicting ambivalence).
Avoidance of Intergroup Contact
avoiding contact with minority-group members; this is especially true for close, personal contact
old-fashioned prejudice
based on belief in the biological inferiority of Black people and the attendant stereotypes of low intelligence, laziness, and so forth; informal discrimination in the form of exclusion from certain jobs and segregated housing and social clubs; and legalized, formal discrimination in the form of racially separate schools and denial of voting rights. Scientific racism Jim Crow racism
Multicultural education
based on the belief that inaccurate information about other groups leads to intergroup anxiety and the use of stereotypes. These programs try to provide students with the knowledge and attitudes necessary to understand, respect, and interact harmoniously as equals with members of different ethnic groups. Four Components: • History and culture of other groups • Different cultural assumptions and perspectives • Help students develop positive attitudes toward social groups • School culture promotes equality
Derogation of Higher-Status Minority-Group Members
because one of the implicit attitudes that White people with aversive prejudice acquire is a belief in White superiority, the discomfort associated with aversive prejudice should be greater when Black people are in higher-status positions.
Cultural Resources
belief systems such as political ideologies and religious views that a society uses to define its value system and set its goals.
Does Social Categorization = Prejudice?
can result in BUT not inevitable -Stereotypical inferences -Negative attitudes -Friendship choices
Us vs Them
categorizing oneself and others into an ingroup and an outgroup is sufficient to generate intergroup competition. Leads to outgroup homogeneity effect and feelings of competition and a desire to win. Which leads to ingroup favoritism.
Categorization-Competition Hypothesis
categorizing oneself and others into an ingroup and an outgroup is sufficient to generate intergroup competition. Leads to outgroup homogeneity effect and feelings of competition and a desire to win. competitive culture à feelings of competition and desire to winà ingroup favoritism
category preference
children select or prefer one group over another; however it does not necessarily imply a derogation of the nonselected group or groups.
stereotype content model
classifies group stereotypes along two broad dimensions. The first dimension is warmth; groups can be stereotyped as warm and friendly or as cold and unfriendly. The second dimension is competence; groups can be stereotyped as competent and successful in dealing with the world or as incompetent and unsuccessful.
symbolic threats
come from perceptions that the outgroup differs from the ingroup in terms of values, attitudes, beliefs, moral standards, and other symbolic, as opposed to material, factors.
Culture wars
competition and conflict that arises over which belief system represents "the truth" that should be society's guiding principles.
punitive child-rearing practices lead to
conforming personality High on authoritianism world view.
individualism
emphasizing personal responsibility, hard work as the means to success, self-reliance, and trying to improve one's lot in life. Protestant work ethic (PWE)-- high scores correlated with negative attitudes toward poor people, African Americans, and overweight people. [stronger in western-cultures than none-western].
People with modern-symbolic prejudice endorse this type of equality
equality of opportunity
Cognitive developmental theories
hold that children's intergroup attitudes reflect their abilities to think about and understand the nature of social groups and intergroup relations.
ambivalent prejudice
holds that White Americans genuinely accept the principle of racial equality. However, it also postulates that many White Americans have developed genuinely positive attitudes toward Black people that exist along with the lingering negative attitudes. Because these White people see Black people as having both positive and negative characteristics, their attitudes are ambivalent and so is their behavior: Sometimes it is positive, sometimes negative. people hold both positive and negative explicit beliefs about members of other groups as well as harboring implicit attitudes. Black people are seen as both deviant (individualistic orientation) and disadvantaged (egalitarian orientation). only people who simultaneously hold individualistic and egalitarian values or positive and negative stereotypes.
Cognitive dissonance theory
holds that people prefer that all their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and so forth adhere to simple, consistent patterns. Any inconsistencies or contradictions lead to a state of unpleasant emotion which people are motivated to reduce.
Blacks evaluated progress relative to...
how far society still has to go to reach full equality
Whites evaluated progress relative to...
how much the situation has improved since the Jim Crow era
terror management theory
how people's desire to promote and defend their belief and value systems results in prejudice. rooted in two human characteristics—the instinct for self-preservation and the contrasting knowledge that one's death is inevitable. promised immortality- in the form of religious beliefs in an immortal soul (literal), or in the form of identification with and death-transcending social institutions such as the family and the nation and of tangible reminders of continuity such as children and culturally valued achievements (symbolic)
chronic social identities
identities that are always with us, regardless of how much the situation changes.
Eagly & Mladinic, 1994 [Women are wonderful effect]
in general people hold greater positive stereotypes about women than men Important to note this is NOT GOOD~ can lead to overly positive (not critical or helpful feedback)
Personality
individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving (relatively stable)
observational learning
involves imitating the attitudes or behavior of a live model, such as a parent or peer. can also occur through symbolic modeling, such as imitating the behavior of a character in a book or television show.
desegregation
involves only a mixture of groups no longer formally separated. It does not refer to the quality of the intergroup interaction. Campus life can range from positive intergroup contact to a living hell of intergroup strife.
RWA Personal Characteristics
mentally inflexible [see the world in simple terms, want definite answers to questions, and have a high need for closure, especially when dealing with issues that are important to them] see the world as a dangerous and threatening place, leading them to place a high value on security. They submit to authority and conform to group norms. organize their worldview in terms of ingroups and outgroups. self-righteous, seeing themselves as more moral than other people and therefore as justified in looking down on anyone authority figures define as less moral than themselves. hold traditional religious beliefs Disinterest in experiencing new things
Why are happy people more likely to use stereotypes?
mood promotes simplistic thinking by "signaling that 'Everything is fine,' and thus there is little need for careful analysis of the environment. may generally prefer to conserve their mental resources. However, motivated to make accurate judgments, they seek out individuating information. Leads to less stereotype activation (compared to sad people) when egalitarian values or counterstereotypic information is primed.
2 dimensions used to classify social groups
naturalness-- the extent to which group membership is seen as biologically based. entitativity-- The extent to which group members are seen as being similar to each other, the extent to which knowing that a person is a member of the group provides useful information about the person, and the extent to which group membership is seen as an all-or-nothing characteristic
Direct teaching
occurs when an individual is rewarded for behaving in a certain way.
Vicarious learning
occurs when the child observes someone else being reinforced for a particular attitude or behavior.
bogus pipeline
participants answer questions while their physiological responses are measured by what they believe to be an effective lie detector. The researchers then compare these responses to the participants' earlier responses to the same questions. The theory underlying the technique is that people do not want to be caught lying and so reveal their true attitudes rather than attitudes that are contaminated by a social desirability response bias. people express more prejudice under bogus pipeline conditions than when they believe that the truthfulness of their responses cannot be checked
Optimal Distinctiveness
people are motivated to identify with groups that provide them with distinct positive social identities and that fulfill their needs for certainty. People are most likely to identify with groups that provide the most satisfying balance between personal identity and group identity.
Relative deprivation
people become dissatisfied if they either compare their current situation to similar situations they had in the past or compare themselves to other people currently in their situation and as a result decide that they lack some resource that they deserve to have.
Pro-White Bias
people experiencing aversive prejudice try to be unprejudiced when the situation presents a clearly unprejudiced response to choose, the theory also holds that they will show a pro-White bias in ambiguous situations, when the unprejudiced response is not clearly defined.
group self-interest
people's desire to promote the interests of the social groups that are important to them and their tendency to respond negatively to perceived threats to group welfare.
Psychological Bases for Aversive Prejudice
predisposition to categorize themselves and others into discrete social groups with sharp differentiations between groups. Motivation to ensure positive outcomes for themselves and their group. two sets of incompatible values (some level of implicit prejudice + fairness, justice and equality).
When is multicultural education effective?
programs that provided direct contact with members of the outgroup and programs that focused on developing empathy and perspective-taking skills (as opposed to simple reading materials).
Realistic Conflict Theory
proposes that people dislike members of outgroups because their ingroup is competing with the outgroup for resources resulting in war and plunder. people are motivated by a desire to maximize the rewards they receive in life, even if that means taking those rewards away from other people. cooperating with ingroup members makes it easier to get rewards. Different groups are in pursuit of those same resources and are thus competition.
attribution-value model
proposes that prejudice begins with Perceived value incompatibility with members of minority groups. members of those groups are responsible for their undesirable characteristics. when people believe that a negative characteristic is caused by something not under a person's control, they view the person more favorably-- doesn't go for race and gender. This model works best for groups: - Who are defined socially rather than biologically - Whose members are seen as highly similar to one another
Social learning theory
provides a comprehensive explanation for many aspects of social development, including the development of prejudice, in terms of three learning processes: Direct teaching, observational learning, and vicarious learning. The three important sources are parents, peers, and media.
integration
refers to positive intergroup contact that meets the necessary conditions for prejudice-reducing contact. Removes the racial and ethnic threats and stereotypes that divide Americans. Based on 4 factors: • Ingroup and outgroup members must have equal status in school • the groups must work with each other to achieve common goals • students from the different groups must be able to get to know each other as individuals • school authorities must clearly support the effort to improve intergroup relations.
Personal relative deprivation
refers to the degree to which a person feels deprived as an individual. Not related to prejudice.
group relative deprivation
refers to the degree to which a person feels that a group he or she identifies with has been deprived of some benefit, independent of the amount of relative deprivation experienced. High levels related to prejudice-- for both majority and minority groups (more hostility)-- both implicit and explicit.
everyday racism or cultural racism
reflect the assumption inherent in much of North American culture that the only correct social and cultural values are European Christian values. provide a foundation on which hate group recruiters can build when trying to persuade people to join their groups.
quest religious orientation
reflects a view of religiosity as a search, or quest, for answers to questions about the meaning of life. An individual who approaches religion in this way recognizes that he or she does not know, and probably never will know, the final truth about such matters. Still, the questions are deemed important and, however tentative and subject to change, answers are sought. flexible type of religiosity. No relationship with prohibited and permitted prejudices Accepting of others with different beliefs but not supportive of behaviors that are contrary to their beliefs. Intolerant of fundamentalist ideologies (or any religious thought that isn't open-minded). Minimally correlated with intrinstic and extrinsic religious orientations.
How does Aversive Prejudice differ from Modern Symbolic
reject the racialized traditional beliefs and support equality-enhancing social programs. more strongly motivated to see themselves as unprejudiced (for self-concept). prefer to avoid interracial contact because it arouses negative affect.
People high on sensitivity to disgust
report more negative attitudes toward groups that threaten their values but not toward other groups
Difference between RWA and SDO: SDO
rooted in a worldview that portrays the social environment as a competitive jungle where one must defeat others to survive (value power, achievement, and self-enhancement). prejudice is higher for people who identify more strongly with their groups. tend to be tough-minded and manipulative, and low on empathy, cooperativeness, agreeableness, and moralism. related to hostile sexism prejudiced against immigrants who did assimilate
Difference between RWA and SDO: RWA
rooted in a worldview that portrays the social environment as dangerous and threatening (value security, social stability, tradition, and conformity to ingroup norms). high in conformity, orderliness, and moralism, and low in openness to new experiences. linked to benevolent sexism prejudiced against immigrants who refused to assimilate
Legitimizing myths
sets of attitudes and beliefs that people high in SDO can use to justify their dominant position in society. Eg. group stereotypes used to justify denying equality to other groups despite the fact that prejudice is socially disapproved of. Necessary for people high in SDO to justify their other prejudiced responses.
Social ideologies
sets of attitudes and beliefs that predispose people to view the world in certain ways and to respond to events in ways consistent with those viewpoints. Used to satisfy their psychological needs and motives. they inspire conviction and purpose
individual differences
some people may have a predisposition to identify more strongly with the groups to which they belong independent of any situational factors but rather due to personal characteristics such as personality and ideology.
Genocide
the attempt by members of one social or cultural group to exterminate the members of another group. Composed of Perpetrators, Bystanders and Instigators. can be motivated by: • Idealism • Contientousness
aversive racism (or prejudice)
the attitudes of a person who tries to ignore the existence of black people, tries to avoid contact with them, and at most to be polite, correct, and cold in whatever dealings are necessary between the races.
equality of outcome
the belief that government should ensure that everyone, regardless of their personal resources, should receive an equal, or at least a reasonable, share of society's resources. Eg. government-subsidized healthcare, housing, child care, and so forth for people who cannot afford them
essentialism
the belief that members of a category all have similar psychological characteristics and that these characteristics are unchanging.
Overly Positive Intergroup Behavior
the desire to appear unprejudiced will lead people to overdo their efforts to appear unprejudiced and be unduly positive in their interactions with members of minority groups.
social dominance orientation (SDO)
the extent to which one desires that one's in-group dominate and be superior to out-groups. members of groups that hold more power in society and the longer people are members of a higher-power social group, the higher the scores on SDO. tend to see resources as being in limited supply (zero-sum). more likely to classify people as members of outgroups. manipulative in their interpersonal relations Low in empathy Opposition to equality Prejudiced against those who challenge the legitimacy of social hierarchy (e.g., minorities)
procedural justice
the fairness of the process by which rewards are distributed.
false consciousness
the holding of false or inaccurate beliefs that are contrary to one's own social interest and which thereby contribute to maintaining the disadvantaged position of the group. leads members of subordinate group to believe that they are inferior, deserving of their plight, or incapable of taking action against the causes of their subordination.
Social Identity Theory
the idea that ingroups consist of individuals who perceive themselves to be members of the same social category and experience pride through their group membership. The Categorization-Competition Hypothesis (us vs. them) The Self-Esteem Hypothesis (people are motivated to achieve and maintain positive social identities).
Social identity
the part of a person's self-concept that derives from membership in groups that are important to the person. Such groups can include one's family, college, nation, etc. the person feels that what happens to the group is happening to him or her as well. Basic need (motivation) to achieve and maintain positive and distinct social identity Leads to intergroup bias because we are more likely to see groups we belong to positively; and others negatively
equality of opportunity
the principle that everyone should have an equal, fair chance at success in life and that one function of government is ensuring such equality.
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
homosociality
the tendency to interact socially only with members of one's own gender
hostile prejudice
traditional form of prejudice expressed as negative beliefs about and negative emotional responses to outgroups.
The Big 3: individual difference variables most predictive of prejudice
• Authoritarianism • Social Dominance Orientation • Empathy
